Ceramic Rotary Engines, Inc ‡

Higher Performance & Lower Heat Loss

Internal Combustion Engines

For over a century internal combustion engines have been and still are one of the
most successful compact portable autonomous power sources being used in the
transport of people and goods over relatively long distances relatively quickly.

Alternate power sources such as electric motors powered by batteries or

hydrogen fuel cells or wind farms, suffer from energy storage problems, high capital
costs, possible environmental problems, irratic winds affecting wind-turbines and a
lack of energy-delivering infrastructure. Substantial improvements in such
technologies are arguably at least a decade away. A "Well-to-Wheel" analysis shows
that efficiency comparisons between electricity, fuel-cells, hydrogen and gasoline are
in reality more complex. And there are concerns about the green credentials and
safety of electric cars, hybrid-technology, and hydrogen-fueled cars.

Moreover hydrocarbon fuels pack at least 10 to 20 times (i.e. 1000% to 2000%)

more energy than batteries and are also lighter to carry around. For instance octane
has a specific energy of 12.3 kWh/kg which is roughly 18 times that of Li-SOCl2
batteries (660 Wh/kg) and 33 times that of Li-S batteries (370 Wh/kg).

So for the foreseeable future it is very likely that internal combustion engines will
continue to be the dominant source of portable autonomous power. As the worldwide
engines market is huge, it was worth $235 billion in 2001, there is a great
incentive to improve the performance and efficiency of the internal combustion
engine or see it eclipsed by alternate power sources. Also, as crude oil reserves are
dwindling, more efficient use of this resource is required. To sustain the internal
combustion engine for use in transportation well into the distant future, renewable
fuels offer a possible solution.

Why the Wankel Engine? Rotary vs Reciprocating

Reciprocating engines have been the choice of the automotive and allied industries
for many many years. However converting reciprocating motion into rotary motion
(e.g. to turn wheels) is not as mechanically efficient as pure rotary motion. Despite
this disadvantage the reciprocating internal combustion has achieved legendary
status for well over a century with no obvious competitor in sight.

The reciprocating engine powers our automobiles reliably and takes us over long
distances mostly without trouble. Thousands are made each day with precision and
at reasonable cost. Its only possible competitor has been the rotary engine
developed by Dr Felix Wankel in the 1950s. A variety of novel engines that have
been developed over the years have yet to topple the mighty reciprocating engine
from its lofty perch.

Rotary engines have fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines. A high torque
engine, rotary engines also run more smoothly. The rotary engine and
ceramic would be an ideal blending of technology and material, and we believe
would do justice to the exceptional properties of ceramics. We have chosen the
Wankel rotary engine to be made out of ceramic because it is a known, tried and
tested design. In other words, CRE is NOT developing a new or novel engine; our
intention is to ceramicize the Wankel engine.

The metal Wankel engine is an elegant design with much to offer but development
efforts to improve it have been limited. For instance Mazda, with its cadre of highly
qualified highly skilled automotive and mechanical engineers, has been trying to
improve its Wankel engine since the 1970s. Debatable though the scale and
scope of their improvements are, one thing is certain - Mazda cars with their
Wankel-powered engines have not penetrated the worldwide automobile
market significantly. Many other automobile companies have essentially abandoned
efforts to improve the metal Wankel engine. Without the devoted and passionate
support of diehard Wankel engine enthusiasts all over the world the Wankel engine
automobile market might have dwindled even more. Perhaps the last effort to
significantly improve the Wankel design is to make it out of ceramic.

Metal Engines

The choice of metal as the material from which heat engines are made is an
unfortunate one. This is because metals are relatively low temperature materials for
heat engines and they are also good thermal conductors, two properties that are
detrimental to efficient combustion.

Historically, when the internal combustion engine was first being developed, it was
an unavoidable choice because metals were the only suitable material available at
that time. Recognising this problem, development of new materials for IC engines is
now being encouraged by the US Government.

The maximum service temperature of many metals is less than 600 C, and
thus metal engines are required to operate at temperatures too low for fuel to be
burnt completely. Also, as metals are good thermal conductors, the heat
generated within the metallic combustion chamber is easily conducted through the
metallic casing. Liquid cooling is thus required to prevent the metallic engine from
overheating and this hastens heat loss (about 30% of the heat generated is lost to
the coolant or radiator water). Furthermore, resulting incomplete combustion
products are discarded through the exhaust adding to airborne pollution.

These temperature trade-offs required of metallic internal combustion engines result

in low combustion and low thermal efficiencies. Thus, metallic internal combustion
engines suffer primarily from three problems: 1. Low combustion efficiency (due to
the lower operating temperatures of metals), 2. Substantial heat loss (due to the
high thermal conductivity of metals), and 3. Some wear (resulting in some limited
metal component life).

Ceramic Engines

As ceramics are high temperature materials, a ceramic engine should be able to

operate at higher temperatures enabling combustion of fuel to be more
complete resulting in increased combustion efficiency. This should increase
performance, decrease fuel consumption and reduce pollution. This should also
enable various fuels to be used (i.e. multi-fuel capability).

What Ceramic to Choose

Silicon Nitride: Among the various engineering ceramics that have been developed over the decades,
silicon nitride has received the most attention for use in internal combustion engines and turbines. It has
good thermal shock resistance (ΔT ~ 600 C) and good creep resistance. Though very desirable as an engine
material, their poor mechanical strength (low fracture toughness) has precluded their use in load-bearing
applications. As the brittleness of silicon-based ceramics is considered an intrinsic characteristic of such
materials (ref 15) by virtue of their strong bonding, covalent and ionic, only limited increases in the fracture
toughness of silicon nitride is believed to be attainable. The development of ceramic matrix composites
(CMC) is considered to be a more attractive alternative (ref 15), but success in this approach has been
limited.

Although some progress has been made over the years, the processing of silicon nitride remains a
problem (ref 20) and larger higher-strength silicon nitride components have yet to be fabricated. Silicon
nitride cannot be heated over 1850 C to densify because it dissociates into silicon and nitrogen. Also its
covalent bonding does not allow it to easily sinter and fully densify.

Furthermore, silicon nitride ceramics in a hot, corrosive and humid oxidizing atmosphere (such as during
fuel-air combustion in internal combustion and turbine engines) are prone to degradation. When they are
subject to oxidation, water vapour and high temperatures they form a thermally-grown
silicon oxide layer which continually volatilises as hydroxide species affecting the integrity of the
silicon-based ceramic surface. For more about silicon nitride and silicon carbide degradation see references
7-13 and 17-18 below.

Despite the persistent and seemingly intractable problems of degradation and poor mechanical strength
as well as the difficulties in fabricating and processing larger higher-strength load-
bearing components, silicon nitride ceramic remains surprisingly the preferred high temperature material
for turbines.

With only a limited budget, Ceramic Rotary Engines Inc (CRE) simply cannot afford the very high costs
that are required in developing a silicon nitride engine given the length of time silicon nitride has been
under development (i.e. since the 1960s) and given the great uncertainities in the fabrication of durable
and reliable silicon nitride components for our ceramic engine.
Silicon Carbide: A material with a very high hardness, silicon carbide has, in the last few years, been
receiving some attention from the Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) community in their quest to
develop a miniature engine. However, the same problems that plague silicon nitride would also apply to
silicon carbide, and the fracture toughness of silicon carbide is even lower than that of silicon
nitride. Silicon carbide still has many other uses that do not require mechanical integrity and strength.

Aluminas: A much used ceramic, mainly as electrical insulators, they have seldom been considered as
suitable materials for engines possibly because of their low fracture toughness and high thermal
conductivity. However, there has been some recent interest in fabricating alumina components for micro-
engines (ref 19).

Zirconias: These engineering ceramics were once dubbed "ceramic steels" (ref
21) because of their very high fracture toughness among ceramics. Also, zirconia
ceramics have one of the highest maximum service temperatures (~2000 C) among
all of the ceramics (ref 25) and they retain some of their mechanical strength
close to their melting point (2750 C). However, their low creep resistance and
their low thermal shock resistance (ΔT ~ 350 C) could pose a problem.

Zirconia ceramics have been used in heat engines because of two

very notable properties they possess: a high temperature capability and a low
thermal conductivity. None of the other ceramics possess a thermal conductivity
as low as the zirconias. This means that engines made out of zirconia would retain
much of the heat generated in the combustion chamber instead of loosing it to the
surroundings (approaching near adiabatic conditions). Thus the need for a cooling
system could also be eliminated.

No wonder the Ford Motor Company used zirconia engineering ceramics for their
ceramic engine development program in the 1980s (see next section for more on this
R&D program). Aircraft jet engines currently use a zirconia-based coating to increase
their turbine inlet temperatures to improve performance.

CRE's Choice: The choice of a ceramic is complicated by particular attributes that

are present in some ceramics and not in others. Furthermore, our choice of
ceramic is made more difficult by the dearth of uses, short history and only a small
dataset of ceramic applications. In contrast, metals and alloys have an extensive and
long history of activity and a considerable amount of data to rely upon. On careful
consideration we have decided on a ceria-based zirconia engineering ceramic for the
following reasons: (1) its relatively good mechanical strength (i.e.
combination of high fracture toughness and high bend strength); (2) the twin
properties of the zirconias that are clearly useful to heat engines; (3) tests
which show that CeTZP zirconia ceramic does not suffer from hydrothermal
degradation which plagues several other ceramics; (4) being an oxide, zirconia
is unlikely to be further oxidized. Considering that many fuels contain chemically-
active and corrosive substances, resistance against hydrothermal degradation and
resistance against oxidation are highly desirable attributes of a ceramic for
an internal combustion engine.

Low Heat Rejection Engines

Approaching Adiabatic Conditions: About a third of the heat generated by an internal

combustion engine is lost to its surroundings. Insulating the combustion chamber
with zirconia-based ceramics to reduce heat loss has been the focus of some
research for over thirty years but progress has been slow. An overview of such low
heat rejection (LHR) engine programs has been published by S.Jaichandar and
P.Tamilporai (reference 16 given below).

Some Useful LHR Engine Studies

[A] During the 1980s, in a development program at Ford Motor Company USA led by
Dr Arthur McLean, zirconia-based ceramic components have been successfully tested
in reciprocating internal combustion engines. Dr McLean stated that their testing was
conducted in a single cylinder, 80 mm bore by 80 mm stroke, high speed direct
injection diesel engine at full load conditions over the complete speed range and at
speed/load conditions representative of the EPA urban driving cycle. His results
showed that the fuel consumption of the uncooled ceramic insert engine was 5% to
9% less than the baseline water-cooled engine generally confirming computer
modelling predictions. Dr McLean also reported that after several design/material
interations a zirconia ceramic cylinder head plate was successfully tested for 120
hours and a zirconia ceramic short cylinder liner survived over 500 hours. [reference
4 given below].

[B] A 1984 NASA SBIR Phase One study of an "Adiabatic Wankel-type Rotary Engine"
by Dr Roy Kamo of Adiabatics Inc indicated that progressive
performance improvements in Wankel rotary engines could be achieved when the
combustion chamber components were insulated. It was claimed that the advanced
concepts of turbocompounding, higher compression ratio, reduced leakage and faster
combustion could decrease specific fuel consumption by 25% and increase power
output by 34%. Also eliminating the cooling system could produce another 5%
reduction in fuel consumption. A follow-up NASA SBIR Phase Two study reported in
1988 that a thermal barrier coating (TBC) on the Wankel housing is unlikely to be
successful as the thermal stresses were excessive for a direct injection
stratified charged Wankel engine. It was also concluded that the correct choice of a
TBC material was of crucial concern. From a reading of this report it appears
that there is cause for some optimism for achieving a low heat rejection engine using
TBCs.

[C] In diesels, it has been reported that a 1 mm thick coating of ceramic on the
cylinder head and a 2 mm thick coating of ceramic on the piston caps reduces the
heat losses into the water coolant by 9%, while increasing the heat losses into the oil
by 3% for an overall reduction of 6%.

[D] Dr Alan Bentz and Professor Andre Boehman of the Energy Institute at
Pennsylvania State University found not only significant morphological and
composition changes in particulate emissions but also total particulate mass
reductions when thin thermal barrier ceramic coatings were applied to the
combustion chamber surfaces. They said that the thermal barrier coating enhances
the oxidation of condensable hydrocarbons that agglomerate with the diesel soot.

[E] A NASA study by Dr Harold Sliney (1990) showed that a solid lubricant,
designated PS212, can be used successfully in a metal Wankel engine at high
temperatures. He reported that a plasma-sprayed composite coating of metal-
bonded chromium carbide with additions of silver and fluorides and used in
combination with a zirconia ceramic thermal barrier coating (TBC) on the inner
surface of a metal Wankel engine provided sufficient lubrication at temperatures up
to 900 C. The zirconia ceramic TBC provided some insulation.

[F] Another NASA study by Drs DellaCorte & Wood (1994) reported that soft metals
such as gold or silver, could act as solid lubricants at high temperatures. They
reported that thin gold-chromium films exhibited outstanding wear in friction tests
lasting more than 200,000 sliding passes, and these duplex metal films continued to
lubricate even at temperatures of 1000 C.

Though not definitive, these studies show that insulating the combustion chamber of
internal combustion engines with a ceramic thermal barrier coating could reduce heat
loss and increase combustion efficiency. Furthermore, one of the NASA studies
showed that solid lubricants can be used to reduce wear between apex seals and the
inner housing surface of Wankel engines at high temperatures where liquid lubricants
could not operate.

Making An All-Ceramic Wankel Engine

We are not developing a new or novel engine because of the long term and open-
ended nature of such projects. There are far too many novel and exotic designs that
have yet to see the light of day or be commercialized. Over the last century only
three combustion engines have survived the commercial marketplace - the turbine,
the reciprocating and the Wankel rotary. We have chosen the Wankel rotary engine
to ceramicize.

We are judiciously incorporating appropriately conceived ceramic components

into the Wankel engine design only where necessary. Note that a simple one-to-one
metal-ceramic substitution is not considered a prudent approach because of concerns
with contact stresses, thermal shock resistance mismatch, stress rupture life and
ceramic oxidation resistance (see e.g. Report of NASA/TM 2006-214220, Pg 6).

Metals are softer and more ductile than ceramics and thus easier to machine into
precision components. As ceramics are harder and more difficult to machine,
designing and fabricating the ceramic components for the ceramic Wankel engine
proved to be a major challenge. Similar fabrication problems were also
encountered in the MEMS Berkeley project for their micro-Wankel engine made from
silicon carbide ceramic. However, by working closely with the ceramic companies we
contracted out the work to, they were able to produce CeTZP ceramic components
with the precision and shapes we required.

Adequate sealing and lubrication at high temperatures are clearly major issues. One
choice is to dispense with the apex seals. Instead, choke flow could be invoked by
introducing turbulence and thus eddy currents at the rotor tips, but studies of the
choke flow effect are not encouraging. Applying this effect could prove impracticable
as the gap required between tip and housing is likely to be very small (probably < 2
microns) or the sealing could be inadequate. Another choice is to use apex seals but
liquid lubrication is not an option at high temperatures (> 600 C).

Solid lubricants could be the solution. Following on the work of Drs DellaCorte &
Wood (1994) in their NASA study soft metal (e.g. gold or silver) coating on the inner
surface of the ceramic housing with nickel-based apex seals, is a possibility.

Update as of July 2009

Pictured above is, we believe, the first of its kind - an all-zirconia ceramic# Wankel
engine. It consists of a CeTZP ceramic Rotor, a CeTZP ceramic Housing and two
CeTZP ceramic Side-Plates. Central gear and eccentric shaft remain metallic. Ceramic
coated metal components have not been used.

The photo of the CRE ceramic engine pictured above was deliberately made fuzzy
because of intellectual property concerns.

We are currently carrying out preliminary tests on this engine.

To all who have emailed us showing interest in our engine, Thank you.

[#Please Note: The MEMS ceramic micro-Wankel engine developed at the University of California at Berkeley is
made from silicon wafers and silicon carbide ceramic].

The CRE Team

The CRE team comprises engineers from various disciplines and expertise that have
a common and abiding interest in meeting the challenges of developing a ceramic
rotary engine. The CRE Team also includes technology executives with management
expertise and with experience of getting start-up companies to market:

CRE Team
 CRE Team

CRE Team

Scott Webber* - Finance, Business Development & Marketing

Kurt Wall - Investor Relations, Finance & Government Affairs

Gordon Bennett, B.Sc & M.Sc (Birmingham), C.Eng (UK), M.Inst.Mat,

M.Inst.RefEng - Metallurgy, Materials & Minerals Processing Specialist

Professor Les Henshall, BA & PhD (Cambridge), MA (Oxford), M.InstMat, MIRTE -

Ceramics & Materials Engineering

Professor Raj Balendra, PhD (Strathclyde), C.Eng (UK) - Manufacturing

Engineering & Component Design

Ray Walker, C.Eng (UK), AIMechE - Engineering Design, Ceramic &

Metal Machining

Keith Smith - Engineering Machinist specialising in ceramics

Dr Thevendra, PhD (Cambridge), Senior Member AIChE - Ceramics & Fluids

Environmentally Friendly Engine?

A Ceramic Engine is expected to be capable of using various fuels because of its high
operating temperatures. Renewable fuels such as cellulosic bio-ethanol or straight
vegetable oils (SVO) could be used in this engine. SVOs are unprocessed or
unmodified vegetable oils. A Ceramic Engine as a portable power source using SVOs
as fuel for rural communities and villages in the third world could enhance the quality
of life of the citizens in these communities.

Ceramic engines could power water pumps for drinking and irrigation and could also
power electricity generators for lighting and cooking in rural communities (which
should reduce the need for firewood, saving trees). BioDiesel, from vegetable oils,
has received the attention of various government agencies such as the Department
of Energy in the USA and the UK Department of Transport. B5 and B20 BioDiesel is
already being sold in some states in the USA. Experimental programs using
biodiesels in cars are drawing a lot of public attention. However the adoption of
alternative fuels presents a challenge for the present.

An excellent comparative study of the environmental impact of various

fuels (including fossil fuels and biofuels) was given by Professor Mark Holtzapple in a
video presentation* at Texas A&M University on Tuesday 25 April 2006 as part of
their Distinguished Lecture Series on Sustainable Energy and Transportation
Engineering The 21st Century. He also discusses the production of biofuels from the
MixAlco Process and introduces the Star Rotor Engine (*click here for a slide
presentation).

Engines As A Substitute for Batteries?

According to Professor Alfred Pisano of the MEMS project at the University of

California at Berkeley liquid hydrocarbon fuels like butane, kerosene and propane
pack at least 10 times more energy, pound for pound, than batteries do even after
taking into account how inefficiently a metal IC engine burns fuel. That means an
engine could be 10 times smaller than a battery and still deliver the same amount of
energy. Or the engine could be the same size as a battery and last 10 times longer.

Decentralized Electrical & Heating Systems And Batteries

Electricity distribution over very large distances (e.g. the national electricity grid in
the USA) is not as efficient as distributed power generation produced near the point
of use (e.g. micro-Combined Heat and Power, or micro-CHP, using a
combination of technologies). Engines currently being used in micro-CHP, including
reciprocating engines, are inadequate for today's needs. They are noisy, requires too
much maintenance, do not meet emissions standards, needs vibration
dampening, and are not sufficiently fuel efficient. A better engine is needed (1) in
the range of 0.5 kW to 30 kW for the micro-CHP market, and (2) in the range of 0.5
kW and less to replace battery power as, pound for pound, liquid hydrocarbon fuels
like butane when used in metal IC engines pack at least 10 times more energy than
batteries.

References & Useful Reading:

[1] R.Kamo and W.Bryzik 1979 SAE Technical Publication Number 780068
"Adiabatic Turbocompound Engine Performance Prediction".
[2] W.Bryzik and R.Kamo 1983 SAE Technical Publication Number 830314
"TACOM/Cummings Adiabatic Engine Program".

[3] R.Kamo, R.M.Kakawani and W.Hady 1986 SAE Technical Publication Number
960616 "Adiabatic Wankel-Type Rotary Engine".

[4] W.Bunk and H.Hausner 1986 Proceedings of the Second International

Symposium; 14 to 17 April, Lubeck-Travemunde, Germany "Ceramic Materials and
Components for Engines".

[5] W.Dworak and D.Fingerle 1987 Journal of Materials Science; Volume 86, pages
170-178 "Ceramic Materials for Engines".

[6] R.Kamo 1991 Ceramic Acta, Volume 3, pages 49-65 "Ceramic Engine and their
Cost Effectiveness".

[7] B.J.Opila and R.B.Hann 1997 Journal of American Ceramic Society; Volume
80(1), pages 197-205.

[8] B.J.Opila et alia 1999 Journal of American Ceramic Society; Volume 82(7),
pages 1826-1834.

[9] J.L.Smialek et alia 1999 Advances in Composite Materials; Volume 8(1), pages
33-45.

[10] R.C.Robinson and J.L.Smialek 1999 Journal of American Ceramic Society;

Volume 82(7), pages 1817-1825.

[11] "The degradation of silicon carbide in hot humid environments" ORNL Review
Volume 33 (#1) 2000.

[12] H-S Rho,N.L.Hecht and G.A.Graves 2000 Journal of Materials Science; Volume
35, pages 3631-3639 "Oxidation Behaviour of Hot-Isostatically Pressed Silicon
Nitride Containing Yttria".

[13] H.F.Eaton et alia 2001 "EBC Protection of SiC/SiC Composites in the Gas
Turbine Combustion Environment - Continuing Evaluation and Refurbishment
Considerations" Proceedings of ASME TURBOEXPO 2001, 4-7 June 2001, New
Orleans, LA, USA.

[14] by A.K.Shukla "Cars beyond Otto's internal combustion engines", November

2001, .

[15] S.Dutta (NASA Glenn, Cleveland, OH) - Bulletin of Materials Science 2001
Volume 24(2), pages 117-120 "Fracture Toughness and Reliability in High
Temperature Structural Ceramics and Composites: Prospects and Challenges for the
21st Century".

[16] S.Jaichandar and P.Tamilporai 2003 SAE Technical Paper Series 2003-01-
0405 "Low Heat Rejection Engines - An Overview" .
[17] J.E.Lane and G.B.Merrill 2005 "Protective Overlayer for Silicon-based
Ceramics" US Patent 6929852
[http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6929852.html].

[18] Fourth ORNL Annual Review of "Environmental Barrier Coatings (EBC) for
Engine Applications"; 15-16 November 2005, Nashville, TN.

[19] P. Jin, Y.L. Gao, N. Liu, J.B. Tan & Kyle Jiang 2006 Journal of Physics:
Conference Series, Volume 48, pages 1471-1475 "Design and Fabrication of
Alumina Micro Reciprocating Engine".

[20] N.Kondo et alia - Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan 2007 Volume 115
(4), pages 285-289 "Fabrication of Thick Silicon Nitride by Reaction Bonding and
Post-Sintering".

[21] R.C. Garvie, R.H. Hannink & R.T. Pascoe 1975 Nature, Volume 258, pages
703-704 "Ceramic Steels?"

Material Properties Databases:

[22] NIST Property Summaries for Advanced Materials.

[23] Information on Ceramic Joining - The Welding Institute (TWI) UK.

[24] Physical Sciences Information Gateway (PSIgate) - Materials Properties.

[25] Granta Materials Selector UK.

Texts on Engineering Ceramics:

[26] M.M.Schwartz*+ 1990 "Ceramic Joining" ASM International Publishers, OH,

USA.

[27] M.M.Schwartz*+ 1992 "Handbook of Structural Ceramics" McGraw-Hill

Publishers, USA.

*+Chief Engineer, Sikorsky Division, United Technologies Corporation.