Control Systems

THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

C lo s e -u p
4

1
Im a g A x is

-1

-2

-3

-4
-3 -2 . 5 -2 -1 . 5 -1 -0 . 5 0 0.5 1
R e a l A x is
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Contents

Introduction & Definitions

Magnitude & Angle Criteria

Angle of Departure & Break Away Point

Root Locus Properties

Root Locus Construction Procedure

Design Examples
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Objective

• This lecture will help you understand what a root locus is and
how to create and use one.
• It provides definitions of terms, a step-by-step guide to
constructing a root locus, and details about how to design and
evaluate controllers using the root locus method.
• After studying these materials, you should be able to create a
root locus and use the locus to understand the closed-loop
system behavior given an open-loop system and a feedback
controller.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Introduction
• The root locus method was introduced by Evans in 1948
• The root locus is a graphical procedure for determining the poles of a closed-
loop system given the poles and zeros of a forward-loop system.
• Graphically, the locus is the set of paths in the complex plane traced by the
closed-loop poles as the root locus gain is varied from zero to infinity.
• In mathematical terms, given a forward-loop transfer function, KG(s)
where K is the root locus gain, and the corresponding closed-loop transfer
function

• The root locus is the set of paths traced by the roots of

as K varies from zero to infinity.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Introduction

• As K changes, the solution to this equation changes.

• The roots to the equation are the poles of the forward-loop
transfer function.
• The equation defines where the poles will be located for any
value of the root locus gain, K.
• In other words, it defines the characteristics of the system
behavior for various values of controller gain.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Introduction
These are examples of typical root loci
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Introduction .. The Magnitude Criterion

• The magnitude criterion is used to determine the locations of a set of roots in the
s-plane for a given value of K.
• Mathematically, the magnitude criterion is

• The magnitude criterion is a direct result of the definition of the root locus; it is
another way to express the locus requirements. The root locus is defined as the set
of roots that satisfy the characteristic equation

or, equivalently,

• Taking the magnitude of each side of the equation yields the magnitude criterion
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

The Magnitude Criterion .. An Example

♦ Consider a 2nd order system with the transfer function

♦The poles of the system are at s=1 and s=-3
♦The magnitude for various points in the complex plane are listed in the
following tables where the points have a magnitude equal to 1 and thus
satisfying the magnitude criterion.
Coordinate Magnitude
0,0 1

-1,1 1

-2,0 1

-1,-1 1
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

The Angle Criterion ..

The angle criterion is used to determine the departure angles for the parts of the root locus near the open-
loop poles and the arrival angles for the parts of the root locus near the open-loop zeros. When used with the
magnitude criterion, the angle criterion can also be used to determine whether or not a point in the s-plane is
on the root locus.
The angle criterion is defined as
on the root locus,
Note that +180° could be used rather than -180°. The use of -180° is just a convention. Since +180° and
-180° are the same angle, either produces the same result.
The angle criterion is a direct result of the definition of the root locus; it is another way to express the locus
requirements. The root locus is defined as the set of roots that satisfy the characteristic equation

or, equivalently,

Taking the phase of each side of the equation yields the angle criterion.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

The Angle Criterion .. An Example

♦Given the system with forward-loop transfer function

•The phase angle for various points in the complex plane are listed in the following
tables where the points in table 1 have a phase equal to 180 degrees and thus satisfy
the angle criterion. And those in table 2 do not satisfy the angle criterion, and thus
must not be on the root locus.

Table 1 Table 2
Coordinate Phase Coordinate Phase
0,0 180 -4,0 0
-1,1 180 -2,-2 150.3
-2,0 180 1,1 104
-1,-1 180 0,-1 206.6
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Angles of departure & arrival

The angle of departure is the angle at which the locus leaves a pole in the s-plane.
The angle of arrival is the angle at which the locus arrives at a zero in the s-plane.

In the following graphs,

the angles are indicated
by the bold, short lines
near the poles and zeros.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Root Locus Arrival

arrival occur on the locus where two or more loci converge or diverge.
Break points often occur on the real axis, but they may appear anywhere in the s-plane.

•The loci that

approach/diverge
from a break point
do so at angles
spaced equally
about the break
point.

•The angles at
which they
arrive/leave are a
function of the
number of loci that
approach/diverge
from the break
point.
 THE ROOT LOCUS METHOD

Root Locus Gain

The root locus gain, typically denoted as K, is a gain of the forward-loop system.
While determining the root locus, this gain is varied from 0 to infinity.

Note that the corresponding variations in the poles of the closed-loop system
determine the root locus.
As the gain moves from 0 to infinity, the poles move from the forward-loop
poles along the locus toward forward-loop zeros or infinity.
In block diagram form, the root locus gain is located in the forward loop,
before the system, as shown below.
 Constructing the Locus

An illustrative Example
Let the transfer function for the system, G(s), be

and the controller, Gc(s) be

The forward-loop
transfer function is

Steps for constructing the root locus:

Step 1: Mark the forward loop poles and zeros in the complex plane.

Step 2: Draw the real-axis part of the locus.

 Constructing the Locus

An illustrative Example

Step 3: Locate the centroid and draw the asymptotes

Step 4: Locate the breakpoints (if any).

Step 5: Draw the angles of arrival and departure.

 Constructing the Locus

An illustrative Example

Step 6: Locate the imaginary-axis crossings (if any).

Step 7: Draw the locus by connecting the poles with the breakpoints,
axis crossings, asymptotes, and arrival angles.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 1: Open-Loop Roots

♦Draw the poles and zeros exactly as they appear in the forward-loop system.
Include all of the poles and zeros, i.e. poles and zeros of both the controller and the
uncontrolled system. Start with the forward-loop poles and zeros. Since the locus
represents the path of the roots (specifically, paths of the closed-loop poles) as the root
locus gain is varied, we start with the forward-loop configuration, i.e. the location of
the roots when the gain of the closed-loop system is 0.

♦Each locus starts at a forward-loop pole and ends at a forward-loop zero.

• Poles are represented with an X, and Zeros are represented with an O.

♦ If the system has more poles than zeros, then some of the loci end at
zeros located infinitely far from the poles
♦The poles will be the starting points of the loci, and the zeros will be the
ending points.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 1: Open-Loop Roots .. Example

Given the system transfer function

and the controller transfer function

The forward-loop has 5 roots: poles at -4, -1, and 1; zeros at -3 and -1.

Note that the zero at -1 (from the

controller) 'cancels' the pole at -1
(from the system).

Plotted in the s-plane, the roots look

like this:
 Constructing the Locus

Step 2: Real Axis Part of the locus

Many root loci have paths on the real axis. Those are determined entirely by the
number of forward-loop poles and zeros and their relative locations. .
If there are no poles or zeros on the real axis, then there will be no real axis part of
the root locus.

Here the real axis part of the locus

is the entire locus.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 3: Asymptotes
The asymptotes indicate where the poles will go as the gain approaches infinity.

For systems with more poles than zeros, the number of asymptotes is equal to
the number of poles minus the number of zeros.
In some systems, there are no asymptotes; when the number of poles is equal to
the number of zeros then each locus is terminated at a zero rather than
asymptotically to infinity.
The asymptotes are symmetric about the real axis, and they stem from a point
defined by the relative magnitudes of the open-loop roots. This point is called
the centroid.
Note that it is possible to draw a root locus for systems with more zeros than poles,
but such systems do not represent physical systems. In these cases, you can think of
some of the poles being located at infinity.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 3: Asymptotes
The number of asymptotes is equal to the difference between the number
of poles and the number of zeros. The location of the centroid on the real
axis is given by:
where pi and zj are the poles and zeros, respectively.
Note since pi and zj are symmetric about the real axis,
their imaginary parts get cancelled out.

Once you have located the centroid, draw the asymptotes at the proper angles.
The asymptotes will leave the centroid at angles defined by

Note that because of the symmetry, the asymptotes must assume one of the following configurations,
for n-m = 1,2,3,4,5.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 3: Asymptotes .. Example

Now suppose the controller transfer function is

then the location of the centroid is given by

Note, since there are three more poles than zeros, there will be three asymptotes.

One of the asymptotes is on the real axis, the other two start at the centroid and
leave the real axis at angles of +60 and -60 degrees, respectively.

The asymptotes and centroid can then be

plotted in the s-plane as shown.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 3: Asymptotes .. Example

The transfer function is

The controller transfer function is

then the location of the centroid is given by

Since there are two more poles than zeros, there will be two asymptotes spaced 180
degrees from each other and leaving the real axis at +90 and -90 degrees.

The asymptotes and centroid can then be

plotted in the s-plane as shown below.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 4: Breakpoints

- Break points occur where two or more loci join then diverge.
- Although they are most commonly encountered on the real axis, they may also
occur elsewhere in the complex plane.
- Each break point is a point where a double (or higher order) root exists for some value of K.
- Mathematically, given the root locus equation

where the transfer function G(s) consists of a numerator, A(s), and denominator,
B(s), then the break points can be determined from the roots of
- If K is real and positive at a value s that
satisfies this equation, then the point is a break
point.
Perhaps the easiest way to find break points is by trial and error. First, determine the
characteristic equation of the system in terms of K. In the vicinity of the suspected break
point, substitute values for s in this equation. A break point occurs when the
characteristic equation is minimized.
To calculate the break point explicitly requires that you derive the derivative of the
characteristic equation in terms of s then equate the derivative to 0 and solve that equation for
K and s.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 4: Breakpoints .. Example

For the system with forward-loop transfer function

and using the root locus criterion

yields the equation in terms of K,

We suspect a break point on the real axis between -2 and -4 (Why? Look at the
locus from steps 1 through 3, and remember that root locus paths cannot lie on
top of each other), so we try values in that range.
s K
Of the points we tried, 2.25 yielded the smallest 2.5 1.875
value for K, so the breakpoint is about 2.25. To get
3.0 1.5
a more accurate location of the break point, one
would try points to either side of 2.25 to locate the 2.25 1.38
minimum. 2.4 1.76
 Constructing the Locus

Step 5: Angles of Departure/Arrival

The angle criterion determines which direction the roots move as the gain moves
from zero (angles of departure, at the forward-loop poles) to infinity (angles of
arrival, at the forward-loop zeros).
An angle of departure/arrival is calculated at each of the complex forward-loop poles
and zeros.

Angle of departure: At each complex pole, add up the angles from the zeros to
the current pole, then subtract the angles from the other poles to the current pole.

Angle of arrival: At each zero, add up the angles from the poles to the current
zero, then subtract the angles from the other zeros to the current zero. In
mathematical terms, for a given zero, the angle of departure is
 Constructing the Locus

Step 5: Angles of Departure/Arrival

By convention, the arrival and departure angles are measured relative to the real
axis, so that the positive real axis is 0. Graphically, the angles look like this

Note that single poles and zeros on the real axis will always have arrival/departure
angles equal to 0 or 180 degrees due to the symmetry of the complex conjugates
 Constructing the Locus

Step 5: Angles of Departure/Arrival .. Example

For the system with forward-loop transfer function

the angle of departure for the pole located at (-2, 1) is equal to

Graphically, this is represented as

 Constructing the Locus

Step 5: Angles of Departure/Arrival .. Example

For the system with forward-loop transfer function

the angle of departure for the pole located at (-5, 1.5) is equal to

Graphically, this is represented as

 Constructing the Locus
Step 6: Axis Crossings
The points where the root locus intersects the imaginary axis indicate the values of K at which the
closed loop system is marginally stable. The closed loop system will be unstable for any gain for
which the locus is in the right half-plane of the complex plane.
If the root locus crosses the imaginary axis from left to right at a point where K=K0 and then stays
completely in the right half-plane, then the closed-loop system is unstable for all K>K0. Therefore,
knowing the value of K0 is very useful.
Some systems are particularly nasty when their locus dips back and forth across the imaginary axis.
In these systems, increasing the root locus gain will cause the system to go unstable initially and
then becomes stable again
Not every locus will have imaginary axis crossings. First determine if the locus will definitely cross
the imaginary axis (for example, if there are more than two asymptotes), or if there is a good chance
that the locus crosses the imaginary axis (for example, if there are poles or zeros close to the
imaginary axis and/or the arrival/departure angles lead you to believe that the locus may cross).
There are three ways to find the points where the locus intersects the imaginary axis:
•trial and error (bracketing)
•the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion
•solving for omega and K
Which method to use depends on how accurately you need the locations of the axis crossings.
 Constructing the Locus
Step 6: Axis Crossings
Trial and error. Start at the origin in the complex plane. Move up the imaginary axis in discrete steps
and calculate the phase of the forward loop transfer function at each step. If the phase at the last point
was less than 180 degrees and the phase at the current point is greater than 180 degrees (or vice versa)
then an axis crossing lies between the two points. If the phase is equal to 180 degrees, then the point is
on the locus and is an imaginary axis crossing point.
By bracketing regions on the imaginary axis, you can often quickly determine the axis crossings using
this method. Rather than working up from the origin in regular steps, bracketing uses a binary search
approach in which two points are tested, then another point is chosen based on whether or not there
was a phase change between the two points. If there was a phase change, the third point is chosen
between the two, of not, it is chosen outside the two.
Using the Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion. From the characteristic equation, create the matrix of
coefficients as you would to determine the stability of the system. Then from the matrix of coefficients,
solve for K such that the stability criterion is met. Then solve for s to determine where on the imaginary
axis the gain K is in effect. Note that this method can be very difficult to use, especially for systems
with many poles and zeros.
Solving for omega and K. Let s = j omega in the characteristic equation, equating both the real and
imaginary parts to zero, then solve for omega and K. The values of omega are the frequencies at which
the root loci cross the imaginary axis. The value of K is the root locus gain at which the crossing
occurs.
 Constructing the Locus

Step 6: Axis Crossings .. Example

Take as an example the system with transfer function

Following steps 1 to 3 leads to the following, partially completed, locus

There is one asymptote and two break

points, sb1 and sb2 . Since the locus must
connect the two break points, and since
each break point is on a different side of the
imaginary axis, we know that there must be
imaginary axis crossings.
Using the trial-and-error method, we start at the origin and work our way up the
imaginary axis, calculating the phase at each point. For each interval in which we find
a phase change (a transition through +180 degrees or -180 degrees), we try more
points until we zero in on the axis crossing (the point at which the phase is equal to
180 degrees).
 Constructing the Locus

Step 6: Axis Crossings .. Example

Omega Phase
In this case, the
transition 0.0 180
occurs at (0,1) 0.25 242
and (0,-1). 0.5 217
0.75 196
1.0 180
1.5 158
2.0 144
2.5 134
3.0 126

The root locus for this system is given above.

 Constructing the Locus

Step 7: Sketch the Locus

The complete root locus can be drawn by starting from the forward-loop poles,
connecting the real axis section, break points, and axis crossings, then ending at
either the forward-loop zeros or along the asymptotes to infinity and beyond.
If your hand-drawn locus is not detailed enough to determine the behavior of your
system, then you may want to use MATLAB or some other computer tool to calculate
the locus exactly
Now sketch in the rest of the locus. Use the asymptotes, arrival/departure angles,
break points, and axis crossings to guide your sketch.
In general, zeros tend to 'repel' the locus, whereas poles tend to 'attract' the locus.
One locus segment tends to 'attract' another locus segment until a break point forms.

Typically, the only time one needs to determine exactly the locus shape is when the
locus is near the imaginary axis or in regions where a detailed understanding of the
system behavior in the time domain is required.
In these cases, if the previous steps did not yield locus details sufficiently accurate for
your purposes, then use a computer tool to generate the locus exactly.
 Constructing the Locus

Calculating the Gain

The root locus shows you graphically how the system roots will move as you change
the root locus gain.
Often, however, one must determine the gain at critical points on the locus, such as
points where the locus crosses the imaginary axis
The magnitude criterion is used to determine the value of the root locus gain, K, at
any point on the root locus.

The gain is calculated by multiplying the lengths of the distance between each pole to
the point then dividing that by the product of the lengths of the distance between each
zero and the point.
 Constructing the Locus

Calculating the Gain .. Example

Consider the system with transfer function

and corresponding root locus

Coordinate Gain

The gain at the point (-1, 0) is thus 0.75,0 0.9375

0.5,0 1.75

0.25,0 2.4375

0,0 4
The root locus gain for other points on the locus are given
0,0.25 4.0625
in the following table: 0,0.5 4.25

0,0.75 4.5625

0,1 5

0,2 8

0,3 13
 Constructing the Locus
These are some root locus plots for a variety of systems. They include the construction marks
for arrival/departure angles, asymptotes, break points, and axis crossings. Note that in some
cases, a slight change in pole or zero coordinates can result in a markedly different locus.
Note also, however, that such small changes to the roots will not change more general locus
characteristics, such as the number of asymptotes

Locus for a system with three poles and no zeros

Locus for a system with three poles and two zeros.
Note that the part of the locus off the real axis is
close to joining with the real axis, in which case
break points would occur

Locus for a system with 4 poles and 3 zeros.

Note the part of the locus that is to the right of the imaginary axis.
 Constructing the Locus

Locus for a system with 6 poles and 2 zeros. In
this locus, determining the points where the locus
crosses the real axis is rather important, since there
is only a small set of values for K for which the
system is stable.
Locus for a system with 3 poles and 2 zeros.
Based upon the construction steps, there is
no obvious indication of how the curvature
of this locus should be drawn. The curvature
must be determined computationally.

Locus for a system with 5 poles and 2 zeros.
Compare this locus with that in the next image
Locus for a system with 5 poles and 2 zeros. Compare this locus
with that in the previous image. A slight change in the position of
the zeros changes the shape of the locus, but does not change the
system behavior for large values of the root locus gain
 PROPERTIES OF THE ROOT LOCUS

1. The number of branches of the root locus equals the number of

closed loop poles
2. Root locus is symmetrical about the real axis
3. Each branch of the root locus starts from an open-loop pole ( where k
= 0 ) and terminates at an open-loop zero or at infinity(where k= ∞ ).
4. The number branches terminating at infinity is equal to n - m ,
for a system with n poles and m zeros.
5. The n - m branches terminating at infinity are asymptotic to straight lines
intersecting at real axis at the point
Σ Poles - Σ Zeros
σ =
A n-m
and
2q + 1 o
ϕ A
= 180 , q = 0, 1,2,……,n - m - 1
n-m
 PROPERTIES OF THE ROOT LOCUS

6. The point at which the root locus intersects the imaginary axis can
be determined by using the Routh Criterion
7. The break-away and re-entry points on the root locus are determined
from the roots of dK/ds = dG/ds=0. If r branches meet at a point, the
break away occurs at an angle of 180 / r.
8. The root locus departs from complex, open loop poles, and arrives at
complex, open loop zeros at certain angles. The angle of departure from
an open-loop (complex) pole is given by

Φ = 180 - Σ angles of vectors drawn from other poles to this

pole
+ Σ angles of vectors drawn from other zeros to this pole
The angle of arrival to an open-loop (complex) zero is given by

Φ = 180 - Σ angles of vectors drawn from other zeros to this

zero
 PROPERTIES OF THE ROOT LOCUS

8. The points at which the root loci intersect the imaginary axis can be
determined by letting s = jω , then

Re {KG(jω ) H(jω )} = -1
Im {KG(jω ) H(jω )} = 0

and then solving for K and ω .

 The ROOT LOCUS Procedure

Step 1: Write the characteristic equation of the closed loop system

in pole-zero form such that the parameter of k appears as 1 + kP(s) = 0

Step 2: Locate the open-loop poles and zeros of p(s) in the s-plane

Step 3: Locate the center and angles of the asymptotes

Step 4: Determine the number of separate root locus branches

Step 5: Determine the breakaway point on the real axis

Step 6: Estimate the angle of root locus departure from complex poles and the
angle of arrival at complex zeros

Step 7: Determine the points of the root locus crossing of the imaginary axis
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Problem description

Given the closed loop system shown

below and the transfer function Y(s) K G(s)
=
The response of the system depends mainly R(s) 1 + K G(s) H(s)
on the closed loop poles of the system
Those poles locations depend on the value of k
to be selected according to some specifications 0< K<∞
Thus , we need to study the locations of the
Closed loop poles as k varies from 0 to ∞

Then select a stable range for Y(s)

k to satisfy a certain response
R(s) + K G(s)
-
characteristics .

H(s)
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Problem Formulation

Thus given the characteristic equation of the closed-loop system as

1 + k G(s) H(s)
the locus of the characteristic roots (poles) of the system as k varies from
0 → ∞ are determined from the Angle Criterion
kG(s)H(s) = (1 +2n ) Π , n = 0,1,2,….

Or the Magnitude Criterion

1
kG(s)H(s) =1 or k =
G(s) H(s)
n m
Π Π s - zJ
= Im=1 s - pi
J =1
or k where G(s)H(s) = k
Π s - zJ n
J =1 Π s - pi
i =1
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 1
k
1+ =0
s ( s + 4 )(s +4 + j4)(s + 4 - j4)
1. Poles of the open-loop system (k = 0) are s = 0 , -4 , -4 ± j4
2. n=4, m=0 i.e. there are 4 branches ending at infinity
3. Asymptotes center and angles are
-4-4-4
σ A
= = -3
4o
2q + 1 o o o o
ϕ A = 180 = +45 , 135 , 225 , 315
4
4. The break away points are determined from
k = - s (s + 4) (s + 4 + j4) (s + 4 - j4) = P(s) = 0
Let dk/ds = 0 and solve for s
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 1 .. continued
or search for a maximum of P(s) in the region between s = 0 and s = -4 as shown
below
s -4 -3 -2 -1.5 -1.0 0

P(s) 0 51 80 85 -1.0 0
Thus the RL breaks away at about s = - 1.5

5. The jω axis crossings :

The C.E. is rewritten as s4 + 12s3 + 64s2 + 128s + k = 0 and
letting s = jω , re { . } = -1 and im{ . } = 0, we get k atjw = 570
where there are two imaginary poles at s = ± j3.25 .
6. The angles of departure are calculated as
θ d1 = 225 = − 135 and θ d2 = −225 = 135
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 1 .. continued

× j4
θ d1 = 225

j3.25

ϕ Α = 45
× ×
-4 -2 0
σ Α = −3

-j3.25
θ d2 = 135

× - j4
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 1 .. continued
Using the following MATLAB and Control System Toolbox script
n=[0 0 0 1]
p=[1 12 64 128 0]
rlocus(p,n)
you will get the shown graph 6

of the root locus. 4

Im a g A xi s

-2

-4

-6
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
R e a l A xis
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 2
k
G(s) H(s) =
s ( s2 + 6s + 25 )
1. Poles of the open-loop system (k = 0) are s = 0 , - 3 ± j4
2. n = 3 , m = 0 i.e. there are 3 branches ending at infinity
3. Asymptotes center and angles are
0-3-3
σ A
= = -2 ϕ Α = 60 , 180 , 300
3
4. The break away points are determined from
k = s ( s2 + 6s + 25 ) = P(s) = 0 and letting dk/ds = 0 , and solve for s
to yield s = -2 ± j2.0817
5. The jω axis crossings occur at s = ± j5 when k= 150
6. The angles of departure are calculated as θ d1 = − 36.8 and θ d2 = 36.8
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 2 .. continued

s = 0 , - 3 ± j4
8

0-3-3
σ = = -2 6

A
3 4

ϕ Α = 60 , 180 , 300 2

Im a g A xi s
0

break away points at

s = -2 ± j2.0817
-2

-4

jω axis crossings at -6

s = ± j5 -8
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
R e a l A xi s

The angles of departure are θ d1 = − 36.8 and θ d2 = 36.8

 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 3
k
G(s) H(s) =
s ( s2 + 6s + 10 )
1. Poles of the open-loop system (k = 0) are s = 0 , - 3 ± j1
2. n = 3 , m = 0 i.e. there are 3 branches ending at infinity
3. Asymptotes center and angles are
0-3-3
σ A
= = -2 ϕ Α = 60 , 180 , 300
3
4. The break away points are determined from
k = s ( s2 + 6s + 10 ) = P(s) = 0 and letting dk/ds = 0 , and solve for s
to yield s1 = 1.1835 and s2= -2.8165
5. The jω axis crossings occur at s = ± j√ 10 when k= 60
6. The angles of departure are calculated as θ d1 = − 71.57 and θ d2 = 71.57
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

EXAMPLE 3 .. continued

s = 0 , - 3 ± j1 6

0-3-3
σ = = -2
4

A
3
2

ϕ Α = 60 , 180 , 300

Im a g A x i s
0

break away points at

s1 = 1.1835 and -2

s2= -2.8165 -4

jω axis crossings at
s = ± j√ 10 when k= 60
-6
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
R e a l A xis

The angles of departure are θ d1 = − 71.57 and θ d2 = 71.57

 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Design Problem
A control system is needed to satisfy the following specifications :
(a) steady state error for a ramp input to be ≤ 10% of the input magnitude
(b) damping ratio of the dominant roots to be ≥ 0.707
(c) settling time to be ≤ 3 sec

G(s)
+ E(s) k
R(s) Σ 1
Y(s)
_ s(s+2)

H(s)
1+ks 2
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Design Problem Solution

2
s [ R /s ]
(a) ess = lim e(t) = lim s E(s) = lim
t →∞ s→ 0 s→ 0 1 + GH(s)
1
We need ess / R≤ 0.1 lim ≤ 0.1
s→ 0 s G H(s)
where k1 ( 1 + k2s )
GH(s) =
s(s+2)
s+2
lim ≤ 0.1 2/k1≤ 0.1
s→ 0 k1( 1 + k2s )
k1 ≥ 20
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Design Problem Solution .. continued

(b) For ξ ≥ 0.707 , the angle of the vector from the origin to the dominant
poles locations of the closed-loop system should be ≤ 45
(c) Ts = 4/ ξ ω n = 4/ σ ≤ 3 sec σ ≥ 4/3
(d) This means the real part of the dominant poles is ≥ 1.33

Now the C.E. is 1 + GH(s) = s2 + (2 + k1k2) s + k1 = 0

We will let α = k1 and β = k1k2

The locus of the dominant poles as α =k1
varies from 0 to 20 can be determined from O
45
α
1+ =0
s (s+2)
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

Design Problem Solution .. continued

2

1.5

The root locus is shown here for 1

0.5

s2 + (2 + k1k2) s + k1 = 0

Ima g A xis
0

-0.5

when α = k1 = 20
-1

-1.5

-2
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Real Axis

In this case, β = 20 k2 , and the CE is 6

s
1+ β =0
4

s2 + 2s + α 2

Im a g A xis
0

The root locus is shown here, where the

poles are indicated for
-2

-4

ξ = 0.707 and β = 4.3 -6

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
Real Axis

= 20 k2 ,
and k2 = 0.215
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

No G(S) Root Locus No G(S) Root Locus

1 1 p1
1 × 4 (s + p1)(s + p2)
(s + p1) -p1 p2
p1 , p2 Complex
1 .5

-z1 (s + z1)
(s + z1)
0 .5

2 × o 5

Im a g A xis
-p1
0

(s + p1) (s + p1)(s + p2) -0 .5

-1

z1 < p1 < p2 -1 .5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2
R e a l A xi s
-1 0 1 2

1 (s + z1) -z1
× × × o ×
3 (s + p1) (s + p2) -p2 -p1 6 (s + p1)(s + p2) -p1 -p2
p1 < z1 < p2
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

No G(S) Root Locus No G(S) Root Locus

6

(s + z1) 4

-z1 1
2

7 (s + p1)(s + p2) × × o

Im a g A xi s
10 s (s + p2)(s + p3)
0

-p1 -p2 -2

p2 < p1 < z2 -4

-6
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis

1 3

0 .8

(s + z1)
2
0 .6

0 .4

1 1

(s + p1)(s + p2)
0 .2

8 11
Im a g A xis

(s + p)

Im a g A xi s
0

2
0

-0.2

-1
-0.4

-0.6

p1 ,p2 Complex
-2

-0.8

-1
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
Real Axis
R e al A xis

2 .5 2 .5

2 2

1 .5 1 .5

1
1

0 .5
1 1

9 12
0 .5

(s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3) (s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3)

Im a g A xis

Im a g A x is
0 0

-0 .5 -0 .5

p2, p3 Complex
-1 -1

-1 .5 -1 .5

-2
-2

-2 .5
-2 .5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1 - 0 .8 -0 .6 - 0 .4 - 0 .2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1
R e a l A x is
R e a l A x is
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

No G(S) Root Locus No G(S) Root Locus

2
4

1.5
3

(s + z1) (s + z1)
1
2

(s + z1) 1
0.5

13

Im a g A xis
Im a g A xi s
(s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3) 16 (s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3)
0
0

-0.5
-1

-1
-2

-1.5

p1<p2 < p3< z1 p1< z1 < p2 < p3<z2

-3

-2
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 Real Axis

Real Axis

1 .5
3

1
2

0 .5

(s + z1) (s + z1)(s + z2)

1

14 17

Im a g A xis
Im a g A xi s

(s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3)

0

-1
s(s + p1)(s + p2) -0 .5

p1<p2 < z1 < p3 p1<p2 < z1 <z2 <p3

-2 -1

-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -1 .5
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
R e al A x is
R e a l A xis

3 3

2 2

(s + z1)(s + z2)
1 1

15 (s + z1) 18 s(s + p1)(s + p2)

Im a g A xi s

Im a g A x i s
0 0

(s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3) -1 -1

p1<p2 < z1 < p3 < z2

p1< z1 < p2 < p3
-2 -2

-3
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2
R e a l A x is
R e a l A x is
 The ROOT LOCUS Problem

G(S)= 1
(s + p1)(s + p2)(s + p3)(s + p4)
No Root Locus No Root Locus
3 2.5

(All Real Poles) 2 (All Complex Poles)

2
1.5

19 1
21
1

0.5
Imag A xis

Imag A xis
0 0

-0.5

-1
-1

-1.5
-2

-2

-3 -2.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Real Axis Real Axis

2 1.5

(2 Real & 2 Complex Poles) (2 Real & 2 Complex Poles)

1.5
1

0.5
0.5
Im a g A xis

Im a g A xi s
0 0

-0.5

20 22
-0.5

-1

-1
-1.5

-2 -1.5
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Real Axis Real Axis
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1
For the system given, plot the root locus as the parameter K1 is varied from 0 to
∞ given λ = 2.
Solution:
We need to put the
characteristic equation for
the closed loop system in
the standard form for a root
locus plot, viz.,

The characteristic equation can be found by Block diagram reduction. Note that the
summations in the feedback path all occur at essentially the same signal point. Hence
we could think of the block diagram having the following nested feedback loop
structure:
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1

We can then successively replace the simple feedback loops with single blocks
according to the G/(1+GH) rule:
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1

From this diagram we can write the characteristic equation directly as

That is,

This leads to

Hence, in standard form with K1 as the free parameter, the characteristic equation is
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1
•The asymptotes are determined to be ± 90° and intersect the real axis at

λ =2

•Breakaway points are at the solution of A'(s)B(s) – A(s)B'(s) = 0

Here,
A(s) = s3 + 13s2 +22s; B(s) = 2(s + 5)
A'(s) = 3s2 + 26s +22; B'(s) = 2
•Hence equation to be solved is 4s3 + 56s2 +260s + 220 = 0
•Solutions are (e.g., using MATLAB roots function) s = - 1.08, -6.46 ± j3.06.
•Get a the root locus plot, using MATLAB, as follows:

GH = zpk([-5], [0;-11;-2], 2);

rlocus(GH)
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1

GH = zpk([-5], [0;-11;-2], 2);

rlocus(GH)
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1
Now, repeat the problem with λ = 5. What is special about this value?
Solution
For λ = 5, the characteristic equation becomes

•That is, there is a pole-zero "cancellation".

•Note however, that the system is in fact still
of third-order, and one of the closed-loop poles
remains at s = -5, regardless of the value of K1.
•The root locus may be plotted as before:

GH = zpk([-5], [0;-11;-5], 2);

rlocus(GH)
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 1
•The branch of the root locus beginning at the open-loop pole s = -5 terminates at the zero
at the same location. That is, one closed-loop pole is "trapped" at s = -5.

•This conclusion may also be reached by examining the characteristic equation again, in the form

•It is clear that this can be factorized as follows:

•Hence the closed-loop poles are at s = −5 and σ = −5.5 ± √ ( 30.25 − 2 Κ 1 )

•Note that there is no zero in the closed-loop transfer function from R(s) to Y(s):
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
For the system given in problem 1, plot the root locus as the parameter λ is varied from 0
to ∞ given K1 = 2.

Solution
We need to re-arrange the characteristic equation so that λ is the free parameter:

That is, re-arranging we get (with K1 = 2),

In standard root locus form:

That is,
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
Using MATLAB for the root locus:
GH = tf([1 11 0], [1 11 4 20]);
rlocus(GH)
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 3
Consider the system in figure

(a) Use Routh's criterion to determine the regions in the (K1, K2) plane for which
the system is stable.
(b) Use the root-locus method to verify your answer to part (a).
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2 .. Solution
•The characteristic equation for the closed-loop system is

•Expand the characteristic equation yields:

•Consider the case when K2 = 0, then

•The Routh-Hurwitz table is then:

s 3: 1 0.5
•Hence, sufficient conditions for stability s2: 1.5 K1
are K1 > 0 and K1 < 0.75. Thus s1: (0.75-K1)/1.5
0 < K1 < 0.75 s0: K1
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2 .. Solution
Confirm this with a root locus plot for

GH = tf(1, [1 1.5 0.5 0]); rlocus(GH)

 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
•The upper branch crosses the imaginary axis when s = jω .
Substituting this in the characteristic equation, and collecting
real and imaginary parts of the equation, gives
•The first equation yields the solutions ω = 0 (corresponding to
the open-loop pole, when K1 = 0), and w = ± 0.707 rad/s.

•Inserting the latter solution in the second equation yields K1 = 0.75,

confirming the Routh analysis. You can also check this using MATLAB's rloc
find function: [K1, clp] = rlocfind(GH)
Selecting a point in the graphics window, say the point = 0.0000 + 0.7081i, then
K1 = 0.7520
clp = -1.5007
0.0004 + 0.7079i
0.0004 - 0.7079I
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
•Now consider the case when K2 ≠ 0, where the characteristic equation can now be written as

or

•Necessary conditions for stability are that K1 > 0 and K2 > 0 and others from the R-H table

•Again, we get a requirement that K1 < 0.75 s 4: 1 0.5 K1K2

•In addition, the fourth element of the first s3: 1.5 K1
column requires that s2: 0.75 − Κ 1 1.5K1K2

•Since K1 > 0, this means that K1 + 2.25K2 < 0.75 s1: [(0.75-K1)K1
− 2.25Κ 1Κ 2]/(1.5 − Κ 1)
•Together with K1 > 0 and K2 > 0, this defines
s0:1.5K1K2
an area in the (K1, K2) plane shown
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
•We can use a root locus analysis to check, say, two points in this plane.
•For example, let K2 = 0.25, and draw the root locus for K1.
•The characteristic equation is
•Hence, we want to draw the root locus for the equation

Putting s = jω in the characteristic

equation again yields

GH = zpk([-0.25], [0; 0; -0.5; -1], 1); rlocus(GH)

 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
•The second equation has solutions ω = 0 (corresponding to K1 = 0), and ω 2
=
K1/1.5.
•Substituting the latter solution in the first equation yields
•Hence, K1 = 0, or K1 = 0.1875, for which the loci cross the imaginary axis at ω = ± 0.3536.
•This confirms the Routh analysis, which required that K1 > 0 and K1 + 2.25K2 < 0.75;
i.e., K1 < 0.75 – 2.25× 0.25 = 0.1875.

•As a further test, let K1 = 0.5, say, and draw the root locus for K2.
•The characteristic equation is

Hence, we want to draw the root locus for the equation

That is,
 Design by Root Locus

Problem 2
•The axis crossing analysis yields

•Solutions of the second equation are

∀ω = 0 (corresponding to K2 = 0), and

∀ ω 2
= 0.5/1.5; , ω = ± 0.5774.

•Substituting in the first equation yields

GH = tf(0.5, [1 1.5 0.5 0.5 0]); rlocus(GH)
K2 = 0.1111.

The Routh analysis requires K2 > 0 and K2 < (0.75 – 0.5)/2.25 = 0.1111.