BE Future For India - E2 Analytics - 30.08.2010

BIOMASS ENERGY FUTURE FOR INDIA
P.R. Shukla
Indian Institute of Management
Ahmedabad, India 380015
Phone: 91 79 407241
Fax : 91 79 6427896
Email: shukla@iimahd.ernet.in
Paper Presented in International Workshop

“Science and Technology for a Modern Biomass Civilization”
Rio De Janeiro, Brazil, September 8-9, 1997
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1. BIOMASS: A VERSATILE RENEWABLE RESOURCE
Biomass is a versatile renewable resource used since millennia as a fuel as well as material for
meeting myriad human needs. It is available from varied sources like trees, crops and animal
waste. Despite inventions of new materials such as plastics and metal alloys, wood continues
to remain an important material for industrial use. Wood is a very versatile material used in
diverse industries like furniture making, house construction and paper. Figure 1 shows the
global use of wood for non-energy uses. Evidently, the consumption of wood globally for non-
energy uses grew between 1974 and 1994 annually at over 1 percent rate.
Until the middle of 19th century, biomass dominated the global energy supply with a seventy
percent share (Grubler and Nakicenovic 1988). Among the biomass energy sources, wood
fuels are the most prominent. With rapid increase in fossil fuel use, the share of biomass in
total energy has declined steadily through substitution by coal in the nineteenth century and
later by refined oil and gas. Despite declining share, consumption of wood globally for energy
has continued to grow. During the period 1974 to 1994, wood consumption for energy grew
annually at over 2 percent rate (Figure 2). Biomass presently contributes 14% of global energy
and 38% energy in developing countries (Woods and Hall, 1994). Globally, the energy content
of biomass residues in agriculture based industries annually is estimated at 56 exajoules,
nearly a quarter of global primary energy use of 230 exajoules (WEC, 1994). The extent of
biomass use in different continents is shown in Table 1. It is evident from the table that during
the past two decades, biomass energy use has continued to grow globally except in Europe.
1.1. Shift from Traditional to Modern Biomass Energy
Biomass energy enjoys significant share in energy consumption in developing nations. Most
biomass here is homegrown or collected by households. It is consumed primarily for domestic
energy needs in rural areas and by traditional industries and service sector establishments.
Since energy market is underdeveloped in rural areas, most biomass fuels are not traded nor
do they compete with commercial energy sources. In developing countries, due to excess
labour, biomass acquires no resource value so long as it is not scarce. In absence of an energy
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market, the traditional biomass also fails to acquire exchange value in substitution. Absence
of market acts as barrier to the penetration of efficient and clean technologies. The incomplete
combustion of biomass releases pollutants like carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen oxides,
benzene, formaldehyde, benzo(a)pyrene, aromatics and respirable particulate matter. These
pollutants cause considerable damage to health, especially of women and children who are
exposed to indoor pollution for long duration (Smith, 1987; Smith, 1993, Patel and Raiyani,
1997).
Table 1: Global Biomass Energy Consumption and Growth
Energy Consumption Per Capita

Energy Consumption
Peta Joules % change Maga Joules % change
1993 since 1973 1993 since 1973
Africa 4 815 76 6 991 0
Europe 552 -14 761 -21
North / Central America 1 825 106 4 130 53
South America 2 748 26 8 888 -17
Asia 9 009 47 2 690 1
Oceania 185 16 6 693 -14
World 19 926 47 3 594 4
Source: WRI (1996)
Following the rising incomes in developing nations, the traditional biomass is substituted by
more efficient and cleaner fuels along the fuel ladder, thereby causing a steady decline in its
share in the primary energy. The shift has a history. The oil crisis two decades ago prompted
the governments of oil poor countries to look for energy alternatives. Brazil responded with
ethanol programme and Philippines promoted the dendrothermal power programme. It is well
recognized that the future of biomass is along the commercial route. The policies to
internalize the externalities of competing fuels shall play vital role in future penetration
trajectory of biomass energy. The modern technology and markets are set to transform
biomass from an inefficient and unclean traditional fuel to an efficient and clean fuel that is
produced and consumed through modern technologies and competes in a market.
In recent years, the interest in biomass technologies is revived due to multitude of factors such
as the improvement in biomass production systems, advances in biomass based energy
conversion technologies (Johansson et al, 1993a) and the rising awareness on social and
environmental shortcomings of conventional energy forms. Since two decades, a growing
concern about global climate change (Shukla, 1996a), acid rain, deterioration in urban air
quality from fossil fuels use, social and environmental hazards from large hydro dams and
accidents at nuclear power plant sites have led to a search for alternative energy sources.
Improved techno-economic performance of biomass based energy systems; combined with its
inherent advantages such as renewability of biomass resources, decentralized supply,
employment generation potential, and environmental soundness; has made biomass a
competitive and sustainable energy resource. In the developing countries, the shortage of
centralized energy supply and lack of electrification in rural areas have contributed to the
rising interest in the biomass energy as a decentralized energy option.
The modern biomass technologies are now achieving performance standards (Reddy et al,
1997) which make them competitive vis-à-vis conventional energy forms, especially if the
social and environmental benefits of biomass are internalized. Policy makers, especially in
developing countries, are increasingly perceiving the additional benefits of commercial
biomass such as - I) accessibility in rural areas where commercial fuels and centralized
electric grid are not available, ii) employment generation in energy plantations and rural
industries, iii) saving of foreign exchange spent on oil imports (Shukla, 1997) and, iv)
restoration of deforested and degraded lands by energy plantations (Reddy et al, 1997).
Another argument in favor of biomass energy is that it may help to tackle the problem of
surplus agriculture production in industrialized countries (Patterson, 1994). These advantages,
together with more efficient and versatile biomass electricity generation technologies, have
led to the transition of re-emergence of biomass as a competitive and sustainable energy
option for the future.
1.2 Technological Advancements
Technological progress in biomass energy is derived from two spheres - biomass energy
production practices and energy conversion technologies. A rich experience of managing
commercial energy plantations in varied climatic conditions has emerged during the last two
decades (Hall et al, 1993). Improvements in soil preparation, planting, cultivation methods,
species matching, bio-genetics and pest, disease and fire control have led to enhanced yields.
Development of improved harvesting and post harvesting technologies have also contributed
to reduction in production cost of biomass energy. Technological advancements in biomass
energy conversion come from three sources - enhanced efficiency of biomass energy
conversion technologies, improved fuel processing technologies and enhanced efficiency of
end-use technologies. Versatility of modern biomass technologies to use variety of biomass
feedstock has enhanced the supply potential. Small economic size and co-firing with other
fuels has also opened up additional application.
Biomass integrated gasifier/ combined cycle (BIG/CC) technology has potential to be

competitive (Reddy et al, 1997; Johansson et al, 1996) since biomass as a feedstock is more
promising than coal for gasification due to its low sulfur content and less reactive character.
The biomass fuels are suitable for the highly efficient power generation cycles based on
gasification and pyrolysis processes. Steady increase in the size of biomass technologies has
contributed to declining fixed unit costs.
For electricity generation, two most competitive technologies are direct combustion and
gasification. Typical plant sizes at present range from 0.1 to 50 MW. Co-generation
applications are very efficient and economical. Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) are efficient
and flexible in accepting varied types of fuels. Gasifiers first convert solid biomass into
gaseous fuels which is then used through a steam cycle or directly through gas turbine/engine.
Gas turbines are commercially available in sizes ranging from 20 to 50 MW. Technology
development indicates that a 40 MW combined cycle gasification plant with efficiency of 42
percent is feasible at a capital cost of 1.7 million US dollars with electricity generation cots of
4 cents/ KWh (Frisch, 1993).
2. BIOMASS ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN ASIA
Biomass use for energy and non-energy purposes has been growing in Asia. As evident from
Figures 3 and 4, between 1974 and 1994, consumption of wood in Asia for non-energy
purposes has grown annually at 2.3 percent rate and the wood consumption for energy use has
grown annually at a rate just below 2 percent (Figure 4). Current use of wood in Asia is
unsustainable, as evident from deforestation and degradation in tropical regions which has
made Asian forests the net emitters of atmospheric CO2 (Dixon et al, 1994).
Biomass has remained a major source of energy in the developing countries in Asia. The
importance of biomass energy use in some Asian countries, which are members of the
Regional Wood Energy Development Programme (RWEDP) of the FAO, is evident from
Table 2. Biomass share in energy in Malaysia and China declined in past two decades
following a massive substitution of traditional biomass by commercial fuels. In other Asian
nations, biomass share in energy has continued to be substantial. In mountainous nations like
Nepal and Bhutan as well in wood rich countries like Cambodia and Laos, biomass
contributes over 80% of primary energy. In India, biomass contributes a third of primary
energy and over a three quarter of energy in the domestic sector.
In the wake of rapid industrialization, higher penetration of commercial fossil fuels in most
developing nations in Asia have led to a decline in the share of biomass energy. However, the
consumption of biomass energy has risen unabatedly during past two decades (Table 3).
Various factors; such as the increase in population and shortages or unaffordability of
commercial fuels in rural and traditional sectors of the economy; have contributed to growing
biomass use. The increasing pressure on existing forests has already lead to considerable
deforestation. Despite the efforts of many governments, deforestation in tropics has far
exceeded afforestation (by a ratio of 8.5:1) during the 1980’s (Houghton, 1996). A sustained
and enhanced use of biomass in Asia would require supplementing existing resources with
modern plantations. Lately, many Asian countries have initiated programs for afforestation,
modern energy plantation for augmenting the supply and conversion of biomass energy
through modern technologies.
Table 2: Shares of wood and biomass in total energy consumption in Asia
Country Year Share of Share of wood Biomass share in
biomass (%) (%) domestic energy (%)
Bangladesh 1992 73 13 89
Bhutan 1991 82
Cambodia 1994 86 83 98
China 1992 10 25
India 1992 33 78
Indonesia 1992 39 31 73
Laos 1991 88
Malaysia 1992 7 2 15
Maldives 1994 84
Myanmar 1991 74
Nepal 1992-1993 92 68 97
Pakistan 1993-1994 47 27 83
Philippines 1992 44 26 66
Sri Lanka 1990 77 93
Thailand 1994 26 9 65
Vietnam 1991 50
Source: FAO (1997)
Table 3: Biomass Energy Consumption and Growth in Asian Countries
Country Energy Consumption Per Capita
Energy Consumption
Petajoules % change since Per Capita % change since

1993 1973 1993 1973
Bangladesh 277 27 2 401 -20
Bhutan 12 79 7 345 21
Cambodia 54 21 5 560 -11
China 2 018 54 1 687 15
India 2 824 58 3 132 4
Indonesia 1 465 54 7 642 4
Lao PDR 39 35 8 366 -15
Malaysia 90 61 4 686 -3
Mongolia 13 0 5 689 -41
Myanmar 193 48 4 324 -4
Nepal 206 88 9 882 12
Pakistan 296 101 2 228 8
Philippines 382 44 5 892 -9
Sri Lanka 89 45 4 996 6
Thailand 526 75 9 141 19
Viet Nam 251 54 3 516 -1
Other 274 - - -
Total 9 009 47 2 690 1
Source: WRI, 1996
2.1 Modern Biomass Energy in Asia
Modernization in biomass energy use in Asia has happened in the last two decades along three
routes - i) improvement of technologies in traditional biomass applications such as for
cooking and rural industries, ii) process development for conversion of raw biomass to
superior fuels (such as liquid fuels, gas and briquettes), and iii) penetration of biomass based
electricity generation technologies. These developments have opened new avenues for
biomass energy in Asia.
2.1.1 Modern Biomass Energy in China
In early 1980’s, China initiated a nationwide programmes to disseminate improved cookstove

and biogas technologies. The programme led to raising energy efficiency of cookstoves to 20
percent, saving nearly a ton of wood fuel per household (Shuhua et al, 1997). At the end of
1995, there were 5.7 million biogas digesters in existence producing 1.47 billion m3 gas
annually (Baofen and Xiangjun, 1997). Besides, six hundred centralized biogas plants supply
energy to 84,000 households on the commercial basis. Biogas is used for domestic cooking
needs as well as for process heat for drying and processing agriculture products. Apart from
energy supply, the biogas plants are regarded as effective means for converting human and
animal excreta to safe fertilizer. There are 24,000 biogas purification digesters with a capacity
of 1 million m3 which treat waste water for 2 million urban population (Keyun, 1995). There are
190 small biogas based power plants with capacity of 3.5 MW which produce 3 GWh of
electricity annually (Ravindranath and Hall, 1995).
Research and development (R&D) of liquid fuels include a process for converting a high
quality Chinese sorghum breed and pyrolysis technology. Till now, high cost of liquid fuels
has limited their commercialization (Baofen and Xiangjun, 1997). Gasification of agriculture
residue and wood is another area of R&D focus in China. Ten pilot plants, each supplying gas to
100 to 200 households, are built in Shandong province and Beijing. The Ninth Five-year plan
(1996-2000) envisages standardization and commercialization of this technology and its
extension throughout China (Baofen and Xiangjun, 1997).
Biomass based electricity generation technologies have penetrated the Chinese market lately, but
only gradually. Power generation using rice husk have followed two type of technologies -
biomass gasification and diesel engine, and direct combustion. Low scale of operation of rice
mills and collection and transportation difficulties have however led to the decline in the rice
husk based power generation (Baofen and Xiangjun, 1997). Largest share of biomass electricity
is in the sugar industry, with capacity in two major sugar cane producing provinces Guandong
and Guangxi of 483 MW and 323 MW respectively (Baofen and Xiangjun, 1997). Biomass
electrification programme in China has received fiscal and administrative policy support. The
share of modern biomass technologies in the overall energy consumption in China still remains
marginal. The trends however point to a promising future for modern biomass in China.
2.1.2 Philippines: The Dendrothermal Programme
Biomass contributed 44% energy in Philippines in 1992, most of which is consumed in the
domestic sector. Philippines was among the first nations to initiate the modern biomass
programme. In 1970’s, a three quarter of electricity in Philippines was generated from oil and
diesel fired power plants. In 1979, nearly a third of the imported oil was used for electricity
generation (Bawagan and Semana, 1980). A dendrothermal power programme was launched
in 1979 with aims to reduce the share of imported oil fired electricity plants to 30% (Durst,
1986a) and to supply electricity to rural areas. Some unique features of the Filipino initiative
were - i) large scale, ii) grid based biomass electricity generation, iii) dedicated biomass
energy plantations, iv) decentralized and co-operative ownership, v) national co-ordination by
the centralized administration, and vi) integration of social and environmental benefits within
the programme design (Durst, 1987a; Durst 1987b).
Biomass supply was planned from the produce of tree farmers on government leased lands. A
typical dendrothermal plant had a 3 MW size, each connected to 1200 hectares plantation
(Durst, 1986b). A total of 217 plants (total capacity - 676 MW) were planned for construction
in 1980’s. Generation cost of electricity was expected to be 4 cents/KWh. The programme
expected to save 260,000 barrels of oil per year (Denton, 1981). Tree Farmers Association
with 10 to 15 families were formed to manage plantations of 100 hectares size. Within first
few years, major efforts were directed towards planting trees and procuring equipments. By
1984, equipments were purchased for 17 power plants and 17,827 hectares of land was
planted (BTG, 1990). During the time, 338 tree-farmers association with 3,800 member
families were registered with the programme (Durst, 1987a).
Since inception, dendrothermal programme was plagued by serious political, economic and
implementation problems. At the time of launching the programme, little experience existed
worldwide on wood plantations for energy. Dendrothermal concept needed decentralized
management, whereas the planning decisions remained centralized. Lack of institutional
mechanisms added to the failures in translating centralized decisions to decentralized
implementation and operation. Many tree farmers association had inadequate cultivation
experience. As a result, growth and survival rates of trees suffered at many locations. Planning
failure is apparent in the decisions of allocating primarily the mountainous sites for plantation
and exclusive use of single tree specie (Leucaena leucocephala or ipil-ipil) which did not suit
the conditions at several sites. While the feasibility studies had projected the annual yields as
high as 75 to 100 m3 per hectare (Bawagan and Semana, 1980), actual yield at some
plantations was only a quarter of that projection (BTG, 1990).
Decline in oil prices after mid-1980’s reduced the comparative advantage of biomass energy.
Planting activity declined after the first two years of the programme, when the government
curtailed the financial support to the plantation programme. The reduced plantation and low
productivity led to fuel shortages. The ipil-ipil plantation was affected at some locations by
insect attacks, and by 1985 only 2 out of 9 operational power plants could receive adequate
wood supply from their planted stocks (Durst, 1987a). Competing needs for wood
compounded the problem by periodic shortages and price increases. The institutional regime
to avert such situations was not in place. The cost of transportation was pushed upwards by
the aerial mono-cable systems imported from Switzerland which needed high investment. The
cable system was inflexible and inappropriate for administrative and physical settings of some
sites (Laarman et al., 1986). At most sites, the cable system was found to be too expensive to
install and maintain and the transport system had to be altered later on to labor intensive
modes (BTG, 1990).
The failure of dendrothermal programme in Philippines offers some valuable lessons. The
primary reason for the failure was the lack of biomass energy market and top-down approach
of the programme which depended primarily on government support for finances,
administration and technology. The institutional structure, co-ordination system and
operational regime which should have been developed side by side with the programme did
not develop. An important lesson for the future would be to develop the biomass market.
Alternatively, the reliable feedstock supply must be ascertained through a strongly planned,
efficiently managed and dedicated biomass plantation system. Unless this happens, the
penetration of biomass based modern energy technologies shall remain limited.
2.1.3 Modern Biomass Energy in Other Asian Countries
Thailand. Biomass contributes a quarter of energy in Thailand. A third of biomass energy is

consumed in industry. Bagasse is used in sugar mills as a boiler feedstock (Panyatanya, 1997).
The policy of purchase of power from Small Power Producers - SSP announced in 1992 by
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) can be favourble to biomass electricity
producers (Verapong, 1997). The response on the SSP policy is still slow. A cogeneration
potential of 3100 MW biomass based power is identified in chemical, agroprocessing and
textile industries (Verapong, 1997).
Indonesia. Biomass provides over a third of energy in Indonesia. Forest area of 109 million
hectares covers sixty percent of Indonesia’s land mass. Besides, 9 million hectares of land is
under plantation. The wood waste from over a hundred plywood plants has potential to fuel
200 MW power. The saw mill waste is adequate to support another 800 MW. The recent
policy of facilitating the small scale private producers (30 MW) is expected to be beneficial
for biomass electricity applications. Although a large potential exists, cost of biomass energy
is not yet competitive (Martosudirjo, 1997) and penetration has remained marginal.
Malaysia has considerable biomass resource base. Nearly sixty percent land is under forests
and fifteen percent under cultivation. The forest and agriculture industry generate substantial
quantities of wastes and residues which are available cheaply. Wood briquettes from saw dust
has grown around domestic and export demand. Palm oil industry is a major source of
residues. Another vast biomass source is rice husk. In 1995, there were 328 rice mills
producing 430 thousand tons of rice husk (Ang, 1997). Several fishmeal manufacturers use
rice husk for drying. Cogeneration systems (350 KW size) using rice husk are established in
three rice mills. Seven demonstration plants for cogeneration and efficient biomass
combustion are being promoted under EC-ASEAN COGEN Programme (Ang, 1997).
Bangladesh. Biomass supplies a three quarters of energy in Bangladesh. Most biomass is used
in residential and traditional manufacturing and service sectors. Although substantial potential
exists, the modern biomass technologies for electricity generation are yet to penetrate (Rauf
and Khan, 1997) the electricity market.
Vietnam. Biomass provides over half the energy in Vietnam. Recent estimates (Hahn and
Hung, 1997) indicate even higher share of biomass in national energy balance (60% - 65%)
and in rural energy balance (70% - 80%). Biogas plants were introduced in mid-1980’s, but
penetration is slow. Nearly 3000 small biogas plants exist at present, which are used for
cooking, lighting and fuel for small engines. Nationally, two major focal areas identified for
biomass energy are the improvement in energy efficiency of traditional wood stoves used for
domestic cooking and improvement or substitution of wood burning boilers used in
processing industries (Hahn and Hung, 1997).
Myanmar. Biomass has been the primary energy source for domestic cooking and rural
industries in Myanmar. Modern biomass technologies are only recently promoted.
Privatization and anti-pollution initiatives by the government have created favorable
conditions for modern biomass energy applications. The programme for efficient use of
biomass resources is jointly implemented by private and government organizations.
Briquetting of wood chips and agriculture residues is carried out in private and government
owned factories (Swe, 1997). Lately, attention is paid to the gasification and liquid fuels
technologies. A 50 KW gasifier using rice husk is developed under Science and Technology
Ministry (Aung, 1997). However, modern biomass technologies have not yet entered the
energy market in Myanmar.
3. BIOMASS IN INDIA - HISTORY AND STATUS
Biomass contributes over a third of primary energy in India. Biomass fuels are predominantly
used in rural households for cooking and water heating, as well as by traditional and artisan
industries. Biomass delivers most energy for the domestic use (rural - 90% and urban - 40%)
in India (NCAER, 1992). Wood fuels contribute 56 percent of total biomass energy (Sinha et.
al, 1994). Consumption of wood has grown annually at 2 percent rate over past two decades
(FAO, 1981; FAO, 1986; FAO, 1996).
Estimates of biomass consumption remain highly variable (Ravindranath and Hall, 1995;
Joshi et. al., 1992) since most biomass is not transacted on the market. Supply-side estimates
(Ravindranath and Hall, 1995) of biomass energy are reported as: fuelwood for domestic
sector- 218.5 million tons (dry), crop residue- 96 million tons (estimate for 1985), and cattle
dung cake- 37 million tons. A recent study (Rai and Chakrabarti, 1996) estimates demand in
India for fuelwood at 201 million tons (Table 4). Supply of biomass is primarily from fuels
that are home grown or collected by households for own needs. The Government sponsored
social forestry programme has added to fuel-wood supply to the tune of 40 million tons
annually (Ravindranath and Hall, 1995).
Table 4: Fuelwood Demand in India in 1996
Consumption of Fuelwood Million Tons
1. Household
(a) Forested Rural 78
(b) Non Forested Rural 74
(c) Urban Areas 10
Sub Total 162
2. Cottage Industry 25
3. Rituals 4
4. Hotels etc. 10
Total 201
Source: Rai and Chakrabarti, 1996
3.1 Non-Energy Use of Wood in India
Wood is a widely used material in India for variety of non-energy uses ranging from
construction, furniture, paper making and artisan products. Consumption of wood for non-
energy purposes has grown at a rate over 2.5 percent annually (Figure 5) during past two
decades. During next four decades, non-energy use of wood is expected to grow at 3 percent
annually (Figure 5).
3.2 Biomass Energy Policies and Programmes in India
India has a long history of energy planning and programme interventions. Programs for
promoting biogas and improved cook-stoves began as early as in 1940’s. Afforestation and
rural electrification programmes are pursued since 1950’s. A decade before the oil crisis of
1973, India appointed the Energy Survey Committee. The national biomass policy originated
later, in the decade of 1970’s, as a component of rural and renewable energy policies.
3.2.1 Biomass Policy as a Response to Rural Energy Crisis and Oil Imports
Rural energy crisis manifested in India during the mid-1970s decade contributed by four
factors - i) increased oil price, ii) rising rural household energy demand (following the
population growth), iii) trading of wood in rural areas and urban peripheries to meet demand
of growing industries like brick making and services like highway restaurants in the wake of
sustained shortages of commercial energy, and iv) over exploitation of common property
biomass resources. The crisis called for a national policy response to find economically viable
and sustainable energy resources to meet growing rural energy needs.
A short term response resorted to was of importing kerosene and LPG to meet cooking needs
and diesel for irrigation pumping. India's oil imports rose rapidly during 1970’s with kerosene
and diesel contributing most to the rising oil imports bill. Share of oil in imports, which was 8
percent in 1970, increased to 24 percent in 1975 and 46 percent in 1980 (Shukla, 1997). In
following decade, oil imports became the major cause of growing trade deficit and balance of
payment crisis. The oil import was neither a viable solution at micro economy level. A vast
section of poor households had little disposable income to buy commercial fuels. To
ameliorate increasing oil import burden and to diffuse the deepening rural energy crisis,
programmes for promoting renewable energy technologies (RETs) were initiated in late
1970s. Biomass, being a local, widely accessible and renewable resource, was potentially the
most suitable to alleviate macro and micro concerns raised by the rural energy crisis.
Biomass policies followed a multi-pronged strategy: i) improving efficiency of the traditional

biomass use (e.g. improved cook-stove programme), ii) improving the supply of biomass (e.g.
social forestry, wasteland development), iii) technologies for improving the quality of biomass
use (e.g. biogas, improved cook-stoves), iv) introduction of biomass based technologies
(wood gasifiers for irrigation, biomass electricity generation) to deliver services provided by
conventional energy sources, and v) establishing institutional support for programme
formulation and implementation. The institutional response resulted in establishment of
DNES (Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources) in 1982 and state level nodal
energy agencies during the early 1980s decade.
3.2.2 Early Policy Perspective: Push Strategy
The RETs programmes received a greater support with the establishment of the Department of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982. The DNES since inception had
emphasized the decentralized and direct use renewable technologies. The renewable energy
sources were then viewed primarily as the solution to rural and remote area energy needs, in
locations and applications where the conventional technology was unavailable. In other words,
RETs were never viewed as viable competitive options. Direct subsidy to the user remained a
major element of the REP. The programme orientation remained supply dominated. The RET
projects were pushed by the government. The biogas and improved cook-stove programmes
achieved moderate successes in penetrating rural households, although their overall impact
remained marginal. The alleviation of DNES in 1992 to a full fledged ministry, MNES
(Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources), led to the enhanced status of RET
programmes.
Since India has a large livestock population, animal dung is available to rural households as a
feedstock for biogas plants. During past two decades, under the push of rural development and
non-conventional energy programmes, efficient technologies for household energy use such as
improved cook-stoves (22.5 million), family sized biogas plants of 2 to 4 cubic meter per day
capacity (2.4 million) and community biogas plants (1623) have been added (till March 1996)
to the technology stock (CMIE, 1996). Although, the biogas and improved cook-stove
programmes have been moderately successful, their overall impact on rural energy remains
marginal (Ramana et al, 1997). Two deficiencies in policy perspectives contributed to the
slow progress in the penetration of biomass technology. Firstly, the biomass was viewed
solely as a traditional fuel for meeting rural energy needs. Secondly, the policies primarily
focused on the supply-side push. Market instruments had little role in biomass policies.
3.2.3 Perspective Shift: Augmenting with Market Pull Policies
It was increasingly realized that a limiting factor to the success of programmes were the
restrictive perception of biomass as a traditional fuel for meeting rural energy needs and focus
on the supply-side push. Since energy markets were non-existent or weak in rural areas, the
traditional approach did not consider any role for market in promoting biomass supply or
efficient use. Since early 1990s, the policy shift towards market oriented economic reforms by
the Government of India has shifted the perspective towards allowing a greater role by market
forces. The policy shift is characterized by: i) higher emphasis on market based instruments
compared to regulatory controls, ii) reorientation from technology push to market pull, and iii)
enhanced role of private sector.
Under the old perspective, biomass was viewed as a non-commercial rural resource (a poor
man's fuel), the use of which had to be improved through a push by government programmes.
The new perspective views biomass as a competitive energy resource which can be pulled
through energy markets. Under this view, government’s role is not to push programmes but to
enact policies which internalize social benefits and costs of competing fuels. The new policy
perspective has shifted the thrust of biomass policies towards incentives and institutional
support for modern applications such as bagasse based co-generation, improved biomass
combustion technologies, biomass densification, charcoal making and decentralized electricity
generation.
3.3 Programmes for Modern Biomass Technology
Since over a decades, modern biomass technologies for thermal, motive power and electricity
generation applications are promoted. Notable achievements are made in biomass gasifier
technology. Recent programmes have tended to focus on the biomass electricity generation
technologies.
3.3.1 Biomass Gasifier Technologies
Biomass gasifier technology for small scale motive power and electricity generation was
promoted in mid-1980’s with an aim to develop and commercialize 5 horsepower (3.7 KW)
engines for irrigation. Gasifier engines have been used also for village electrification and for
captive power generation in oil extraction, saw mill, chemical units. Small gasifier technology
for process heat has found applications in plywood, tea processing, coconut and rice mills.
The gasifiers in these applications have penetrated where cheap processing waste, such as in
rice mills and plywood units, is available as a feed-stock. In motive power applications,
gasifier system replaces diesel whereas in process heat applications it replaces coal or fuel oil.
The wood gasifier engines are commercially available for water pumping (5 to 10 horse
power) and power generation (3 to 100 KW). Seven manufacturers are marketing gasifiers for
different applications viz. mechanical, thermal and power generation. Over 1600 gasifier
systems are installed. The 16 MW capacity installed has generated 42 million Kilo Watt hour
(KWh) of electricity and replacing 8.8 million litres of oil annually (CMIE, 1996).
Twelve small sized gasifier models, ranging from 3.5 to 100 KW, are developed for different
applications. Large sized gasifier based power technologies are at R&D and pilot
demonstration stage. Besides wood, the programme aims to utilize some of the 350 million
tons of agricultural and agro-industrial residues produced annually. Biomass power
programme thrust is now on the grid connected megawatt scale power generation with
multiple biomass materials such as rice straw, rice husk, bagasse, wood waste, wood, wild
bushes and paper mill waste. Power generation potential from biomass gasification is
estimated at 17000 MW (MNES, 1993a) and another 3500 MW (MNES, 1993b) using
sugarcane residues. Nearly 55 MW of grid connected biomass power capacity is
commissioned and another 90 MW capacity is under construction. Enhanced scale has
improved both the economics and technology of biomass power generation. The technology
has improved lately to global standards with the Indian companies entering into joint ventures
with leading international manufacturers of turbines and electronic governors.
Despite moderate success of gasifier programme, it is a matter of concern that a quarter of the
gasifiers installed are not in use. The primary reason for this failure is the distortion in capital
cost of gasifier caused by the subsidy. In many cases, gasifier purchases were made to obtain a
diesel pump-set at lower cost (Ramana and Sinha, 1995) since at prevailing subsidy level a
dual fuel mode gasifier (gasifier coupled with the diesel system) costed less than the diesel set.
Besides, the technological problems resulting in low utilization (less than 500 operational
hours) persist due to multiple causes like the shortage of wood and substitution of wood for
other uses. Technology R&D and reliable biomass supply are thus the key issues which still
need to be sorted out.
3.3.2 R&D and Pilot Project Experiences with Biomass Technologies
Four gasifier Action Research Centers (ARCs) are supported at different national institutions.
Twelve gasifier models, ranging from 3.5 to 100 KW, have been developed at ARCs for
different applications. The large sized biomass power technologies are at R&D and pilot
demonstration stage. Two co-generation projects (3 MW surplus power capacity) in sugar
mills and one rice paddy straw based power project (10 MW) were commissioned. Co-
generation projects are being successfully operated. The 10 MW rice straw based power
project owned and operated by the Punjab State Electricity Board was completed in 1992.
Immediately after commissioning it first ran into technological problems (ash slogging
causing problems with clean combustion of straw) and later operational (inadequate
availability of straw of right size due to recently introduced mechanical harvesting) problems.
Although the ash slogging problem was solved through modification of boiler by the BHEL,
the plant has been closed since last two years due to want of suitable raw material.
A rice husk based co-generation plant of 10.5 MW capacity was installed by a private rice
processing firm in Punjab. The project had cost and time overruns due to import of turbine
and unavailability of some critical spares (Ravindranath and Hall, 1995). After commissioning
in March 1991, the plant faced problems of receiving economic price from the state utility
despite power shortage in the state. The rapid escalation in the price of rice husk and low
capacity utilization added to the cost making the operation uneconomical. Reputed
engineering firm, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) has carried out extensive trials to
determine the combustion characteristics of variety of biomass materials. Several other boiler
manufacturers in India have acquired the experience in designing boilers for biomass
applications.
3.3.3 Large Scale Electricity Generation
The thrust of biomass power programme now is on the grid connected megawatt scale power
generation using variety of biomass materials such as rice straw, rice husk, bagasse, wood
waste, wood, wild bushes and paper mill waste. Policies for realizing biomass electric power
potential through modern technologies under competitive dynamics has a recent origin. The
biomass electricity programme took shape after MNES appointed the task force in 1993 and
recommended the thrust on bagasse based co-generation. The focus of modern biomass
programme is on the cogeneration, especially in sugar industry. A cogeneration potential of
17,000 MW power is identified, with 6000 MW in sugar industry alone (Rajan, 1995). The
National Programme on Bagasse based Co-generation, launched in 1994, provides for
subsidies for demonstration projects, support for R&D activities, support for training,
awareness activities, and publicity. Programme was modified in August 1995 and
subsequently in September 1996 to attract sugar mills in the co-operative and public sector.
The important features of the programme are:
• Demonstration scheme which provides a subsidy up to Rs. 60 million per project for 12
projects. The co-operative and public sector units are offered additional benefits of 20
million per Mega Watt (MW) of surplus power comprising of subsidies and soft loans.
• Interest subsidy Scheme which provides grants up to Rs. 3.5 million per MW of surplus
power to financial institutions for them to reduce the interest rates on loans.
• Support to R&D Projects which contribute to enhancement of power potential.
• Indirect Programmes, like awareness activities such as seminars and business meets in
sugar producing centers funded and run by MNES, technical support like making available
services of international experts and organizing interaction meetings among the
stakeholders like state governments, utilities, financial institutions, manufacturers,
consultants and project parties.
• International support such as i) $ 12.5 million USAID/GEF project for promotion of
alternative biomass use in co-generation using off-season and ii) an ADB line of credit of
$ 100 million.
Programme has strengthened the institutional support and co-ordination among sugar industry,
utilities, co-generation equipment manufacturers and financial institutions. A 42 MW surplus
power capacity was installed in sugar mills from 1994 to 1996. Projects over 250 MW
capacity are under implementation and planning (Gupta, 1997).
Programme for biomass combustion based power has even more recent origin. It began in late
1994 as a Pilot Programme launched with approval of two 5 MW projects. Interest subsidy
programmes on the lines of that for the bagasse based co-generation was extended in 1995.
The programme also initiated a grid connected biomass gasification R&D-cum-Demonstration
project of 500 Kilo Watt (KW) capacity. A decentralized electricity generation programme
initiated in 1995 provided support for total of 10 to 15 MW of small decentralized projects
aimed at energy self sufficiency in electricity deficient rural locales. The programme aims to
utilize some of the 350 million tons of agricultural and agro-industrial residues produced
annually in India. The cost of electricity generation from these plants are anticipated to be
quite competitive at 5 cents per KWh.
3.3.4 Biomass Production Technology
Guaranteeing biomass supply at competitive costs require highly efficient biomass production
system. Supply of biomass waste materials is limited by the extent of activities producing the
waste. Modern biomass energy applications would require the supply to be driven by the
dynamics of energy market. Guaranteeing biomass supply at competitive costs would require
highly productive biomass system. Productivity of crops and trees depend critically on
agroclimatic factors. To enhance biomass productivity, the Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy is supporting nine Biomass Research Centers (BRCs) in nine (of the fourteen)
different agroclimatic zones with an aim to develop packages of practices of fast growing,
high yielding and short rotation (5-6 years) fuelwood tree species for the degraded waste lands
in these zones. Some centers are in existence for over a decade. Packages of practices for 36
promising species are prepared. Biomass yield of up to 36.8 tons per hectare per year is
reported (Chaturvedi, 1993) from some promising fuel-wood species.
Although the packages of forestry practice are developed, the knowledge is yet limited within
the research circles. As a result, the benefit of the research remains to be realized. The mean
productivity of farm forestry nationally remains very low at 4.2 tons per hectare per year
(Ravindranath and Hall, 1995). Exploitation of bioenergy potential is vitally linked to the
adequate land supply. While the use of cultivable crop land for fuel remains controversial
under the "food versus fuel" debate, there exists a vast supply of degraded land which is
available cheaply for fuel-wood plantations. The estimates of degraded land vary from 66
million hectares (Ministry of Agriculture, 1992) to 130 million hectares (SPDW, 1984). With
improved biomass productivity and efficient energy conversion, it is feasible to sustain a
significant share of biomass in total energy use in India by utilizing even a small fraction of
this degraded land for biomass plantation.
3.3.5 Future Biomass Energy Programmes
The ninth five year plan (1997-2002) proposes an ambitious biomass programme. In addition
to the existing nine biomass research centers, five new centers are proposed to cover all
fourteen agroclimatic zones. In addition to the four existing Gasifier Action Research Centers,
an International Centre for Biomass Production and Conversion Technologies is proposed.
Besides R&D, the centre shall offer technical assistance and training globally. The major
biomass related rural energy proposals include gasifier demonstration programme for higher
capacity (100 KW) systems for captive use, fiscal and financial incentives for biomass
briquetting with a view to enhance supply of briquettes to replace coal and oil and a village
electrification pilot project by MNES through biomass gasifiers and biogas in an unelectrified
remote village and coverage of 200 villages under biomass electrification during the ninth
plan period.
Proposals for biomass based power generation are relatively more ambitious. It is targeted to
set up 500 MW biomass power capacity during the plan period. Significant allocations are
proposed for R&D activities (Rs. 770 million) and technical assistance and publicity support
(Rs. 90 million). It is also proposed to estimate the biomass potential in different locations in
India to guide the technology promotion effort.
4. MODERN BIOMASS ENERGY APPLICATIONS
There is a limited and yet growing experience of biomass energy projects in India.
Applications of biomass energy have been in diverse areas such as process heat for drying in
agroprocessing industry, electrification in village and megawatt scale grid interactive systems.
A few selected case studies from these applications are described below.
4.1 Biomass Gasifier for Drying
Universal Starch Chem-Allied Ltd., a private firm, installed a 500 KWh (1.25 GCal/hr) wood
gasifier system in Maharashtra State for Gluten drying in August, 1996. Gasifier unit was
manufactured by an Indian Company under the demonstration programme of MNES. It
replaced the drying system consuming 135 litres of light diesel oil per hour. The gasifier
system costing Rs. 1.9 million ($53,000) , including Rs. 0.3 million subsidy, consumes 400
kilograms of wood at capacity operation. The pay-back period for the system is estimated to
be below four years. The gasifier system is attributed with an added benefit of achieving better
color of the product.
Coonoor, a tea growing area in Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu state, has two thousand small, medium
and large tea estates. Tea drying is normally done either by indirect air heating through ducts
using combustion furnaces of firewood or coal, or by natural gas using direct combustion and
subsequent dilution of the air to the desired temperature level for drying (120 to 130oC). The
latter process is common in Darjeeling and Assam tea regions where natural gas is available.
In Coonoor, natural gas is not available. Firewood or coal are used for energy for tea drying.
In late 1996, M/s. Gur Tea Factory at Coonoor installed a 100 KWh (250 Mcal/hr) gasifier
and blower system (retrofitted with dryer) for tea drying with the producer gas at a cost of Rs.
3.1 million ($ 88,000). To dry tea to 15% moisture, the gasifier system uses 0.3 kg of wood
per kilo gram of dried tea (3% moisture) compared to 2 to 3 kg of wood for combustion
process. Quality of gasifier dried tea is found to be better since cuppage and other marketable
features of tea are enhanced.
4.2 Village Electrification
Hosahalli, a small non-electrified village of 42 households (population over 200), is located

110 Km. from Bangalore, in Southern India. In 1988, a two hectares energy plantation and a
government supported gasifier cum diesel generation (5 KW) demonstration project was
initiated to supply electricity services like water pumping, lighting and flour mill (Woods and
Hall, 1994). The project investment was Rs. 350,000 ($20,000). The engine was modified to
operate with diesel or wood gas to ensure reliable service. Gasifier system, managed by
trained local personnel, saved 67 % diesel. Economic tariffs for electricity and water are
decided locally. Electricity is generated primarily during evening hours. Delivered electricity
cost comes to 14 cents with 4 hours of daily operation.
Gosaba is an unelectrified remote island village with a population of 16,000 located in Eastern
part of India. It is approachable only by boat/barges. Abundant biomass potential exists in the
region. Electricity can change development pattern in the region through improved
productivity of agriculture (irrigation and dewatering of low lying areas), development of
agriculture based industries, and preservation of fish for transportation to mainland. A 1000
hectares land in a state owned forest near the village is developed for dedicated energy
plantation. A quarter of the plantation yield is presently committed for local consumption and
remaining is sold elsewhere at a price of Rs. 300-400 per ton ($ 0.5 to $0.66/GJ). A 500 KW
(5x100 KW) gasifier project is financed by the government and has become operational
recently. The state forest department shall supply wood till the energy plantation operated by
local community is ready. The project is estimated to generate electricity at Rs. 2 per KWh
(5.6 cents per KWh).
4.3 Grid Interactive Systems
Grid interaction is planned for megawatt scale power systems. Kutch, a desert district in the
State of Gujarat, is less developed and has erratic climate with long duration dry spells. There
is little industrialization. Electricity supply can change the development pattern in the region.
In 1987, MNES supported energy plantation on 1000 hectares of wasteland. The plantation
completed in 1990 is estimated to yield over 8 tons/ha/year wood in very difficult soil
condition and inadequate irrigation. In 1995, a project for installation of 500 KW
grid-interactive gasifier- cum-diesel electricity generation was taken up near energy plantation
site. The project, to be commissioned later this year, is expected to generate electricity at Rs.
2.25 per KWh (6.3 cents per KWh). Capacity will be expanded later by adding new gasifier
units since plantation is adequate to support 4 MW power system
5. COMPETITIVENESS OF BIOMASS ELECTRICITY
Biomass power technologies compete in niche applications as well as in direct competition

with conventional electricity sources in centralized electricity supply. In large scale grid based
applications, cost is the primary determinant of competitiveness. In India, the principal coal
power is the competing electricity technology. The present cost and other characteristics of
biomass and coal technologies are assumed as in Table 5. Price of coal is assumed to be
$1.5/GJ and base price for biomass energy as $2/GJ. Biomass technologies are considered in
three generic sizes - 100 KW, 1 MW and 50 MW. The standard coal power technology has
500 MW scale. Cost of capital (i.e. annual rate of interest on investment) is presumed to be 10
percent.
Biomass energy cost is highly variable, depending upon the source, location etc. In U.S.A., the
delivered cost of wood chip of $56.36/ ton (1990$) from a poplar plantation (Hall, 1991)
converts to a price equivalent of $2.9/GJ. The cost of short rotation woody crop has been
estimated (Hall, 1991) to range between $3 to $4.1/GJ (1985$). For village plantation in
developing countries, lower energy costs are possible due to low cost of land and labor. For
instance, the biomass energy cost of $0.85/GJ is reported for village plantation in India
(IPCC, 1996b). Cost of waste materials are even much lower. In this analysis, we consider
biomass price to range between $0.5/GJ to $4/GJ, with a base cost of $2/GJ which is the
expected cost of biomass in OECD countries as per some recent studies (IPCC, 1996b).
Table 5: Technology Characteristics
Biomass Power Biomass Power Biomass Power Coal Power

100 KW 1 MW 50 MW 500 MW
Life (Years) 20 25 30 30
Hours of Operation per Year 4000 5000 6000 6000
Capital Cost ($ million / MW) 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2
Fixed O&M Cost ($ 000/ MW) 12 10 8 9
Variable O&M Cost 0.45 0.3 0.2 0.15
*
(cents/KWh)
T & D Cost ($ million / MW) 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.6
T & D Loss (%) 5 10 15 15
* Excludes Fuel Cost
5.1 Cost of Electricity from Biomass Power Plants
The costs of electricity generation of coal and biomass technologies, for varying prices of
biomass energy, are shown in Figure 6. Electricity cost is sensitive to the scale of technology
as well as price of biomass energy. Generation cost for a 50 MW plant using cheap biomass
waste (at price of $1/GJ) can be 3.85 cents/KWh. For a higher price of $2/GJ, the generation
cost comes to 4.9 cents/KWh and rises to 7 cents/KWh for energy price of $4/GJ. In
comparison, coal power costs 4.2 cents/KWh. For small sized biomass plant (100 KW), the
electricity cost exceeds 10 cents/KWh with high priced biomass. Except in niche applications
such as in remote areas where centralized electricity can not reach, the combination of small
sized technology with high priced biomass is unlikely to compete.
A vital factor affecting electricity generation cost is the utilization rate. Figure 7 shows the
sensitivity of electricity generation cost to the utilization for a 50 MW biomass power plant.
For annual operation below 4000 hours, the costs rises very rapidly. Competitive dynamics
would thus require annual utilization beyond 6000 hours. As is evident from Figure 7, annual
utilization higher than 3000 hours is more critical for controlling electricity generation cost
than the cost of biomass.
5.2 Competitiveness vis-à-vis Coal Thermal Power Plant
As is evident from Figure 6, the small sized biomass plants can not compete with coal plant
even if cheap biomass is available. Small biomass plants are suited to niche application where
centralized electricity is unavailable. They are not expected to compete with large scale
conventional power plants. Large scale biomass plant (50 MW) with biomass cost below
$1.3/GJ has lower electricity cost compared to coal plant. We have presumed the base price
for coal to be $1.5/GJ. The coal price also varies depending on the quality of mine and
distance from the mine. At locations where coal price is higher than assumed base price and
biomass energy is available cheaply, the biomass electricity can be competitive. Scale of
biomass plants is much lower at present compared to conventional fossil fuel plants. As the
gap in the scale narrows, the biomass electricity cost can be expected to decline.
Cogeneration applications in wood and agriculture processing industries typically achieve fuel
efficiency of 40 to 45% compared to 30% efficiency of the conventional technologies. In
applications where cogeneration is feasible and low cost biomass energy is available, such as
in pulp and paper and sugar industries, even a 1 MW biomass plant operating at 5000 hours
can be competitive vis-à-vis large scale coal power plant.
5.3 Social and Environmental Externalities of Power Generation
Associated with conventional electric power plants are some negative social and
environmental externalities. Throughout the coal and nuclear fuel cycles, there are significant
environmental and social damages. Contrarily, biomass energy offers positive environmental
and social benefits. Biomass plantation is often a best way to reclaim degraded lands and to
generate sizable employment (Miller et al., 1986). Fossil fuel plant operations pose local,
regional as well as global hazards. Biomass combustion also emits pollutants, however
aggregate damage during the fuel cycle is mush less compared to fossil or nuclear fuel cycle
(Sorensen, 1997). Governments in countries like Sweden and Denmark have now
implemented measures to internalize the externalities (Hilring, 1997) from conventional fuel
use. Biomass offers most promising future carbon mitigation options.
A fair competition needs policies which internalize the social and environmental externalities
of competing sources. Coal electricity generation is associated with two negative externalities
- namely CO2 and SO2 emissions. Typical coal used in Indian power plants costs $1.5/GJ and
emit 3.2 tons of carbon per tera joule (tC/TJ) and 0.1 tons of sulfur dioxide per TJ. Estimates
of carbon tax for stabilizing emissions in 2010 at 1990 level are highly variable. Comparative
assessment of different models in the U.S.A. by Energy Modelling Forum indicates a range of
$20 to 150 (EMF, 1993). In developing countries, lower marginal costs for carbon mitigation
are reported (UNEP, 1993; Shukla, 1995; IPCC, 1996b). We consider two tax scenarios - i)
high tax scenario with $50 per ton of carbon tax and $400 per ton of sulfur dioxide tax, and ii)
low tax scenario with $25 per ton of carbon tax and $200 per ton of sulfur dioxide tax. The
low and high tax ranges translate respectively into $1/GJ and $2/GJ tax on coal energy.
Implications of these taxes on the electricity generation cost of Coal Thermal Power Station
(500 MW) using coal with a base price of $1.5/GJ are shown in Figure 8. With no
environmental taxes, electricity from coal power plant is cheaper than biomass power plant for
biomass price above 1.3$/GJ. With low environmental taxes, cost of electricity from biomass
power plant is lower than coal plant for biomass price below $2.6/GJ. With high taxes,
biomass electricity is cheaper below the biomass price of 3.7$/GJ. Electricity generation cost
for coal plant increases by 1.2 cents/KWh under low tax case and by 2.4 cents/KWh under
high tax case. The cost of delivered electricity under the low tax and high tax cases for coal
power increases by 1.4 and 2.8 cents/KWh respectively. This analysis suggests that under a
fair competition, i.e. when externalities from fossil fuels are internalized, biomass power can
be competitive vis-à-vis conventional coal power plants.
6. FUTURE OF BIOMASS ENERGY
Biomass use is growing globally. Despite advancement of biomass energy technologies, most
bioenergy consumption in developing countries remains confined to traditional uses. Growing
concerns about global climate change and awareness for sustainable development have
renewed interest in renewable energy resources. Biomass is a viable renewable energy
resource, as indicated by the Renewables-Intensive Global Energy Scenario (RIGES) designed
to explore the outlook for renewable energy in the global context (Johansson et al., 1993b). In
RIGES, biomass power emerges as a competitive option vis-à-vis coal “under a wide range of
circumstances” (Johansson et al., 1993b). Most biomass is used for electricity generation and
for fluid fuels and replaces fossil fuels. Biomass electricity provides 17 percent of power
globally in the period 2025 to 2050. Nearly half of biomass electricity generation in
developing countries comes from sugar cane bagasse based co-generation. Plantations based
power systems also have a large share. Even under stringent assumptions which restricted
biomass plantations on excess agriculture lands in industrialized nations and on deforested
and degraded lands in developing countries, primary biomass energy supply amounts to 145
exajoules in 2025 and 206 exajoules in 2050. For comparison, the global energy use in 1985
was of 323 exajoules. Another important exercise on future energy systems carried out by
Response Strategy Working Group (RSWG) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC, 1991) with Accelerated Policy (AP) scenario also makes similar projections
for biomass consumption in future.
The low CO2 energy supply system (LESS), constructed as “thought experiment” to explore
the plausible energy futures with low CO2 emissions also show high penetration of biomass
energy (Johansson et al., 1996; IPCC, 1996a) in such versatile forms as electricity, hydrogen
from derivation by thermochemical process using biomass and liquid fuels (synfuels). Under
the biomass intensive (BI) variant of the LESS scenario, biomass provides a sixth of global
electricity during 2025 to 2050 and a quarter of global electricity during 2075 to 2100 (IPCC,
1996a).
Least costly liquid fuels from renewable sources are ethanol and methanol derived from
biomass which have the potential to be competitive vis-à-vis refined oil products in
transportation sector. In RIGES, biomass derived methanol provides 45 exajoules energy in
2025 and 61 exajoules in 2050 representing 37 and 50 percent of global liquid fuel demand,
respectively (Johansson et al., 1993b). Biomass derived hydrogen is produced at a level of 16
exajoules in 2025 and 25 exajoules in 2050 representing 12 percent and 20 percent of gaseous
fuel demand, respectively (Johansson et al., 1993b). The future energy scenarios thus show
considerable potential for the penetration of modern biomass fuels.
6.1 Future of Biomass in India
In India, like in most developing countries, most biomass use remains confined to traditional
and rural sectors. A primary reason for the inefficient use of biomass in developing countries
is lack of market for biomass energy. Biomass fuels therefore acquire little or no monetary
value. As these are collected by family labor which has little or no alternate employment
opportunity (Mahadevia and Shukla, 1996) these are treated as free resources as long as they
are not are not scarce. Exploitation of abundant biomass resources from common lands
sustained the traditional biomass consumption since millennia. Increasing pressure from
growing population, increasing energy needs from rural industry and commerce and
penetration of logistics infrastructure into remote biomass rich areas have led to unsustainable
use of biomass.
A key factor that can influence future of biomass energy is development of market for
biomass energy resources and services. Growing experience of modern biomass technologies
in India suggests that push type of policies need to be substituted or augmented by market pull
policies. Biomass systems are still less competitive due to high cost of delivered energy and
low reliability. In niche applications, such as electricity in remote areas and process heat and
power generation in agro and wood processing industries, biomass energy systems enjoy
inherent competitive advantages.
A primary policy lacuna hampering the growth of biomass energy is the implicit
environmental subsidy allowed to fossil fuels. Increasing realization among policy makers
about positive externalities of biomass created conditions for biomass to make inroads into
energy market. Biomass has potential to penetrate in three segments - i) process heat
applications in industries generating biomass waste, ii) cooking energy in domestic and
commercial sectors (through charcoal and briquettes), and iii) electricity generation.
Economic reforms have opened the doors for competition in energy and electricity sectors in
India. Long-term penetration of biomass energy in industry and power sectors shall depend on
the cost of delivered energy as well as reliability of technologies. Future of biomass energy
lies in its use with modern technologies.
Following analysis presumes competitive dynamics in energy and electric power markets. The
analysis is performed using the Indian-MARKAL model (Shukla, 1996b; Loulou et al., 1997)
set up for the next forty years (1995-2035). Under a competitive economic environment,
different energy and electric power technologies compete and penetrate in suitable segments.
At present, conventional energy technologies enjoy unfair advantage to the extent their
negative externalities are not internalized. Under a fair competitive regime, these externalities
shall be internalized. We consider five scenarios:
1. Reference Scenario, a business-as-usual type scenario in which externalities are not

internalized,
2. 10 % Mitigation Scenario Policy scenario where externalities of fossils fuels are
internalized by imposing mitigation target of 10 percent on cumulative carbon emissions
from India,
3. 20 % Mitigation Scenario Policy scenario where externalities of fossils fuels are
internalized by imposing mitigation target of 20 percent on cumulative carbon emissions
from India,
4. Low Natural Gas Price Scenario which presumes (after 2005) lower price trajectory than
expected in Reference Scenario by 25 percent,
5. High Natural Gas Price Scenario which presumes (after 2005) higher price trajectory than
expected in Reference Scenario by 25 percent,
6. High Natural Gas Price and 20% Mitigation Scenario which presumes (after 2005) higher
price trajectory than expected in Reference Scenario by 25 percent and mitigation target of
20 percent on cumulative carbon emissions from India.
Penetration of biomass energy under these scenarios is shown in Figure 9. Under reference
scenario, biomass consumption grows moderately by half percent annual rate over next four
decades. Variation in natural gas price shall make little impact on biomass consumption since
natural gas can be substituted by coal. Carbon mitigation targets however have a greater
impact on biomass consumption since marginal cost of mitigation acts to change relative
prices of fossil fuels and makes all fossil fuels less competitive vis-à-vis biomass. During next
four decades, under 20% mitigation target, biomass energy consumption increases by eighty
percent and doubles if gas price is also high.
Biomass energy use in industry and electricity sectors is marginal at present. Brick industry is
the only major consumer of biomass. Under Reference Scenario, this biomass energy use in
industry and electricity sectors increases ten fold in next forty years to over 1 exa joule (Figure
10). Agriculture waste and bagasse are expected to contribute to more than half the biomass
consumed in these sectors in 2035. Biomass consumption in these sectors rises significantly
under carbon mitigation scenarios and shall reach 4 exa joules under high gas price and 20%
carbon mitigation scenario (Figure 11). Biomass electricity generation capacity which was
negligible in 1995 rises in the year 2035 to 12 GW in 2035 under reference scenario and to 60
GW under high gas price and 20% carbon mitigation scenario (Figure 12). Wood consumption
for energy use, which is 3.8 exa joules at present, is expected to rise at less than half a percent
rate in Reference case during next four decades. Under mitigation scenarios, wood
consumption grows rapidly, most of additional demand arises from industry and electricity
sectors. Under 20% carbon mitigation scenarios with high gas price, wood consumption
increases substantially and reaches 7.8 exa joules in the year 2035 (Figure 13). This amount of
wood energy shall require 80 million hectares of land (6 tons/ha/year productivity and 16.5
GJ/ton heat value for wood), i.e. nearly a quarter of India’s land mass.
7. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
Future of biomass energy depends on providing reliable energy services at competitive cost. In
India, this will happen only if biomass energy services can compete on a fair market. Policy
priorities should be to orient biomass energy services towards market and to reform the
market towards fair competition by internalizing the externalities of competing energy
resources. Most economical option is utilization of waste materials. Potential availability of
agro residues and wood processing waste in India can sustain 10,000 MW power. Biomass
waste however shall be inadequate to support the growing demands for biomass resources.
Sustained supply of biomass shall require production of energy crops (e.g. wood fuel
plantations, sugar cane as feedstock for ethanol) and wood plantations for meeting growing
non-energy needs. Land supply, enhanced biomass productivity, economic operations of
plantations and logistics infrastructure are critical areas which shall determine future of
biomass in India. Policy support for a transition towards a biomass based civilization in India
should consider the following:
Short-term Policies (1 to 5 years): i) enhanced utilization of crop residues and wood waste, ii)
information dissemination, iii) niche applications (e.g. remote and biomass rich locations), iv)
technology transfer (e.g. high pressure boiler), v) co-ordination among institutions, vi)
demonstration projects, vii) participation of private sector, community and NGOs, viii) waste
land development, and ix) subsidy to biomass technologies to balance the implicit subsidies to
fossil fuels.
Medium Term (5 to 20 years): i) R&D of conversion technologies, ii) species research to

Match agroclimatic conditions, iii) biomass Plantation, iv) scale economy based technologies,
v) Local Institutional Developments, and vi) removal of distortions in fossil energy tariffs.
Long term (over 20 years): i) Infrastructure (logistics, T&D), ii) multiple biomass energy
products (e.g. gas, liquid, electricity), iii) institutions and policies for competitive biomass
energy service market, and iv) land supply for biomass generation
As shown by long-term techno-economic analysis with MARKAL model, an efficient global

climate change regime will help significantly in promoting biomass technologies. A carbon
mitigation protocol requiring 20 percent reduction in cumulative emissions of next four
decades from India will result into a penetration of 50,000 MW power capacity (or 14 percent
of India's electricity generation) in 2035 (Figure 12) .
When social and environmental externalities from conventional fuels are internalized in the
electricity cost, cost of biomass power is competitive. Reliability of biomass power needs
improvement. Flexibility to accept a range of biomass fuels and higher efficiency such as with
biomass gasification technologies can further enhance competitiveness of biomass
technologies.
Experience of operating the modern biomass plantations and energy conversion technologies
is growing. The learning effects and the shared knowledge from innovations in conventional
technologies are rapidly enhancing the efficiency and reliability of biomass production
systems and conversion technologies. Although present penetrations of modern biomass
energy services is little, technological developments and policy reforms which propose to
eliminate energy subsidies and internalize externalities from fuel cycle is set to be
advantageous to biomass technologies. Realization of biomass potential shall help many
developing countries to make a smooth transition from the present inefficient biomass energy
use in traditional sectors to a competitive, commercial and efficient biomass energy use in the
future. This will reduce their energy import and conserve scarce finances for national
development.
The government policies in India during the next decade shall play decisive role in penetration
of biomass energy. Global climate change policies shall also have significant influence on
future of biomass. Myriad economic, social, technological and institutional barriers remain to
be overcome. Future of biomass technologies depends on will and ability to overcome these
barriers. A key issue before Indian policy makers is to develop a fair market for biomass
energy services.
Sustainable development and biomass civilization are congruent goals. Modern biomass
technologies have opened the prospects for transforming the energy system from the
exhaustible and polluting fossil fuels of the present to a sustainable energy system for the
future. Significant social and environmental benefits make biomass a deserving alternative
for support from governments committed to sustainable development. Governments have in
the past promoted new energy technologies like nuclear power in France (Johansson et al.,
1996), wind power in Denmark (Johansson et al., 1996) and India (Naidu, 1997), and ethanol
from sugarcane in Brazil (Goldemberg et al., 1993). The challenge is with the policy makers
to support this transformation to a biomass civilization on the road to sustainable global
development.
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BIOMASS ENERGY FUTURE FOR INDIA

Paper Presented in International Workshop

1.1. Shift from Traditional to Modern Biomass Energy

Table 1: Global Biomass Energy Consumption and Growth

Energy Consumption Per Capita

Biomass integrated gasifier/ combined cycle (BIG/CC) technology has potential to be

Petajoules % change since Per Capita % change since

2.1.1 Modern Biomass Energy in China

In early 1980’s, China initiated a nationwide programmes to disseminate improved cookstove

2.1.2 Philippines: The Dendrothermal Programme

2.1.3 Modern Biomass Energy in Other Asian Countries

Thailand. Biomass contributes a quarter of energy in Thailand. A third of biomass energy is

3.2 Biomass Energy Policies and Programmes in India

Biomass policies followed a multi-pronged strategy: i) improving efficiency of the traditional

3.2.2 Early Policy Perspective: Push Strategy

3.2.3 Perspective Shift: Augmenting with Market Pull Policies

3.3 Programmes for Modern Biomass Technology

3.3.1 Biomass Gasifier Technologies

3.3.2 R&D and Pilot Project Experiences with Biomass Technologies

3.3.4 Biomass Production Technology

3.3.5 Future Biomass Energy Programmes

4.1 Biomass Gasifier for Drying

Hosahalli, a small non-electrified village of 42 households (population over 200), is located

4.3 Grid Interactive Systems

5. COMPETITIVENESS OF BIOMASS ELECTRICITY

Biomass power technologies compete in niche applications as well as in direct competition

Biomass Power Biomass Power Biomass Power Coal Power

5.1 Cost of Electricity from Biomass Power Plants

5.2 Competitiveness vis-à-vis Coal Thermal Power Plant

5.3 Social and Environmental Externalities of Power Generation

6. FUTURE OF BIOMASS ENERGY

1. Reference Scenario, a business-as-usual type scenario in which externalities are not

7. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

Medium Term (5 to 20 years): i) R&D of conversion technologies, ii) species research to

As shown by long-term techno-economic analysis with MARKAL model, an efficient global

Ang, A (1997), Present Status of Biomass Energy Technologies in Malaysia, Presented in

Baofen, L and Xiangjun, Y (1997), Development and Utilization of Biomass in China,

Chaturvedi P. (1993). Bioenergy Production and Utilization in India- Expert Consultation on

Denton, F.H (1981), Dendro Thermal Plantations in Philippines, LIKAS~YAMAN - Journal of

Dixon R K, Brown S, Houghton, R A, Solomon A M, Trexler M C and Wisniewski J (1994),

ETSU/IER (1995), European Commission DGXII Joule II Programme ExternE Project

Grubler, A and Nakicenovic, N (1988), The Dynamic Evolution of Methane Technologies, in

Martosudirjo, S (1997), Biomass Waste Utilization for Energy in Indonesia, Presented in

Panyathanya, W (1997), Modern Industrial Biomass Technology in Thailand, Presented in

Verapong, P (1997), Status of Biomass Energy and Electricity in Thailand, Presented in

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