AS
Biology:
Cells
 1



 Cell
Structure



Units
of
Measurement
in
Biology




Micrometre

 µm
 0.000
001
 One
millionth


Nanometre
 nm
 0.000
000
001
 One
thousand

millionth



Light
Microscope:




‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x1500

‐ Resolution
of
200nm

‐ Inexpensive

‐ Can
view
thin
specimens
of
almost
anything.
Can
still
be
alive.

‐ Cannot
give
detailed
information
about
internal
cell
structure.


‐ In
colour

‐ Staining
might
be
used
to
help
the
specimen
be
seen
clearly.






Scanning
Electron
Microscope:



‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x100
000

‐ Electrons
beamed
onto
the
sample
and
are
bounced
off.


‐ You
get
a
3D
image
of
the
surface
of
the
specimen.


‐ Resolution:
0.1
nm

‐ No
colour

‐ Samples
must
be
dead
as
sample
must
be
in
vacuum.


‐ Expensive,
need
for
skill
and
training.




Transmission
Electron
Microscope:



‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x500
000

‐ Electrons
pass
through
very
thin
sections
of
a
specimen.


‐ Electrons
pass
through
denser
areas
less
easily
giving
contrast.


‐ Final
image
is
2D
and
no
colour.


‐ Resolution:
0.1
nm

‐ Samples
must
be
dead
as
sample
must
be
in
vacuum.


‐ Expensive,
need
for
skill
and
training.






Magnification:
The
number
of
times
greater
an
image
is
than
the
object

Resolution:
The
ability
to
distinguish
two
separate
points
as
distinct
from

each
other.












AS
Biology:
Cells
 2


Calculating
Magnification:




Actual
Size
=
Image
Size/Magnification





Cell
Ultrastructure:





Nucleus:


The
largest
organelle.


Houses
nearly
all
genetic
material.


Chromatin
consists
of
DNA
and
proteins
and

has
instructions
for
making
protein,
some
of

which
regulate
cell
activity.


Nucleolus
makes
RNA
and
ribosomes.






Endoplasmic
Reticulum:



 
 

ER
consists
of
a
series
of
flattened
membrane
bound

sacs
called
cisternae.
Rough
ER
is
studded
with

ribsosomes.
Smooth
ER
is
not.
Rough
ER
transports

proteins
that
were
made
on
the
attached
ribsosomes.

Some
of
these
proteins
may
be
excreted
by
the
cell.

Some
will
be
placed
on
the
cell
surface
membrane.

Smooth
ER
is
involved
in
making
the
cells
lipids.




Golgi
Apparatus:




A
stack
of
membrane
bound
flattened
sacks.
GA
receives

proteins
from
the
ER
and
modifies
them.
It
may
add
sugar

molecules
to
them.
Then
packages
proteins
into
vesicles

(small
fluid
filled
sacs)
so
they
can
be
transported.






















AS
Biology:
Cells
 3






Mitochondria:




The
inner
membrane
is
highly
folded
to
form
cristae.

ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate)
is
produced
here

during
respiration.
Almost
all
activities
that
require

energy
in
the
cell
requite
ATP.














Chloroplasts:


Outer
and
inner
membrane
separated
by
fluid

filled
space.
Filled
with
elaborate
network
of

flattened
membrane
found
sacks
called

thylakoids.
A
stack
of
thylakoids
is
called
a

granum
(plural
grana).
Chlorophyll

molecules

are
present
on
the
surface
of
granum.








Lysosomes:



Spherical
sacks
surrounded
by
a
single
membrane
and
one
of
the
smallest

organelles.
Contain
powerful
digestive
enzymes.
Then
digest
unwanted
elements

and
wastes.
Eg.
white
blood
cell
lysosomes
break
down
microorganisms.

Acrosome
in
the
head
of
a
sperm
cell
helps
break
down
the
material
surrounding

the
egg.




Ribosomes:


Some
in
cytoplasm
sounds
bound
to
ER.
They
are
the
site
of
protein
synthesis
in

the
cell.
Coded
information
(mRNA)
from
the
nucleus
is
used
to
assemble

proteins
from
amino
acids.




Centrioles:


They
are
small
tubes
of
protein
fibres
(microtubles).
There
is
a
pair
of
them
next

to
the
nucleus
in
animal
cells.
They
are
integral
to
cell
division.
They
form
fibres

known
as
the
spindle,
which
move
chromosomes
during
division.




Flagella
and
cilia:


Hair‐like
extensions
on
the
surface
of
cells.
They
use
ATP
energy
and
can
help

move
the
cell
and
in
the
throat
waft
mucus
to
the
mouth.



Plasma
Membrane:


Made
of
protein
and
lipids.
Regulated
the
movement
of
substances
in
and
out
of

the
cell.
Receptor
molecules
allow
it
to
response
to
chemicals
like
hormones.


AS
Biology:
Cells
 4


Cell
Wall:

Made
of
cellulose.
Supports
the
plant
cells.




Eukaryotes
or
Prokaryotes?




Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Extremely
small
(less
than
two
 Larger
cells
(2‐200
micrometres)

micrometres)


DNA
is
circular
 DNA
in
linear

No
nucleus
–
DNA
free
in
cytoplasm.

 DNA
inside
nucleus.


Cell
wall
made
of
polysaccharide
but
 No
cell
wall
in
animals.
Cellulose
cell

not
cellulose
or
chitin.

 wall
in
plants
or
chitin
cell
wall
in

fungi.


Few
organelles,
no
mitochondria.

 Many
organelles.


Small
ribosomes
 Large
ribosomes.


Eg.
E.Coli
Bacterium

 Human
liver
cell





How
organelles
are
involved
in
protein
production.



1) Proteins
made
at
the
ribosomes.


2) Ribosomes
that
are
attached
to
the
rough
ER
make
proteins
that
are

excreted
or
attached
to
the
cell
membrane.

3) The
free
ribosomes
in
the
cytoplasm
make
proteins
that
stay
in
the

cytoplasm.


4) New
proteins
produced
at
the
rough
ER
are
folded
and
processed
eg.

Adding
sugar
chains.


5) They
are
transported
in
vesicles
from
the
rough
ER
to
the
Golgi

apparatus.


6) Golgi
apparatus
further
processes
them,
possibly
adding
or
trimming

sugars.


7) The
Golgi
apparatus
packs
them
into
new
vesicles
to
be
transported

around
the
cell.
Eg.
Glycoprotein
found
in
mucus
are
excreted.



Cytoskeleton:




The
cytoplasm
has
a
network
of
protein
threads
running
through
it.
This
is
called

the
cytoskeleton.
The
eukaryotes
the
cytoskeleton
is
made
up
from

microfilaments
(small
solid
strands)
and
microtubules
(tiny
protein
cylinders)

‐ They
keep
the
organelles
in
place.

‐ Strengthen
cell
and
help
maintain
its
shape.

‐ Transport
material
in
the
cell
and
are
key
in
cell
division
as
they
move
the

chromosomes
with
the
help
of
microtubles.

‐ By
controlling
the
cilia
and
flagella
they
can
move
the
cell.




Animal
Cell
vs.
Plant
Cell:



Plant
cells
have
all
the
same
organelles
with
a
few
extras.
Chloroplasts,
cell
wall

and
vacuole.


AS
Biology:
Cells
 5


Cell
Membranes



Rolls
of
Plasma
(cell
surface)
Membranes:



‐ Separating
cell
content
from
out
side
environment.


‐ Cell
recognition
and
signaling.

‐ Regulating
transport
in
and
out
of
cell.




Plasma
(cell
surface)
membranes
are
partially
permeable
barriers.

Substances
can
move
my
diffusion,
osmosis
or
active
transport.




Rolls
of
cell
membranes
within
the
cell:



‐ Separating
cell
components
from
cytoplasm.


‐ Membranes
of
some
organelles
are
folded
increasing
the
surface
area
eg.

mitochondria.


‐ They
can
form
vesicles
to
transport
substances
between
different
areas
of

cell.


‐ They
control
which
substances
enter
and
leave
the
organelle
as
they
are

also
partially
permeable.


‐ 

Fluid
Mosaic
Structure:




Diagram
from
CGP
p.12

First
suggested
in
1972
the
FMS
was
used

to
describe
the
arrangements
of
molecules

in
the
membrane.


In
this
model,
phospholipid
molecules

form
a
continuous
bi‐layer.

The
bi‐layer
is
describes
as
fluid
as
the

phospholipids
are
constantly
moving.




Phospholipid
Bi­layer:
Phospholipid
molecules
have
a
hydrophilic
head
and
a

hydrophobic
tail.
The
molecules
automatically
arrange
themselves
into
a
bi‐layer

with
the
heads
facing
outwards.
This
means
the
centre
of
the
bi‐layer
is
repels

water
and
stops
water‐soluble
substances
passing
through.




Cholesterol:
Present
in
all
cell
membranes
and
they
fit
between
the

phospholipids.
They
bind
to
the
hydrophobic
tails
causing
them
to
be
packed

more
closely
together
and
become
more
rigid
–
giving
the
membrane
structure.




Protein:
Some
proteins
form
channels
in
the
membrane.
These
allow
small
or

charged
particles
through.
Carrier
proteins
transport
molecules
and
ions
across

the
membrane
by
active
transport
and
facilitated
diffusion.
Proteins
also
act
as

receptors
for
molecules
in
cell
signaling.
When
a
molecule
binds
to
the
protein
a

chemical
reaction
is
triggered
inside
the
cell.



Glycolipids
and
Glycoproteins:
Stabilise
the
membrane
by
forming
hydrogen

bonds
with
surrounding
water
molecules.
They’re
also
the
sites
where
drugs,

AS
Biology:
Cells
 6


hormones
and
antibodies
bind.
They
act
as
receptors
in
cell
signaling.
They
can

also
at
as
antigens.




Temperature:




1. Temperatures
below
O
degrees
Celsius.
Phospholipids
don’t
have
much

energy
so
can’t
move
much.
They’re
densely
packed
and
membrane
is

rigid.
The
membrane
becomes
more
permeable
as
channel
and
carrier

proteins
de‐nature.

2. Temperatures
between
0
and
45
degrees
Celsius.
Movement
freer.

Membrane
is
partially
permeable.
As
the
temperature
increases
the

phospholipids
move
more
increasing
the
permeability
of
the
membrne.


3. Temperatures
above
45
degrees
Celsius.
Bi‐layer
begins
to
melt
and
break

down.
Water
inside
cell
expands
putting
more
pressure
on
the
membrane.

Chanel
proteins
and
carrier
proteins
in
the
membrane
de‐nature
so
they

can’t
control
what
comes
in
and
out
of
the
cell.




Cell
Signaling:




Cells
need
to
communicate
with
each
other
to
control
processes
inside
the
body

and
to
respond
to
changes
in
the
environment.