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This article is about entropy in thermodynamics. For entropy in information theory, see Entropy (information
theory). For other uses, see Entropy (disambiguation).
For a generally accessible and less technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to entropy.

Ice melting in a warm room is a common example of increasing entropy,[note 1] described in 1862 by Rudolf
Clausius as an increase in the disgregation of the molecules of ice. [1]
c



Introduction
History
Classical
Statistical

c
 is a thermodynamic property that is a measure of the energy not available for useful work in a
thermodynamic process, such as in energy conversion devices, engines, or machines. Such devices can only be
driven by convertible energy, and have a theoretical maximum efficiency when converting energy to work.
During this work entropy accumulates in the system, but has to be removed by dissipation in the form of waste
heat.

The concept of entropy is defined by the second law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of a
closed system always increases. Thus, entropy is also measure of the tendency of a process, such as a chemical
reaction, to be ÷

÷ , or to proceed in a particular direction. It determines that thermal energy
always flows spontaneously from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature, in the form of
heat. These processes reduce the state of order of the initial systems, and therefore entropy is an expression of
disorder or randomness. This model is the basis of the microscopic interpretation of entropy in statistical
mechanics describing the probability of the constituents of a thermodynamic system to be occupying accessible
quantum mechanical states, a model directly related to the information entropy.

Thermodynamic entropy has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, and a unit of joules per kelvin
(J/K) in the International System of Units.

The term ÷
 was coined in 1865 by Rudolf Clausius based on the Greek İȞIJȡȠʌȓĮ [entropía], 

  

 , from İȞ- [en-] (in) and IJȡȠʌȒ [tropē] (turn, conversion). [2][note 2]
þ


[hi


Yp =
hermodynami al and tatitial deri tion

Yp ð
he eond law of thermodynami
Yp * efinition and deri tion
p * = tatitial thermodynami
p * ð Claial thermodynami
Yp X itory
Yp º Conequene and appliation
p º =
he arrow of time
p º ð
he fundamental thermodynami relation
p º * ntropy in hemial thermodynami
p º X ntropy hange
p º º ntropy alane equation for open ytem
p º
ntropy in quantum mehani
on eumann entropy)
Yp
pproahe to undertanding entropy
p
= rder and diorder
p
ð nergy diperal
p
* Relating entropy to energy uefulne
p
X e melting example
p
º ntropy and adiaati aeiility
p

tandard textook definition
Yp ´ nterdiiplinary appliation of entropy
p ´ =
hermodynami and tatitial mehani onept
p ´ ð ntropy and life
p ´ * Comology
p ´ X nformation theory
p ´ º athemati
p ´
oiology
Yp ï ee alo
Yp ] ote
Yp = Referene
Yp == urther reading
Yp =ð xternal link

 
 


 

 


ny method in
ol
ing the notion of 

 the
ery exitene of

 whih depend on the eond law of thermodynami will doutle

eem to many far-fethed and may repel eginner a oure and
diffiult of omprehenion


illard i Ñ

 

 


   =ï´*)[


 ]

here are two related definition of entropy: the thermodynami definition and the tatitial mehani
definition
he thermodynami definition wa de
eloped in the early =ïº y Rudolf Clauiu and eentially
derie how to meaure the entropy of an iolated ytem in thermodynami equilirium mportantly it
make no referene to the miroopi nature of matter
he tatitial definition wa de
eloped y udwig
oltzmann in the =ï´ y analyzing the tatitial eha
ior of the miroopi omponent of the ytem
oltzmann went on to how that thi definition of entropy wa equi
alent to the thermodynami entropy to
within a ontant numer whih ha ine een known a oltzmann' ontant n ummary the
thermodynami definition of entropy pro
ide the experimental definition of entropy while the tatitial
definition of entropy extend the onept pro
iding an explanation and a deeper undertanding of it nature

hermodynami entropy i a non-oner

ed tate funtion that i of great importane in the iene of phyi
and hemitry [*][X] itorially the onept of entropy e
ol
ed in order to explain why ome proee are
pontaneou and other are not; ytem tend to progre in the diretion of inreaing entropy [º] ntropy i a
uh a funtion of a ytem' tendeny toward pontaneou hange [º][
] or iolated ytem entropy ne
er
dereae [X]
hi fat ha e
eral important onequene in iene: firt it prohiit perpetual motion
mahine; and eond it ugget an arrow of time nreae in entropy orrepond to irre
erile hange in a
ytem eaue ome energy mut e expended a wate heat limiting the amount of work a ytem an
do [*][´][´][ï][]][=]

n tatitial mehani entropy i eentially a meaure of the numer of way in whih a ytem may e
arranged often taken to e a meaure of diorder the higher the entropy the higher the
diorder) [*][ï][]][==][=ð][=*][=X] peifially thi definition derie the entropy a eing proportional to the
logarithm of the numer of poile miroopi onfiguration of the indi
idual atom and moleule of the
ytem mirotate) whih ould gi
e rie to the oer
ed maroopi tate marotate) of the ytem
he
ontant of proportionality i the oltzmann ontant

 


  
 


he eond law of thermodynami tate that in general the total entropy of any ytem will n ot dereae other
than y inreaing the entropy of ome other ytem ene in a ytem iolated from it en
ironment the
entropy of that ytem will tend not to dereae t follow that heat will not flow from a older ody to a hotter
ody without the appliation of work the impoition of order) to the older ody eondly it i impoile for
any de
ie operating on a yle to produe net work from a ingle temperature reer
oir; the prodution of net
work require flow of heat from a hotter reer
oir to a older reer
oir  a reult there i no poiility of a
perpetual motion ytem inally it follow that a redution in the inreae of entropy in a peified proe
uh a a hemial reation mean that it i energetially more effiient

t follow from the eond law of thermodynami that the entropy of a ytem that i n ot iolated may dereae
n air onditioner for example may ool the air in a room thu reduing the entropy of the air of that ytem

he heat expelled from the room the ytem) in
ol
ed in the operation of the air onditioner will alway make
a igger ontriution to the entropy of the en
ironment than will the dereae of the entropy of the air of that
ytem
hu the total of entropy of the room plu the entropy of the en
ironment inreae in agreement with
the eond law of thermodynami

n mehani the eond law in onjuntion with the fundamental thermodynami relation plae limit on a
ytem' aility to do ueful work [=º]
he entropy hange of a ytem at temperature
aoring an

infiniteimal amount of heat G in a re

erile way i gi
en y ore expliitly an energy  i not
a
ailale to do ueful work where  i the temperature of the oldet aeile reer
oir or heat ink external
to the ytem or further diuion ee  

tatitial mehani demontrate that entropy i go

erned y proaility thu allowing for a dereae in
diorder e
en in a loed ytem lthough thi i poile uh an e
ent ha a mall proaility of ourring
making it unlikely 
en if uh e
ent were to our it would reult in a tranient dereae that w ould affet
only a limited numer of partile in the ytem [=
]
 
 
    
 
Thermodynamic entropy is more generally defined from a statistical thermodynamics viewpoint, in which the
molecular nature of matter is explicitly considered. Alternatively entropy can be defined from a classical
thermodynamics viewpoint, in which the molecular interactions are not considered and instead the system is
viewed from perspective of the gross motion of very large masses of molecules and the behavior of individual
molecules is averaged and obscured. Historically, the classical thermodynamics definition developed first, and it
has more recently been extended in the area of non-equilibrium thermodynamics.

 



 

   

The interpretation of entropy in statistical mechanics is the measure of uncertainty, or m÷  ÷ in the phrase
of Gibbs, which remains about a system after its observable macroscopic properties, such as temperature,
pressure and volume, have been taken into account. For a given set of macroscopic variables, the entropy
measures the degree to which the probability of the system is spread out over different possible microstates. In
contrast to the macrostate, which characteri
es plainly observable average quantities, a microstate specifies all
molecular details about the system including the position and velocity of every molecule. The more such states
available to the system with appreciable probability, the greater the entropy.

ore specifically, entropy is a logarithmic measure of the density of states:

where
  is the olt
mann constant, equal to 1.38065×1023
J K 1. The summation is over all the microstates the system can be in, and  is the probability that the system is
in the th microstate. [17] For almost all practical purposes, this can be taken as the fundamental definition of
entropy since all other formulas for  can be mathematically derived from it, but not vice versa. (In some rare
and recondite situations, a generali
ation of this formula may be needed to account for quantum coherence
effects, but in any situation where a classical notion of probability makes sense, the above is the entropy.)

In what has been called
÷

m

m
÷







÷m m, the entropy of a system in
which all states, of number ȍ, are equally likely, is given by

In thermodynamics, such a system is one in which the volume, number of molecules, and internal energy are
fixed (the microcanonical ensemble).

In essence, the most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of our uncertainty about a system. The
equilibrium state of a system maximi
es the entropy because we have lost all information about the initial
conditions except for the conserved variables; maximi
ing the entropy maximi
es our ignorance about the
details of the system.[18] This uncertainty is not of the everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty
inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model.

The interpretative model has a central role in determining entropy. The qualifier for a given set of macroscopic
variables above has very deep implications: if two observers use different sets of macroscopic variables, then
they will observe different entropies. For example, if observer A uses the variables U, V and W, and observer 
uses U, V, W, X, then, by changing X, observer  can cause an effect that looks like a violation of the second
law of thermodynamics to observer A. In other words: the set of macroscopic variables one chooses must
include everything that may change in the experiment, otherwise one might see decreasing entropy![19]

In general, entropy can be defined for any arkov processes with reversible dynamics and the detailed balance
property.
In olt mann's 1896 §÷
÷


÷ , he showed that this expression gives a measure of entropy for
systems of atoms and molecules in the gas phase, thus providing a measure for the entropy of classical
thermodynamics.

 

 

   

 
 


    

ùressure Volume
(Stress) (Strain)
Temperature c

Chemical potential ùarticle number
ain article: Entropy (classical thermodynamics)

According to the Clausius equality, for a reversible process

That means the line integral is path independent.

So we can define a state function S called entropy, which satisfied

With this we can only obtain the difference of entropy by integrating the above formula. To obtain the absolute
value, we need Third Law of Thermodynamics, which states that S=0 at absolute ero for perfect crystals.

From a macroscopic perspective, in classical thermodynamics the entropy is interpreted as a state function of a
thermodynamic system: that is, a property depending only on the current state of the system, independent of
how that state came to be achieved. The state function has the important property that, when multiplied by a
reference temperature, it can be understood as a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that
cannot be used to do thermodynamic work; i.e., work mediated by thermal energy [


÷÷ ÷ ]. ore precisely, in
any process where the system gives up energy ǻ, and its entropy falls by ǻ, a quantity at least R ǻ of that
energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as unusable heat (R is the temperature of the system's
external surroundings). Otherwise the process will not go forward. In classical thermodynamics, the entropy of a
system is defined only if it is in thermodynamic equilibrium.

In a thermodynamic system, pressure, density, and temperature tend to become uniform over time because this
equilibrium state has higher probability (more possible combinations of microstates) than any other; see
statistical mechanics. In the ice melting example, the difference in temperature between a warm room (the
surroundings) and cold glass of ice and water (the system and not part of the room), begins to be equalied as
portions of the thermal energy from the warm surroundings spread to the cooler system of ice and water.
A thermodynamic system

Over time the temperature of the glass and its contents and the temperature of the room become equal. The
entropy of the room has decreased as some of its energy has been dispersed to the ice and water. However, as
calculated in the example, the entropy of the system of ice and water has increased more than the entropy of the
surrounding room has decreased. In an isolated system such as the room and ice water taken together, the
dispersal of energy from warmer to cooler always results in a net increase in entropy. Thus, when the universe
of the room and ice water system has reached a temperature equilibrium, the entropy change from the initial
state is at a maximum. The entropy of the thermodynamic system is a measure of how far the equaliation has
progressed.

A special case of entropy increase, the entropy of mixing, occurs when two or more different substances are
mixed. If the substances are at the same temperature and pressure, there will be no net exchange of heat or work
- the entropy change will be entirely due to the mixing of the different substances. At a statistical mechanical
level, this results due to the change in available volume per particle with mixing. [20]

 



Rudolf Clausius, originator of the concept of entropy

ain article: History of entropy

The first law of thermodynamics, formalied based on the heat-friction experiments of James Joule in 1843,
deals with the concept of energy, which is conserved in all processes; the first law, however, lacks in its ability
to quantify the effects of friction and dissipation.

Entropy began with the work of  French mathematician Laare Carnot who in his 1803 paper V m÷


 ÷

m

÷m÷
proposed that in any machine the accelerations and shocks of the
moving parts all represent losses of mm÷




. In other words, in any natural process there exists an
inherent tendency towards the dissipation
 of useful energy. uilding on this work, in 1824 Laare's son Sadi
Carnot published ÷÷
 


÷

÷
÷

V÷ in which he set forth the view that in all heat-engines
whenever caloric, or what is now known as heat, falls through a temperature difference, that work or motive
power can be produced from the actions of the fall of caloric between a hot and cold body. This was an early
insight into the second law of thermodynamics.[21]
Carnot aed hi
iew of heat partially on the early =ïth entury ewtonian hypothei that oth heat and
light were type of indetrutile form of matter whih are attrated and repelled y other matter and partially
on the ontemporary
iew of Count Rumford who howed in =´ï] that heat ould e reated y frition a
when annon ore are mahined [ðð] ordingly Carnot reaoned that if the ody of the working utane
uh a a ody of team i rought ak to it original tate temperature and preure) at the end of a omplete
engine yle that no hange our in the ondition of the working ody
hi latter omment wa amended
in hi foot note and it wa thi omment that led to the de
elopment of entropy [


]

n the =ïº and =ï
 erman phyiit Rudolf Clauiu gra

ely ojeted to thi latter uppoition i e that no
hange our in the working ody and ga
e thi hange a mathematial interpretation y quetioning the
nature of the inherent lo of uale heat when work i done e g heat produed y frition [ð*] Clauiu
deried entropy a the






 i e diipati
e energy ue of a thermodynami ytem or
working ody of hemial peie during a hange of tate [ð*]
hi wa in ontrat to earlier
iew aed on the
theorie of aa ewton that heat wa an indetrutile partile that had ma

ater ientit uh a udwig oltzmann oiah illard i and ame Clerk axwell ga
e entropy a
tatitial ai n =ï´´ oltzmann
iualized a proailiti way to meaure the entropy of an enemle of
ideal ga partile in whih he defined entropy to e proportional to the logarithm of the numer of mirotate
uh a ga ould oupy eneforth the eential prolem in tatitial thermodynami i e aording to
rwin hrödinger ha een to determine the ditriution of a gi
en amount of energy  o
er  idential
ytem Carathéodory linked entropy with a mathematial definition of irre
eriility in term of trajetorie
and integraility

þ


 

 

 

 

ain artile: ntropy arrow of time)

ntropy i the only quantity in the phyial iene that eem to imply a partiular diretion of progre
ometime alled an arrow of time  time progree the eond law of thermodynami tate that the
entropy of an iolated ytem ne
er dereae ene from thi perpeti
e entropy meaurement i thought of
a a kind of lok

 
 


 
 





ain artile: undamental thermodynami relation

he entropy of a ytem depend on it internal energy and the external parameter uh a the
olume n the
thermodynami limit thi fat lead to an equation relating the hange in the internal energy to hange in the
entropy and the external parameter
hi relation i known a the fundamental thermodynami relation f the

olume i the only external parameter thi relation i:

    

ine the internal energy i fixed when one peifie the entropy and the
olume thi relation i
alid e
en if the
hange from one tate of thermal equilirium to another with infiniteimally larger entropy and
olume happen
in a non-quaitati way o during thi hange the ytem may e
ery far out of thermal equilirium and then
the entropy preure and temperature may not exit)

he fundamental thermodynami relation implie many thermodynami identitie that are
alid in general
independent of the miroopi detail of the ytem mportant example are the axwell relation and the
relation etween heat apaitie

c


 
 
 

Thermodynamic entropy is central in chemical thermodynamics, enabling changes to be quantified and the
outcome of reactions predicted. The second law of thermodynamics states that entropy in an isolated system, the
combination of a subsystem under study and its surroundings, increases during all spontaneous chemical and
physical processes. The Clausius equation of įrev/ = ǻ introduces the measurement of entropy change, ǻ.
Entropy change describes the direction and quantifies the magnitude of simple changes such as heat transfer
between systems ± always from hotter to cooler spontaneously. [24]

The thermodynamic entropy therefore has the dimension of energy divided by temperature, and the unit joule
per kelvin (J/K) in the International System of Units (SI).

Thermodynamic entropy is an extensive property, meaning that it scales with the sie or extent of a system. In
many processes it is useful to specify the entropy as an intensive property independent of the si e, as a   

 characteristic of the type of system studied. Specific entropy may be expressed relative to a unit of
mass, typically the kilogram (unit: Jkg-1K-1). Alternatively, in chemistry, it is also referred to one mole of
substance, in which case it is called the m
÷
 with a unit of Jmol -1K-1.

Thus, when one mole of substance at 0K is warmed by its surroundings to 298K, the sum of the incremental
values of rev/ constitute each element's or compound's standard molar entropy, a fundamental physical
property and an indicator of the amount of energy stored by a substance at 298K.[25][26] Entropy change also
measures the mixing of substances as a summation of their relative quantities in the final mixture. [27]

Entropy is equally essential in predicting the extent and direction of complex chemical reactions. For such
applications, ǻ must be incorporated in an expression that includes both the system and its surroundings,
ǻuniverse = ǻsurroundings + ǻ system. This expression becomes, via some steps, the Gibbs free energy equation for
reactants and products in the system: ǻ [the Gibbs free energy change of the system] = ǻ [the enthalpy
change]  ǻ [the entropy change].[25]

 
c
  

When an ideal gas undergoes a change, its entropy may also change. For cases where the specific heat doesn't
change and either volume, pressure or temperature is also constant, the change in entropy can be easily
calculated.[28]

When specific heat and volume are constant, the change in entropy is given by:

When specific heat and pressure are constant, the change in entropy is given by:

When specific heat and temperature are constant, the change in entropy is given by:

In these equations þ is the specific heat at constant volume, þ is the specific heat at constant pressure,  is the
ideal gas constant, and is the number of moles of gas.

For some other transformations, not all of these properties (specific heat, volume, pressure or temperature) are
constant. In these cases, for only 1 mole of an ideal gas, the change in entropy can be given by[29] either:
 or

 
c

 
  


In chemical engineering, the principles of thermodynamics are commonly applied to open systems, i.e. those
in which heat, work, and mass flow across the system boundary. In a system in which there are flows of both

heat ( ) and work, i.e. (shaft work) and  !
" (pressure-volume work), across the system boundaries,
the heat flow, but not the work flow, causes a change in the entropy of the system. This rate of entropy change is
where  is the absolute thermodynamic temperature of the system at the point of the heat flow. If, in
addition, there are mass flows across the system boundaries, the total entropy of the system will also change due
to this convected flow.

During steady-state continuous operation, an 


  applied to an open system accounts for system
entropy changes related to heat flow and mass flow across the system boundary.

To derive a generalied entropy balanced equation, we start with the general balance equation for the change in
any extensive quantity Ĭ in a thermodynamic system, a quantity that may be either conserved, such as energy,
or non-conserved, such as entropy. The basic generic balance expression states that dĬ/dt, i.e. the rate of change
of Ĭ in the system, equals the rate at which Ĭ enters the system at the boundaries, minus the rate at which Ĭ
leaves the system across the system boundaries, plus the rate at which Ĭ is generated within the system. Using
this generic balance equation, with respect to the rate of change with time of the extensive quantity entropy ,
the 

 
 for an open thermodynamic system is: [30]

where

= the net rate of entropy flow due to the flows of mass into and out of the system (where
= entropy per unit mass).

= the rate of entropy flow due to the flow of heat across the system boundary.
 = the rate of internal generation of entropy within the system.

Note, also, that if there are multiple heat flows, the term is to be replaced by where is
the heat flow and # is the temperature at the #
 heat flow port into the system.

 
c
 
     


ain article: von Neumann entropy

y greatest concern

 was what to call it. I

thought of calling it
µinformation¶, but
the word was overly
used, so I decided
to call it
µuncertainty¶. When
I discussed it with
John von Neumann,
he had a better idea.
Von Neumann told
me, µYou should
call it 
, for
two reasons. In the
first place your
uncertainty function
has been used in
statistical
mechanics under
that name, so it
already has a name.
In the second place,
and more important,
nobody knows what
entropy really is, so
in a debate you will
always have the
advantage.

²Conversation between Claude Shannon and
John von Neumann regarding what name to
give to the ³measure of uncertainty´ or
attenuation in phone-line signals [31]

In quantum statistical mechanics, the concept of entropy was developed by John von Neumann and is generally
referred to as von Neumann entropy, namely .

where ȡ is the density matrix and Tr is the trace operator.

This upholds the correspondence principle, because in the classical limit, i.e. whenever the classical notion of
probability applies, this expression is equivalent to the familiar classical definition of entropy,

 =   ™  log 


'on eumann etalihed a rigorou mathematial framework for quantum mehani with hi work





Ñ 
  



 e pro
ided in thi work a theory of meaurement where
the uual notion of wa
e funtion ollape i deried a an irre
erile proe the o alled
on eumann or
projeti
e meaurement) ing thi onept in onjuntion with the denity matrix he extended the laial
onept of entropy into the quantum domain

t i well known that a hannon aed definition of information entropy lead in the laial ae to the
oltzmann entropy t i tempting to regard the 'on eumann entropy a the orreponding quantum
mehanial definition ut the latter i prolemati from quantum information point of
iew Conequently
totland omeranky ahmat and Cohen ha
e introdued a new definition of entropy that reflet the inherent
unertainty of quantum mehanial tate
hi definition allow to ditinguih etween the minimum
unertainty entropy of pure tate and the exe tatitial entropy of mixture [*ð]


  













ain artile: ntropy order and diorder)

ntropy ha often een looely aoiated with the amount of order diorder and/or hao in a thermodynami
ytem
he traditional qualitati
e deription of entropy i that it refer to hange in the tatu quo of the
ytem and i a meaure of moleular diorder and the amount of wated energy in a dynamial energy
tranformation from one tate or form to another [**] n thi diretion a numer of author in reent year ha
e
deri
ed exat entropy formula to aount for and meaure diorder and order in atomi and moleular
aemlie [*X][*º][*
][*´] ne of the impler entropy order/diorder formula i that deri
ed in =]ïX y
thermodynami phyiit eter anderg whih i aed on a omination of thermodynami and information
theory argument anderg argue that when ontraint operate on a ytem uh that it i pre
ented from
entering one or more of it poile or permitted tate a ontrated with it foridden tat e the meaure of
the total amount of diorder´ in the ytem i gi
en y the following expreion: [*
][*´]

imilarly the total amount of order in the ytem i gi

en y:

n whih þ i the diorder apaity of the ytem whih i the entropy of the part ontained in the permitted
enemle þ
i the information apaity of the ytem an expreion imilar to hannon' hannel apaity
and þ i the order apaity of the ytem [*º]

c





ain artile: ntropy energy diperal)

he onept of entropy an e deried qualitati

ely a a meaure of energy diperal at a peifi
temperature [*ï] imilar term ha
e een in ue from early in the hitory of laial thermodynami and with
the de
elopment of tatitial thermodynami and quantum theory entropy hange ha
e een deried in
term of the mixing or preading of the total energy of eah ontituent of a ytem o
er it partiular
quantized energy le
el

miguitie in the term   and 
 whih uually ha

e meaning diretly oppoed to equilirium
ontriute to widepread onfuion and hamper omprehenion of entropy for mot tudent [*]]  the eond
law of thermodynami how in an iolated ytem internal portion at different temperature will tend to
adjut to a ingle uniform temperature and thu produe equilirium  reently de
eloped eduational approah
a
oid amiguou term and derie uh preading out of energy a diperal whih lead to lo of the
differential required for work e
en though the total energy remain ontant in aordane with the firt law of
thermodynami[X] ompare diuion in next etion) hyial hemit eter tkin for example who
pre
iouly wrote of diperal leading to a diordered tate now write that pontaneou hange are alway
aompanied y a diperal of energy [ðX][X=]





 

@
@


ollowing on from the ao

e it i poile in a thermal ontext) to regard entropy a an indiator or meaure of
the 
 or  of a partiular quantity of energy [Xð]
hi i eaue energy upplied at a high
temperature i e with low entropy) tend to e more ueful than the ame amount of energy a
ailale at room
temperature ixing a hot parel of a fluid with a old one produe a parel of intermediate temperature in
whih the o
erall inreae in entropy repreent a lo´ whih an ne
er e replaed

hu the fat that the entropy of the uni

ere i teadily inreaing mean that it total energy i eoming le
ueful: e
entually thi will lead to the  heat death of the ni
ere



 


ain artile: digregation

he illutration for thi artile i a lai example in whih entropy inreae in a mall uni
ere a
thermodynami ytem oniting of the urrounding the warm room) and ytem gla ie old water)
n thi uni
ere ome thermal energy Ë from the warmer room urrounding at ð]ï or ðº !C) will pread
out to the ooler ytem of ie and water at it ontant temperature of ð´*  !C) the melting temperature
of ie
he entropy of the ytem will hange y the amount Ë!  in thi example Ë/ð´*
he thermal
energy Ë for thi proe i the energy required to hange water from the olid tate to the liquid tate and i
alled the enthalpy of fuion i e the ǻ for ie fuion )
he entropy of the urrounding will hange y an
amount   Ë/ð]ï o in thi example the entropy of the ytem inreae wherea the entropy of the
urrounding dereae

t i important to realize that the dereae in the entropy of the urrounding room i le than the inreae in the
entropy of the ie and water: the room temperature of ð]ï i larger than ð´* and therefore the ratio
entropy hange) of Ë/ð]ï for the urrounding i maller than the ratio entropy hange) of Ë/ð´* for
the ie+water ytem
o find the entropy hange of our uni
ere we add up the entropy hange for it
ontituent: the urrounding room and the ie+water
he total entropy hange i poiti
e; thi i alway true in
pontaneou e
ent in a thermodynami ytem and it how the prediti
e importane of entropy: the final net
entropy after uh an e
ent i alway greater than wa the initial entropy

 the temperature of the ool water rie to that of the room and the room further ool impereptily the um
of the Ë/
o
er the ontinuou range at many inrement in the initially ool to finally warm water an e
found y alulu
he entire miniature uni
ere i e thi thermodynami ytem ha inreaed in entropy
nergy ha pontaneouly eome more dipered and pread out in that uni
ere than when the gla of ie
water wa introdued and eame a ytem within it

otie that the ytem will reah a point where the room the gla and the ontent of the gla will e at the
ame temperature n thi ituation nothing ele an happen: although thermal energy doe exit in the room in
fat the amount of thermal energy i the ame a in the eginning ine it i a loed ytem) it i now unale
to do ueful work a there i no longer a temperature gradient nle an external e
ent inter
ene thu
reaking the definition of a loed ytem) the room i detined to remain in the ame ondition for all eternity

herefore following the ame reaoning ut onidering the whole uni
ere a our room we reah a imilar
onluion: that at a ertain point in the ditant future the whole uni
ere will e a uniform iothermi and
inert ody of matter in whih there will e no a
ailale energy to do work
hi ondition i known a the  heat
death of the ni
ere

c


    

 definition of entropy aed entirely on the relation of adiaati aeiility etween equilirium tate wa
gi
en y   ie and  "ng
aon in =]]] [X*]
hi approah ha e
eral predeeor inluding the pioneering
work of Contantin Carathéodory from =]] [XX] and the monograph y R ile from =]
X [Xº] n the etting of
ie and "ng
aon one tart y piking for a unit amount of the utane under onideration two referene
tate >  and >= uh that the latter i adiaatially aeile from the former ut not
ie
era efining the
entropie of the referene tate to e  and = repeti
ely the entropy of a tate > i defined a the larget
numer # uh that > i adiaatially aeile from a ompoite tate oniting of an amount # in the tate > =
and a omplementary amount =  #) in the tate >  imple ut important reult within thi etting i that
entropy i uniquely determined apart from a hoie of unit and an additi
e ontant for eah hemial element
y the following propertie: t i monotoni with repet to the relation of adiaati aeiility additi
e on
ompoite ytem and exteni
e under aling



 



he following i a lit of additional definition of entropy from a olletion of textook

Yp a meaure of energy diperal at a peifi temperature [ðX]

Yp a meaure of diorder in the uni

ere or of the a
ailailit y of the energy in a ytem to do work [X
]






 
 
 


lthough the onept of entropy wa originally a thermodynami ontrut it ha een adapted in other field of
tudy inluding information theory pyhodynami thermoeonomi and e
olution [*º][X´][Xï]

 
 

 




Yp c

 
 - a non-  unit of thermodynami entropy uually denoted e u  and equal to one
alorie per el
in per mole or X =ïX oule per el
in per mole [X]]
Yp Ñ

 - the uual tatitial mehanial entropy of a thermodynami ytem
Yp Õ


 

 - a type of i entropy whih neglet internal tatitial orrelation in the
o
erall partile ditriution
Yp 



 - a generalization of the tandard oltzmann-i entropy
Yp 

 

 

 - i the entropy ontent of one mole of utane under ondition of
tandard temperature and preure
Yp 


 - the entropy preent after a utane i ooled aritrarily loe to aolute zero
Yp c

 
 - the hange in the entropy when two different hemial utane or omponent
are mixed
Yp §  

 - i the entropy lot upon ringing together two reidue of a polymer within a
preried ditane
Yp þ

 



 - i the entropy aoiated with the phyial arrangement of a polymer hain
that aume a ompat or gloular tate in olution
Yp c

 
 - a miroopi fore or reation tendeny related to ytem organization hange
moleular fritional onideration and tatitial
ariation
Yp V


 - an entropi thermodynami potential analogou to the free energy
Yp c

 

$ an exploion in whih the reatant undergo a large hange in
olume without
releaing a large amount of heat
Yp c

 
 $ a hange in entropy  etween two equilirium tate i gi
en y the heat
tranferred   di
ided y the aolute temperature of the ytem in thi inter
al [º]
Yp  

 

 - the entropy of a monatomi laial ideal ga determined
ia quantum
onideration

c





ain artile: ntropy and life

or nearly a entury and a half eginning with Clauiu' =ï
* memoir  n the Conentration of Ray of eat
and ight and on the imit of it tion muh writing and reearh ha een de
oted to the relationhip
etween thermodynami entropy and the e
olution of life
he argument that life feed on negati
e entropy or
negentropy a aerted in the =]XX ook „

   y phyiit rwin hrödinger er
ed a a further
timulu to thi reearh Reent writing ha
e ued the onept of i free energy to elaorate on thi
iue [º=]

n the =]ïð textook  


 y merian iohemit lert ehninger for example it i
argued that the order produed within ell a they grow and di
ide i more than ompenated for y the
diorder they reate in their urrounding in the oure of growth and di
iion n hort aording to
ehninger li
ing organim preer
e their internal order y taking from their urrounding free energy in the
form of nutrient or unlight and returning to their urrounding an equal amount of energy a heat and
entropy [ºð]


olution-related onept:

Yp o

 - a horthand olloquial phrae for negati
e entropy [º*]
Yp c
 - a meaure of the tendeny of a dynamial ytem to do ueful work and grow more
organized [**]
Yp c
 $ a metaphorial term defining the extent of a li
ing or organizational ytem' intelligene
funtional order
itality energy life experiene and apaity and dri
e for impro
ement and growth
Yp c



 - a meaure of iodi
erity in the tudy of iologial eology

n a tudy titled atural eletion for leat ation´ pulihed in the   

 ! 'ille
aila and rto nnila of the ni
erity of elinki derie how the eond law of thermodynami an e
written a an equation of motion to derie e
olution howing how natural eletion and the priniple of leat
ation an e onneted y expreing natural eletion in term of hemial thermodynami n thi
iew
e
olution explore poile path to le
el differene in energy denitie and o inreae entropy mot rapidly

hu an organim er
e a an energy tranfer mehanim and enefiial mutation allow uei
e
organim to tranfer more energy within their en
ironment [ºX]

þ 


ain artile: eat death of the uni

ere and lak hole thermodynami

ine a finite uni

ere i an iolated ytem then y the eond aw of
hermodynami it total entropy i
ontantly inreaing t ha een peulated ine the =]th entury that the uni
ere i fated to a heat death in
whih all the energy end up a a homogeneou ditriution of thermal energy o that no more work an e
extrated from any oure

f the uni
ere an e onidered to ha
e generally inreaing entropy thena Roger enroe ha pointed
outgra
ity play an important role in the inreae eaue gra
ity aue dipered matter to aumulate into
tar whih ollape e
entually into lak hole
he entropy of a lak hole i proportional to the urfae area
of the lak hole' e
ent horizon [ºº] ao ekentein and tephen awking ha
e hown that lak hole ha
e
the maximum poile entropy of any ojet of equal ize
hi make them likely end point of all entropy-
inreaing proee if they are totally effeti
e matter and energy trap awking ha howe
er reently
hanged hi tane on thi apet [


]

he role of entropy in omology remain a ontro

erial ujet Reent work ha at ome dout on the heat
death hypothei and the appliaility of any imple thermodynami model to the uni
ere in general lthough
entropy doe inreae in the model of an expanding uni
ere the maximum poile entropy rie muh more
rapidly mo
ing the uni
ere further from the heat death with time not loer
hi reult in an entropy gap
puhing the ytem further away from the poited heat death equilirium [º
] ther ompliating fator uh a
the energy denity of the
auum and maroopi quantum effet are diffiult to reonile with
thermodynamial model making any predition of large-ale thermodynami extremely
diffiult
emplate:´
The entropy gap is widely believed to have been originally opened up by the early rapid exponential expansion
of the universe.

 
! 
 


ain articles: Entropy (information theory) and Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory

In information theory, ÷
 is the measure of the amount of information that is missing before reception and
is sometimes referred to as  
÷
 .[57] Shannon entropy is a broad and general concept which finds
applications in information theory as well as thermodynamics. It was originally devised by Claude Shannon in
1948 to study the amount of information in a transmitted message. The definition of the information entropy is,
however, quite general, and is expressed in terms of a discrete set of probabilities :

In the case of transmitted messages, these probabilities were the probabilities that a particular message was
actually transmitted, and the entropy of the message system was a measure of how much information was in the
message. For the case of equal probabilities (i.e. each message is equally probable), the Shannon entropy (in
bits) is just the number of yes/no questions needed to determine the content of the message. [17]

The question of the link between information entropy and thermodynamic entropy is a debated topic. While
most authors argue that there is a link between the two, [58][59][60] a few argue that they have nothing to do with
each other.[61][17]

The expressions for the two entropies are very similar. The information entropy  for equal probabilities  = 
= 1 / is

where  is a constant which determines the units of entropy. For example, if the units are bits, then k = 1/ln(2).
The thermodynamic entropy , from a statistical mechanical point of view, was first expressed by oltmann:

 = log(1 / ),

where  is the probability of a system being in a particular microstate, given that it is in a particular macrostate,
and  is oltmann's constant. It can be seen that one may think of the thermodynamic entropy as oltmann's
constant, divided by log(2), times the number of yes/no questions that must be asked in order to determine the
microstate of the system, given that we know the macrostate. The link between thermodynamic and information
entropy was developed in a series of papers by Edwin Jaynes beginning in 1957.[62]

There are many ways of demonstrating the equivalence of information entropy and physics entropy, that is,
the equivalence of Shannon entropy and oltmann entropy. Nevertheless, some authors argue for dropping
the word entropy for the H function of information theory and using Shannon's other term uncertainty
instead.[63]

 
"

 

Yp Œ
# 
 - a mathematical type of entropy in dynamical systems related to measures
of partitions. [17]
Yp ¢


 - is a natural distance measure from a true probability distribution  to an arbitrary
probability distribution $.
Yp ¢ 
 - a generalied entropy measure for fractal systems.
Yp 
 

 - a way of defining entropy in an iterated function map in ergodic theory.
Yp '

 - a Riemannian invariant measuring the exponential rate of volume growth.
 
 


The concept of entropy has also entered the domain of sociology, generally as a metaphor for chaos, disorder or
dissipation of energy, rather than as a direct measure of thermodynamic or information entropy:

Yp 
 
 - energy waste as red tape and business team inefficiency, i.e. energy lost to
waste.[64] (This definition is comparable to von Clausewit's concept of friction in war.)
Yp c    
 ± a semi-quantitative measure of the irrevocable dissipation and degradation of
natural materials and available energy with respect to economic activity. [59][65]
Yp c

 ± the study or discussion of entropy or the name sometimes given to thermodynamics
without differential equations.[66][67]
Yp ù 
 

 - the distribution of energy in the psyche, which tends to seek equilibrium or
balance among all the structures of the psyche. [68]
Yp  
 
 ± a measure of social system structure, having both theoretical and statistical
interpretations, i.e. society (macrosocietal variables) measured in terms of how the individual functions
in society (microsocietal variables); also related to social equilibrium. [69]

 


   

$Õ 

$§$

$


 



ùroperty diagrams
Intensive and extensive properties



 
 :
Temperature / c
 (intro.) ‚
ùressure / Volume ‚
Chemical potential / ùarticle no. ‚
(‚ Conjugate variables)
Vapor quality
Reduced properties
ù  
 :
Work % Heat

$"




Specific heat capacity  =
%
1
Compressibility ȕ=

1
Thermal expansion Į=

$c
 

$ù



Internal energy £(, )
Enthalpy (,) = £ + 
Helmholt free energy &(, ) = £  
Gibbs free energy (,) =   
$
  



$ 



v%d%e

Yp Autocatalytic reactions and order creation

Yp rownian ratchet
Yp Chaos theory
Yp Clausius±Duhem inequality
Yp Configuration entropy
Yp Departure function
Yp Entropy rate
Yp Geometrical frustration
Yp Laws of thermodynamics
Yp ultiplicity function
Yp Orders of magnitude (entropy)
Yp Randomness
Yp Stirling's formula
Yp Thermodynamic databases for pure substances
Yp Thermodynamic potential
Yp aryogenesis

 


1.p ó In complex systems of molecules, such as at the critical point of water or when salt is added to an
ice-water mixture, entropy can either increase or decrease depending on system parameters, such as
temperature and pressure. For example, if the spontaneous crystalliation of a supercooled liquid takes
place under adiabatic conditions the entropy of the resulting crystal will be greater than that of the
 uperooled liquid enigh =]ïð)  þ

G 
 Xth d ) n general
howe
er when ie melt the entropy of the two adjoined ytem the hot and old odie inreae
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ð p ó  mahine in thi ontext inlude engineered de
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 62.p ó Edwin T. Jaynes - ibliography. ayes.wustl.edu. 1998-03-02.
http://bayes.wustl.edu/etj/node1.html. Retrieved 2009-12-06.
63.p ó Schneider, Tom, DELILA system (Deoxyribonucleic acid Library Language), (Information Theory
Analysis of binding sites), Laboratory of athematical iology, National Cancer Institute, FCRDC
ldg. 469. Rm 144, ù.O. ox.  Frederick, D 21702-1201, USA.
64.p ó Dearco, Tom; Lister, Timothy (1999). ÷÷÷'
 
÷
#÷


÷m(
) *
 *.
Dorset House ùublishing Co.. ISN 0-932633-43-9.
65.p ó urley, ùeter; Foster, John (1994).  m

÷m m
+
%÷
÷÷
÷


 m
&  . Kluwer Academic ùublishers. ISN 0-7923-9446-1.
66.p ó ùerrot, ùierre (1998). &


,

÷m m. Oxford University ùress. ISN 0-19-856552-6.
67.p ó Example: 
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Yp Gyftopoulos, E.ù.; G.ù. eretta (2005
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Yp Goldstein, artin; Inge, F (1993). ÷
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£ ÷÷. Harvard University ùress.
ISN 0-674-75325-9.
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Yp Entropy for beginners

 
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Yp Entropy - A asic Understanding A primer for entropy from a chemical perspective

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