c
 

 
 



 

Abstract: Analyzing the structure of arguments is clarified by representing the logical relations in diagram form.

I.? Arguments in logic are composed of reasons being offered for a conclusion. (The use of the term "argument" in
logic does not carry the everyday connotation of a quarrel in everyday discourse).

II.? The presence of an argument in a passage is discovered by understanding the author's intention of proving a
statement by the offering of reasons or evidence. Generally speaking, these reasons are presented as verbal
reports although in some cases they might not be initially presented in declarative sentences.

III.? There are three main ways of judging the presence of an argument:

A.? The author or writer explicitly states explicitly lists the reasons, evidence, justification, rationale, or
proof of a statement.

Example:

(1) à

 the dinosaurs probably had to cope with cancer.  

   

: (2) a beautiful
bone found in Colorado filled with agate has a hole in its center, (3) the outer layer was eroded all the
way through, and (4) this appearance closely matches metastatic bone tumors in humans.

B.? The author uses argument indicators signifying the presence of an argument. (Common premiss and
conclusion indicators are listed below in Section IV).

Example:

(1) £ 
the solution turned red when the indicator was added, (2) à

it is acidic, (3) 



acidic substances react with this indicator to form a red color.

C.? The passage under question implicitly provides an answer to the sometimes irreverent question of
"What are you trying to prove?" The presence of an argument cannot be always known with certainty. A
charitable, conventional interpretation of the content and context of the passage is assumed.

Example:

(1) The types of sentences you use are quite varied. (2) I've noticed that your essays are quite
sophisticated. (3) You have been learning much more about sentence structure.

[The conclusion is statement (3)].

IV.? In order to analyze simple and complex arguments, we will find it useful to construct a diagram of the structure
of the argument that details the relations among the various premisses and conclusions.

A.? A conclusion of one argument can become a premiss for another argument. Thus, a statement can be
the conclusion of one argument and a premiss for another argument just as a daughter in one family can
become a mother in another family.

B.? The number of arguments in a passage is conventionally established by the number of conclusions in
that passage.

C.? In analyzing the structure of an argument, whether simple or complex, a


aa
a a
 a 
a
   . Here are some specific suggestions as to how to find the conclusion.
1.? The conclusion might be evident from the content and context of the paragraph structure. The
sequence of sentences is often an indication of the conclusion. Arrangement of sentences from
most "general" to "specific" is a common form of paragraph or passage; the arrangement of
sentences from "specific" to "general" is a bit less common. Considering both cases, the
conclusion is often the first and sometimes the last sentence in a passage. (Specificity and
generality are not always easily discerned.)

Example:

(1) John didn't get much sleep last night. (2) He has dark circles under his eyes. (3) He looks

tired.

The conclusion is the first sentence in the passage. Notice how (2) and (3) are evidence for (1).
(2) and (3) are better known statements since they are observational statements which give
evidence for the inference to (3) which isn't as obviously true.

2.? Nevertheless, the conclusion can occur anywhere in the paragraph, especially if the passage has
not been revised for clarity. Usually, if a conclusion is not the first or last sentence, a conclusion
indicator is present, or occasionally the last sentence is presented as an after-thought with a
premiss indicator. See below for lists of premiss and conclusion indicators.

Example:

(1) Studies from rats indicate that neuropeptide ÿ in the brain causes carbohydrate craving, 
(2) galanin causes fat craving. (3) 
, I conclude that food cravings are tied to brain

chemicals (4) 


 neuropeptide ÿ and galanin are brain chemicals.

3.? The structure of the argument (and, of course, the conclusion, as well) might be inferred by the
following kinds of indicators.

a.? c


 are words which often indicate the presence of reasons. Common
premiss indicators include the following:

for
since
as
because
for the reason
follows from
after all
in light of the fact
*for the reason
assuming that
 the reason is
inasmuch as
given that
in view of
granting that
seeing that

Example Argument:

(1)The graphical method for solving a system of equations is an approximation, (2)



reading the point of intersection depends on the accuracy with which the lines are
drawn and on the ability to interpret the coordinates of the point.

Another example argument:

(1) Questionable research practices are far more common than previously believed, (2)
 , the Acadia Institute found that 44 percent of students and 50 percent of
faculty from universities were aware of cases of plagiarism, falsifying data, or racial

discrimination.
b.? ^ 
 

 are words which often indicate the statement which logically
follows from the reasons given. Common conclusion indicators include the following:

thus
therefore
consequently
hence
so
it follows that
proves that
indicates that
*accordingly
implies that
*for this reason
as a result
we can infer
this means
entails that
implies that

Examples of conclusion indicators use in arguments:

(1) No one has directly observed a chemical bond, (2)

 scientists who try to envision
such bonds must rely on experimental clues and their own imaginations.
 (1) Math grades for teens with bipolar disorder usually drop noticeably about one year
before their condition is diagnosed,  
(2) probably bipolar disorder involves a
deterioration of mathematical reasoning.

(1) Coal seams have been discovered in Antarctica. (2) 


that the climate there
was once warmer than it is now. (3)  
, either the geographical location of the
continent has shifted or the whole Earth was once warmer than it is now.

c.? ^  
 (including conjunctive adverbs) often indicate equal status for clauses or
sentences. Noticing these conjuncts is especially helpful for argument analysis if one of
the elements has already been identified.

Indicators of clauses of equal status include:

and
but
yet
however
moreover
in addition
nevertheless
(and also the semicolon ";")

Examples:

(1) Some students absent today are unprepared for this test, since (2) the law of
averages dictates that only 10% of students are absent due to illness,  (3) more than
10% are absent.
 (1) Lenses function by refracting light at their surfaces. (2) Consequently,   does
their action depends on the shape of the lens surfaces  
 (3) it depends on the
indices of refraction of the lens material and the surrounding medium.

(1) The theory of divine right, like that of popular right which it was set up to oppose,
was a modification of a very ancient and generally accepted idea, namely, that authority
has a religious origin and sanction. (2) No Christian, from the time when St. Paul
wrote the thirteenth chapter of M  , had ever doubted this. (3) Œsince literally all
power was of God, (4)   had no necessary application to a king more than any
other kind of ruler. (5) m, though power as such was divine, it might still be
right, under proper circumstances, to resist an unlawful exercise of power. (6) For these
reasons no incompatibility was felt, before the end of the sixteenth century, between
the theories that power comes from God and that it comes from the people.
(From George H. Sabine, R a
  a

, 3rd.ed. (London: Harrap, 1961),
392.)

V.? When working with complex arguments, it is often helpful to reconstruct the argument backwards from the
conclusion. Consider the following argument.

(1) If students were environmentally aware, they would object to the endangering of any species of animal. (2)
The well-known Greenwood white squirrel has become endangered (3) as it has disappeared from the Lander
Campus (4) because the building of the library destroyed its native habitat. (5) No Lander students objected. (6)
Thus, Lander students are not environmentally aware.

? The premiss indicators suggest that (2) is a subconclusion of (3) since the indicator "as" connects them,
and (3), in turn, is a subconclusion of (4) since the indicator "because" connects those two statements.

? Statement (6) is the final conclusion since it has the conclusion indicator "thus" and the import of the
paragraph indicates that this statement is main point of the argument.

? Intuitively, the structure of the first statement (1) together with statement (5) is a common argument
form:
 If students were environmentally ware, they would bject to the endangering of any species of animal.
 student bjected (to the endangering of the Greenwood white squirrel).

which can be abbreviated as follows:

If  then 
Not 

and the negation of clause  is logically equivalent to conclusion (6).

(Later in the course we will see that this argument structure is termed   a 
 :

If  then 
Not 
_____________
Not  which is the same statement as (6).

? Hence the whole argument can now be pieced together as: