Periodic Waveforms: Fourier Series

• Previous example showed that we could synthesise periodic wave-

forms using a sum of harmonically related sinusoids

• We will now see how this can be done

• Since we want to express x(t) as a sum of harmonically-related

waveforms, the Fourier Synthesis Equation says we can write
x(t) as
∞
j( T2π )kt
X
x(t) = ak e 0 (1)
k=−∞

T0 is the fund. period of x(t), and we need to calc. ak s

• Then the Fourier Analysis Equation is:

T0
1
Z
−j( T2π )kt
ak = x(t)e 0 dt (2)
T0 0

• If we accept equation 1 then we can justify the two formula by

taking the integral over the first full period of the waveform

Z T0 Z T0 ∞
−j( T2π )lt j( T2π )kt
−j( T2π )lt
X
x(t)e 0 dt = ak e 0 e 0 dt
0 0 k=−∞

∞ Z T0
j( T2π )(k−l)

X
= ak e 0 = al T0
k=−∞ 0

1
 Periodic Waveforms: Fourier Series (contd.)

• That is, we multiply both sides by a complex conjugate exponen-

tial, vl∗(t)

• As a result we get an expression for al , which, being just an index

is the lth multiplier

• The fancy footwork of swapping the integral and summation signs

takes “some justification”

• Also required is an orthogonality property that sees

Z 2π
ej(2π/T0)(k−l)
0

to be 0 when k 6= l and 1 when k = l; (See Eqn. 3.25 of SPF )

2
 Using Fourier Series

• We can try and derive the spectrum ourselves and from that pick
off the amplitudes (multipliers, ak s) of each of the spectral com-
ponents

• Or, now that we can express a waveform in the form of eqn. (1),
we can use eqn. (2) to find the ak s

Example Express x(t) = cos4(5πt) as a Fourier Series

Note that the frequency of this signal is not ω = 2πf = 2π/T = 5π!

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5

The top plot is the function x(t); the lower one is the result of plotting
6
the function f (t) = 16 + 21 cos(10πt) + 18 cos(20πt)

3
 Using Fourier Series (contd.)

Two ways to find the harmonics that make up the sinusoid to be syn-
thesised.

(1) We can “cheat” and pick off the frequency components directly but
this only works if we can express the sinusoid in terms of exponents

 ej5πt + e−j5πt 4
x(t) = (3)
2
1 j20πt j10πt −j10πt −j20πt


= e + 4e + 6 + 4e +e (4)
16
6 1 1
= + cos(10πt) + cos(20πt)
16 2 8

• Since gcd(10, 20) = 10, the fundamental frequency is 2πf0 = ω0 =

10π

• From eqn. (4) we see that there are spectral components at frequen-
cies w = {−20π, −10π, 0, 10π, 20π}, with respective amplitudes
a−2 = 81 , a−1 = 12 , a0 = 6
,a
16 1
= 21 , a2 = 18 , ak = 0 otherwise

(2) (Most general method) We can multiply x(t) by e−j2π/T0kt and

integrate in order to get ak . Here’s the beginning of the analysis.
Since cos2 θ = 12 (1 + cos 2θ)

4
 Using Fourier Series (contd.)

1
cos4 θ = (1 + 2 cos 2θ + cos2 2θ)
4
1 1 1 1
= + cos 2θ + + cos 4θ
4 2 8 8

By expressing cos ωt as an exponent and grinding through the maths

it can be shown that

1 −at
Z
(cos ωt)e−at dt = e sin ωt
ω−a

So

5 1 1
Z Z
x(t)e−j2π/T0kt = ( + cos 10πt + cos 20πt)e−j2π/T0kt
8 2 8
5 1 11
= +
8 −j2π/T0kt 2 j

With a period of T0 = 21 2π/5π, the analysis can be continued in this

vein, until the ak s are found

5
 Time-Varying Frequencies

• Most sounds that we want to analyse are more complex than we

have seen up to now

• Their main difference from what we have seen so far is that the
frequencies in the sound vary all the time

• Instead of the frequency being constant and given by w0 t, sounds

of interest usually have a frequency that is a more complex function
of time than just a multiplier, w0

• In the sinusoid
x(t) = A cos(ω0 t + φ)
we call (ω0t + φ) the angle function

• To cover more complicated choices of angle function, we will rewrite

this as
x(t) = A cos(ψ(t)) = ℜ{Aejψ(t)}

• The next step up in complexity from the linear function ψ(t) =

ω0t + φ is a quadratic function

ψ(t) = 2πµt2 + 2πf0t + φ

• At any instant in time, the instantaneous frequency is given by

d
ωi (t) = ψ(t)
dt
or
1 d
fi (t) = ψ(t)
2π dt
6
 Time-Varying Frequencies (contd.)

• For the frequency function ψ(t) = 2πµt2 + 2πf0t + φ

fi(t) = 2µt + f0

• Changing the frequency of signals in this manner is known as fre-

quency modulation (FM)

• From this formula for the frequency of the signal at any instant
in time, fi(t), we could work backwards to calculate ψ(t) for it to
have a desired property

• Book looks at how a chirp signal (a constantly changing fre-

quency) can be created by integrating (undoing the derivative
above) a function
f2 − f1
fi (t) = t + f1
T