Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653

www.elsevier.com/locate/sse

A closed-form DC model for long-channel thin-film transistors

with gate voltage-dependent mobility characteristics
R.L. Hoffman *

Hewlett-Packard Company, M/S 323E, 1000 NE Circle Blvd, Corvallis, OR 97330-4239, United States

Received 27 August 2004; received in revised form 26 October 2004; accepted 12 December 2004
Available online 2 February 2005

The review of this paper was arranged by Prof. A. Zaslavsky

Abstract

A model is derived for the drain current (under DC steady-state operating conditions) of a long-channel thin-film transistor
(TFT) with gate voltage-dependent channel mobility. A closed-form expression is obtained for cases in which the average mobility
(lavg) can be reasonably approximated by an nth-order polynomial curve fit; a more generalized expression allows the substitution of
an arbitrary parameterized equation for lavg, yielding a closed-form expression in cases where the form of the selected mobility
expression is such that the requisite integration can be carried out analytically. The model is employed to replicate measured drain
current versus drain voltage (ID–VDS) curves for exemplary zinc oxide and zinc tin oxide channel TFTs with highly non-ideal (i.e.,
gate voltage-dependent) mobility characteristics; in each case, excellent correlation to measured ID–VDS data is obtained, thus val-
idating the proposed model. This model comprises a valuable tool in the preliminary development of novel TFTs for which standard
device models are not, in general, appropriate.

2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

PACS: 85.30.De; 85.30.Tv

Keywords: Thin-film transistor model; Gate voltage-dependent mobility

1. Introduction is one of the most widely recognized equations in the de-

vice physics field [1]. Its simple, closed-form nature is
The ideal metal-insulator-semiconductor field-effect both qualitatively instructive (e.g., in understanding
transistor (MISFET) model, the fundamental operation of a MISFET) and quantita-
8 tively useful (e.g., as a tool for preliminary circuit design
>
> 0
>
> and analysis).
>
> . . . V GS 6 V T
>
> h i However, while Eq. (1) provides a reasonable first-
>
< lC W ðV
V ÞV
V 2DS
ins L GS T DS 2
order representation of the DC current–voltage
ID ¼ ð1Þ characteristics of long-channel [1] crystalline Si metal-
>
> . . . V DS 6 V GS
V T ;
>
> oxide-semiconductor FETs (MOSFETs), its application
>
> 1 lC W ðV
V Þ2
>
> ins L GS T to the more general device class of MISFETs is often
>
:2
. . . V DS > V GS
V T less satisfactory. In particular, thin-film transistors
(TFTs) often exhibit severe deviation from the general
behavior predicted by the ideal model.
A primary source of this deviation (for long-channel
*
Tel.: +1 541 715 8857; fax: +1 541 715 8065. devices) lies in the nature of the TFT channel mobility,
E-mail address: randy.hoffman@hp.com l. The ideal MISFET model, as shown in Eq. (1),

0038-1101/$ - see front matter
2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sse.2004.12.009
 R.L. Hoffman / Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653
Nomenclature
l (cm2/V s) field-effect transistor (FET) channel
mobility
lavg (cm2/V s) FET channel average mobility
Cins (F/cm2) metal-insulator-semiconductor field-
effect transistor (MISFET) gate dielectric
capacitance (per unit area)
W (m) FET channel width
L (m) FET channel length
ID (A) FET drain current
VGS (V) FET gate-to-source voltage
VDS (V) FET drain-to-source voltage
VT (V) FET threshold voltage
tch (m) thin-film transistor (TFT) channel layer
thickness
assumes a constant channel mobility value for all modes
of device operation. Although this is a reasonable first-
order approximation for crystalline Si MOSFETs, many
TFTs show a strong dependence of channel mobility on
bias conditions (VGS, VDS). The consequent difficulty in
obtaining a reasonably accurate TFT model is exacer-
bated by the fact that TFTs can be made from an array
of semiconductor material systems, both organic and
inorganic, with each material system exhibiting its own
distinct set of mobility non-idealities.
The availability of a reasonably accurate closed-form
TFT model, capable of incorporating an arbitrary non-
ideal mobility characteristic, would be of great value in
furthering the development of novel TFTs and material
systems. Perhaps the primary advantage of such a model
would be in its use in circuit simulation (e.g., via incor-
poration into a generalized SPICE TFT model), so as to
allow reasonably accurate circuit analysis based upon an
arbitrary TFT technology to be initiated in a relatively
early phase of material/device research.
Sophisticated models have, in fact, been developed
for amorphous and poly-crystalline Si TFTs, as a result
of their technological significance as pixel control ele-
ments in active matrix liquid crystal display (AMLCD)
technology. Furthermore, these models do take into ac-
count non-ideal (gate voltage-dependent) channel
mobility, typically through the use of a parameterized
expression appropriate for the generally expected behav-
ior of the material system being modeled (see, e.g., the
models developed by Shur and co-workers for amor-
phous Si, poly-crystalline Si, and organic TFTs
[OTFTs]) [2–6]. Such models, however, are tailored to
a specific material system (e.g., amorphous or poly-crys-
talline Si) and typically take into account an array of
additional non-idealities (e.g., short-channel effects),
such that there remains little if any applicability to a
more general set of non-ideal TFTs.
649
Jn (A/cm2) electron current density
q (C) elementary charge (electron charge)
n (cm
3) volumetric electron density
V (V) electron quasi-Fermi potential
E (V/cm) electric field strength
GSH (A/V) FET channel sheet conductance
GCH (A/V) FET channel conductance
Qind (C/cm2) gate voltage-induced FET channel
charge (per unit area)
Von (V) TFT turn-on voltage
Veff (V) portion of the applied TFT gate voltage that
acts to induce mobile channel charge
The approach taken herein relies on the assumption
of ideal TFT characteristics, with the exception of chan-
nel mobility, which is left unrestricted (Brown et al.
take a similar direction in an analysis of OTFT cur-
rent–voltage characteristics, however a closed-form
solution is not obtained [7]). The resulting model is
then successfully employed to reproduce the drain cur-
rent–drain voltage (ID–VDS) characteristics of exem-
plary zinc oxide and zinc tin oxide channel TFTs with
highly non-ideal (i.e., gate voltage-dependent) mobility
characteristics.
2. Model derivation
This analysis initially follows a fairly standard route,
such as that given in Refs. [8] and [9]. Despite their avail-
ability in these and other references, Eqs. (2)–(7) are
explicitly included here since, in combination with the
accompanying discussion, they provide a clear context
for the resulting model; proper model application re-
quires a fundamental understanding of this context
(e.g., assumptions and limitations). DC steady-state
operating conditions are assumed throughout. Although
an n-channel TFT is explicitly examined, a parallel der-
ivation produces analogous results for p-channel de-
vices. Since TFT operation relies on enhancement and/
or depletion of the channel layer majority carrier popu-
lation, the contribution of minority carriers (holes, for
the n-channel device under consideration here) to device
operation is assumed to be negligible. Fig. 1 depicts a
schematic TFT structure with dimensional conventions
as employed for this analysis.
Assuming field-independent electron transport along
the channel (i.e., assuming the y-component of the aver-
age electron velocity at a given location (x, y) to be equal
to the product of the y-component of the electric field
650 R.L. Hoffman / Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653
W GSH ðyÞ ¼
L
x Eqs. (3) and (4) can now be combined, yielding
tch
Source Channel y Drain
Gate dielectric
Gate
Fig. 1. Schematic TFT structure and dimensional conventions: chan-
nel width, length, and thickness (W, L and tCH); x, y coordinate
system.
and the mobility at that location), the electron current
density at a point (x, y) within the TFT channel is given
by
dV ðyÞ
J n ðx; yÞ ¼
qlðx; yÞnðx; yÞ ; ð2Þ
dy
where q is the electron charge; x and y are dimensions
associated with the channel thickness and length, respec-
tively (as depicted in Fig. 1); and l, n, and V are the elec-
tron mobility, volumetric electron density, and electron
quasi-Fermi potential, respectively, at a point (x, y) in
the channel. For purposes of this analysis, V will be
measured with respect to its value at the source electrode
(i.e., V  0 at y = 0). Note that with V defined in this
manner (i.e., as the electron quasi-Fermi potential),
Eq. (2) exactly represents the total electron current den-
sity, accounting for both drift and diffusion [9].
Current continuity requires that the total current flow
be the same at every location y along the channel; fur-
thermore, as stated previously, the TFT is a majority
carrier device (so that minority carrier contributions to
net current flow are negligible). The drain current is thus
given by
Z tch
I D ¼
W J n ðx; yÞ dx
0
Z tch
dV ðyÞ
¼ qW lðx; yÞnðx; yÞ dx; ð3Þ
dy 0 (with respect to VGS) of drain conductance as a function
where W and tch are the channel width and thickness,
respectively (as depicted in Fig. 1), and the integration
is carried out from the gate dielectric/channel interface
through the channel cross-section (i.e., from x = 0 to
x = tch).
If the gradual channel approximation can be invoked
(i.e., if dEx/dx  dEy/dy throughout the channel, where
Ex and Ey are the x- and y-components, respectively,
of the channel electric field) [9,10], and if the device is
not operating in the saturation regime (where the
assumptions of the gradual channel approximation are
violated within the high-field pinch-off region), the elec-
tron density n(x, y) at a given location y along the
channel is established solely by the local gate-induced
field Ex, and the local channel sheet conductance is given
by
Z tch
qlðx; yÞnðx; yÞ dx: ð4Þ
0
dV ðyÞ dV
ID ¼ W GSH ðyÞ ¼ W GSH ðV Þ: ð5Þ
dy dy
As seen in Eq. (5), GSH can be expressed as a function of
either y or V, as convenient (since V is a single-valued,
monotonic function of y). Multiplying through by dy
and integrating yields
Z L Z V DS
I D dy ¼ WGSH ðV Þ dV ; ð6Þ
0 0
solving for ID, we obtain
Z V DS
W
ID ¼ GSH ðV Þ dV
L 0
Z V DS
W
¼ lavg ðV ÞQind ðV Þ dV : ð7Þ
L 0
For a given TFT, provided that the channel mobility is
field-independent (i.e., does not vary with the y-com-
ponent of the channel electric field, Ey) within the
operational range of interest, GSH can be obtained exper-
imentally from measured low-field (i.e., low drain-source
voltage) channel conductance (GCH) data (GSH = GCH/
[W/L]). Furthermore, as shown in Eq. (7), GSH is equiv-
alent to the product of Qind (the channel charge induced
by the applied gate voltage in excess of the turn-on volt-
age, Von, where Von is the gate voltage at which the onset
of channel conductance is observed in an ID–VGS mea-
surement [11]) and lavg (the average mobility of the unit
charge entities comprising Qind [11]), providing Qind is
correctly defined, and lavg is correctly extracted from
measured GCH data. The average mobility, lavg (as de-
fined in Ref. [11]), is similar to the more commonly em-
ployed effective mobility, leff (as defined in Ref. [12]);
in both cases, mobility is extracted from the derivative
of VGS, measured at low VDS (i.e., in the linear region of
device operation). lavg, however, uses Von to estimate
Qind, whereas leff employs the more common (and some-
what ill-defined [11,12]) FET parameter VT (the thresh-
old voltage). See Ref. [11] for an extended discussion of
lavg and related issues associated with TFT characteriza-
tion and analysis.
At this point, the standard analysis proceeds by
assuming l to be a constant (i.e., independent of V),
such that it can be removed from the integral in Eq.
(7); here, however, this is clearly not an option, as the
explicit goal of this analysis is to obtain a model that
deals directly and accurately with non-ideal (i.e., gate
voltage-dependent) mobility characteristics. In order to
proceed further in obtaining a closed-form expression
from Eq. (7), we define a new potential,
 R.L. Hoffman / Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653 651

V eff ðyÞ  V GS
V on
V ðyÞ: ð8Þ 12

Veff is the portion of the applied gate voltage (VGS) that µavg (VGS)
acts to induce mobile channel charge, at a given location 9
y (or, equivalently, for a given electron quasi-Fermi po-
tential V) along the channel.

µavg (cm2/V s)
Now, Qind may be reasonably approximated as 6 µavg(Veff)

Qind ðV eff Þ ¼ C ins V eff ; ð9Þ

where Cins is the TFT gate dielectric capacitance per unit
area. Although this expression is not precisely accurate,
since it assumes the induced charge to be localized ex-
actly at the channel/gate dielectric interface, it typically
(i.e., for reasonable channel layer and gate dielectric film
thicknesses) yields a reasonable estimate of the true in-
duced charge density [11]. In fact, providing that Qind
is likewise defined (i.e., using Eq. (9)) for the extraction
of lavg from measured GCH data, the resulting
[(Qind)(lavg)] product precisely represents the measured
GCH data set (i.e., any error in the estimated Qind is ex-
actly offset by a complementary error in lavg). Thus, as
long as Qind and lavg are employed strictly as a product
pair, i.e., to represent GCH (or GSH), the resulting expres-
sion is, in fact, limited only by the precision of the mea-
sured GCH data set.
With the change of variables V ! Veff, as per Eq. (8),
and with Qind as defined in Eq. (9), Eq. (7) now becomes
Z V GS
V on
W pected to follow any simple relationship. However, since
ID ¼ GSH ðV eff Þ dV eff
L V GS
V on
V DS
Z V GS
V on
W
¼ C ins l ðV eff ÞV eff dV eff : ð10Þ
L V GS
V on
V DS avg
As previously noted, this expression does not apply to
a device operating in the saturation regime (i.e., for
VDS > VGS
Von). However, if we assume a long-chan-
nel device, for which source-to-drain leakage is negligi-
ble for VGS < Von and ideal saturation is observed for
VDS > VGS
Von, Eq. (10) can be expanded so as to
cover an arbitrary set of TFT bias conditions (VGS,
3
0
-5 15 35 55 75
VGS, Veff (V)
Fig. 2. Average channel mobility (lavg) plotted against VGS (black)
and Veff (gray) for a bottom-gate zinc oxide channel TFT structure
with thermal SiO2 (100 nm) gate dielectric (extracted from ID–VGS
measurement, with VDS = 100 mV). The measured lavg(VGS) curve is
shifted by 2.1 V (i.e., by
Von) along the x-axis to obtain lavg(Veff).
channel TFT structure (gate dielectric 100 nm thermal
SiO2; channel length 200 lm; channel width-to-length
ratio 9) [11].
Since lavg is extracted from a measured GCH data set
(and since this analysis is intended to be suitable for a
wide range of TFT channel layer material systems), its
functional dependence on Veff cannot, in general, be ex-
lavg(Veff) is shifted (with respect to the measured data
set, lavg(VGS)) so as to be non-zero only for positive Veff
values (i.e., Veff is defined so as to align Von with Veff
= 0), an nth-order polynomial curve fit can be used so
as to represent lavg(Veff) to a high degree of precision.
If, then, we let lavg(Veff) take the form of an nth-order
polynomial (for Veff > 0),
8
<0 . . . V eff 6 0;
lavg ðV eff Þ ffi Pn
i ð12Þ
: ci ½V eff  . . . V eff > 0
i¼0

VDS), where {ci} are the polynomial coefficients, the integra-

8 tion in Eq. (11) can be carried out, yielding the closed-
> 0
>
> form expression
>
>
>
> . . . V GS 6 V on 8
>
> R > 0
>
< C ins W V GS
V on >
>
l ðV eff ÞV eff dV eff
L V GS
V on
V DS avg >
> . . . V GS 6 V on
ID ¼ ð11Þ >
>
>
> Pn

>
> . . . V DS 6 V GS
V on : >
>
> > W
< C ins L
ci
½ðV GS
V on Þiþ2
ðV GS
V on
V DS Þiþ2 
>
> R V
V i¼0
iþ2
>
> C ins WL 0 GS on lavg ðV eff ÞV eff dV eff ID ffi
>
>
> >
> . . . V DS 6 V GS
V on :
: >
> Pn

. . . V DS > V GS
V on >
> W ci iþ2
>
> C ins ðV GS
V on Þ
>
>
L
i¼0
iþ2
Note that lavg(Veff) is simply a shifted (by
Von) ver- :
. . . V DS > V GS
V on
sion of the lavg(VGS) data set, that is, lavg(Veff) =
ð13Þ
lavg(VGS
Von
V)  lavg(VGS
Von), where V is
negligible because VDS  0 for the ID–VGS measurement Eqs. (11) and (13) are, in essence, generalized forms
used to extract lavg [10], and in all cases V 6 VDS of the ideal TFT model, accommodating devices with
throughout the channel. Fig. 2 plots lavg(VGS) and non-ideal (i.e., gate voltage-dependent) mobilities (note
lavg(Veff) for an exemplary bottom-gate zinc oxide that for a constant mobility [i.e., n = 0, c0 = l], Eq.
652 R.L. Hoffman / Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653
(13) reduces directly to Eq. (1)). Although Eq. (13) re-
quires lavg to be represented as an nth-order polyno-
mial, one can, in general, employ any parameterized
expression for lavg(Veff) for which the integration of
Eq. (11) gives an analytical solution (thus yielding a
closed-form expression for ID, analogous to Eq. (13),
for a given parameterization of lavg). Most generally,
Eq. (11) can be directly solved via numerical integration,
with an arbitrary lavg (Veff) data set; here, however,
the advantages associated with a closed-form model
are lost.
Since the intent of this analysis is to obtain an ele-
gant, intuitive model—similar to the ideal MISFET
model (Eq. (1)), but, in addition, capable of incorporat-
ing a broad range of non-ideal, gate voltage-dependent
mobility characteristics—numerous additional sources
of non-ideality, peripheral to this primary intent, have
been intentionally neglected so as to maintain a clear
and focused treatment of the issue at hand. As such,
numerous potential model enhancements are apparent,
including, for example, incorporation of the effects of
parasitic source and drain resistance, subthreshold con-
duction, channel length modulation, and other such
non-idealities. These issues are adequately dealt with
in numerous texts, and may be incorporated into the
model at hand with reference to such sources [1,9,12];
an explicit treatment of such model enhancements is be-
yond the scope of this letter.
3. Model application
Fig. 3 compares measured ID–VDS curves, for the zinc
oxide channel TFT with mobility plotted in Fig. 2, with
5
measured
4 model
3 12
ID(mA)
2 9
1
0
0 10 20 30 40
VDS(V)
Fig. 3. ID–VDS curves for the zinc oxide channel TFT structure
with mobility characteristics depicted in Fig. 2; VGS = 0 to 70 V in
10 V increments (ID increases with increasing VGS); measured data
(black squares), data calculated using Eq. (13) and sixth-order
lavg(Veff) polynomial fit coefficients (white circles). Model para-
meters: Cins = 34.5 nF/cm2; W/L = 9; n = 6; {c0, c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6} =
{0,5.0834 · 10
3,
1.4634 · 10
3,2.7185 · 10
4,
6.3302 · 10
6,6.2682 ·
10
8,
2.4285 · 10
10}; Von =
2.1 V.
a corresponding data set obtained using Eq. (13) and the
coefficients (Fig. 3 caption) of a sixth-order polynomial
fit for lavg(Veff). Excellent agreement between measured
(black squares) and calculated (white circles) data is
clearly evident. This accurate generation of ID–VDS
curves, based on lavg data extracted from an indepen-
dent ID–VGS measurement, comprises solid substantia-
tion of model validity; the highly non-ideal mobility
characteristics of this device (Fig. 2) are successfully
and precisely translated, through Eq. (13), into an accu-
rate drain current value for a given set of TFT bias
conditions.
Although the use of a sixth-order polynomial expan-
sion for lavg(Veff) may be perceived as excessive, this de-
gree of precision was selected here so as to demonstrate
achievable model accuracy. In practice, a compromise is
required between model precision and the associated
number of model parameters used to represent
lavg(Veff). In many instances, the improved computa-
tional efficiency associated with a lower-order polyno-
mial fit would undoubtedly justify some reduction in
model precision as compared to that seen in Fig. 3.
As a second example, Fig. 4 plots the highly non-ideal
mobility (lavg) characteristic of a top-gate zinc tin oxide
channel TFT [13] (nominal channel stoichiometry
ZnSnO3; gate dielectric 200 nm Al2O3; channel length
100 lm; channel width-to-length ratio 10), along with
a polynomial fit to the data (polynomial coefficients
given in Fig. 4 caption).
Fig. 5 compares measured ID–VDS curves, for the zinc
tin oxide channel TFT with mobility plotted in Fig. 4,
with a corresponding data set obtained using Eq. (13)
and the coefficients (Fig. 4 caption) of the eighth-order
polynomial fit for lavg(Veff).
18
15
µavg(cm2/Vs)
polynomial fit
6
3 measured
0
0 20 40 60 80
Veff(V)
Fig. 4. Average channel mobility (lavg) plotted against Veff for a top-
gate zinc tin oxide channel TFT with Al2O3 (200 nm) gate dielectric
(extracted from ID–VGS measurement, with VDS = 100 mV); measured
data (black), eighth-order polynomial fit (gray). Polynomial coeffi-
cients (Eq. (12)): {c0, c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6, c7, c8} = {0, 0, 0, 9.6575442 ·
10
3 ,
7.2585201 · 10
4 , 2.2403379 · 10
5 ,
3.5002749 · 10
7 ,
2.7475023 · 10
9,
8.6306526 · 10
12}; Von =
48 V.
 R.L. Hoffman / Solid-State Electronics 49 (2005) 648–653
4 measured
model
3
ID (mA)
2 mobility (leff, lFE, or lsat) and threshold voltage (VT)
1 model that is highly generalized (in the sense that it is
0
0 5 10 15
VDS(V)
Fig. 5. ID–VDS curves for the zinc tin oxide channel TFT with mobility
characteristics depicted in Fig. 4; W/L = 10, VGS =
40–30 V in 10 V
increments (ID increases with increasing VGS); measured data (black
squares), data calculated using Eq. (13) and eighth-order lavg(Veff)
polynomial fit coefficients (white circles). Model parameters:
Cins = 33.2 nF/cm2; W/L = 10; n = 8; {c0, c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6, c7, c8} = (see
Fig. 4 caption); Von =
48 V.
The ID–VDS curves of Fig. 5 are highly non-ideal,
falling nearly atop one another for high gate voltages;
upon first inspection, this non-ideality might be assumed
to arise due to contact resistance issues. The correspond-
ing lavg data set (Fig. 4), however, indicates that the
non-ideal nature of these ID–VDS curves is a conse-
quence of a substantial reduction in channel mobility
as Veff is increased beyond 30 V. This speculation
(i.e., that the non-ideal ID–VDS curves arise due to
non-ideal mobility, rather than contact resistance) is
confirmed by the precise replication of measured ID–
VDS curves via Eq. (13) and the lavg(Veff) data of Fig. 4.
4. Conclusion
A model for the drain current of a long-channel TFT
with arbitrary gate voltage-dependent mobility charac-
teristics is derived. A closed-form expression (Eq. (13))
is obtained for cases in which lavg(Veff) (a shifted version
of the measured lavg(VGS) data set) can be reasonably
approximated by an nth-order polynomial curve fit; a
more generalized expression (Eq. (11)) allows the substi-
tution of an arbitrary parameterized equation for lavg
(Veff), yielding a closed-form expression in cases where
653
the form of the selected mobility equation is such that
the requisite integration can be carried out analytically.
A central feature of this model and its derivation is the
use of the average mobility (lavg) and turn-on voltage
(Von) [11], as opposed to the more commonly used
TFT parameters: effective, field-effect, or saturation
[12]; the use of lavg and Von is critical in obtaining a
extensible to devices with a broad range of non-ideal
mobility characteristics), without sacrificing accuracy
or simplicity (in the sense that a closed-form, analytical
20
solution is obtained).
The model is employed to reproduce the electrical
characteristics of exemplary zinc oxide and zinc tin oxide
channel TFTs, with highly non-ideal, gate voltage-
dependent mobility characteristics. In each case, a poly-
nomial fit to measured mobility data gives a closed-form
expression for drain current with excellent agreement to
measured ID–VDS curves, thus validating the model pre-
sented herein as a valuable tool in the development, char-
acterization, and simulation of novel TFTs for which
standard device models are not appropriate.
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