Function of the Respiratory System

Mechanics of Respiration
During respiration we breathe air in and out, this is known as
inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration is breathing the air in and is referred to as the
active process. During this active process the diaphragm
contracts (active external intercostal muscles contract), the
ribs and sternum move upwards and outwards, the volume in
the thoracic cavity increases, lung air pressure decreases
below the atmospheric air and air rushes into the lungs.
Expiration is when we breathe the air out and is referred to as
the passive process. During the passive process our diaphragm
relaxes (passive intercostal muscles relax), the diaphragm is
pushed upwards which moves the ribs and sternum inwards and
down, the thoracic cavity volume decreases, lung air pressure
increases above the atmospheric air and the air rushes out of
the lungs.

Gaseous exchange
Gaseous exchange involves
movements of gases such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide, this
movement is known as diffusion
and is often referred to as the
movement of gases from an area
of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. The
difference between the high pressure and the low pressure is
called a diffusion gradient - the bigger the gradient the more
diffusion and gaseous exchange takes place.
Partial pressure of a gas is the pressure it exerts within a
mixture of gas. Gases always move from an area of high partial
pressure to an area of low partial pressure.
There are two sites where gaseous exchange takes place:
1. Alveoli/ Capillaries (External)
2. Muscle cells/ Capillaries (Internal)

External Respiration
External respiration takes place between the alveoli and the
capillary membrane. This is often talked about as the
oxygenation of haemoglobin, haemoglobin carries four
molecules of oxygen and forms oxyhaemoglobin. The inspired
air entering the lungs has a high partial pressure of oxygen and
a low partial pressure of carbon dioxide, comparing this with
the low partial pressure of oxygen and high partial pressure of
carbon dioxide in the capillaries it will create a large
difference in the two pressures of gases and therefore create
a diffusion gradient. The oxygen in the alveoli diffuses into the
blood of the capillary and the carbon dioxide in the blood
diffuses into the alveoli. The oxygen will be transported to the
left atrium to be used around the body and the carbon dioxide
from the capillaries will be expired by the lungs.

Internal respiration
Internal respiration takes place between
the tissue and the capillary membrane. The
oxygenated blood is pumped around the
body and into capillaries surrounding the
body muscles/tissues. This blood contains a
high partial pressure of oxygen and a low
partial pressure of carbon dioxide
compared to the muscles and tissues which
contain high partial pressure of carbon dioxide and low partial
pressure of oxygen. This means the oxygen in the blood
diffuses into the muscle and tissue cells and the carbon
dioxide in the muscle cells diffuses into the blood to be
removed as a waste product. Muscle cells contain a substance
called myoglobin (this has a higher affinity to oxygen than
haemoglobin) which stores and transports the oxygen to the
mitochondria where it is used for energy production, this
energy production is where the carbon dioxide is produced.

Changes during exercise

During exercise our body responds to meet the demands of the
environment, there are changes to the mechanics of breathing,
lung volumes and gaseous exchange. The changes
are regulated by the respiratory control centre.
Changes to the mechanics of breathing: the main
changes to the inspiration phase is that the
sternocleidomastoid, scalene and the pectoralis
minor all contract, this increases the volume in the
lungs as the ribcage is assisted by being lifted up.
During expiration the changes include the internal
intercostal muscles contracting and the rectus
abdominus/obliques contracting. This helps to push the air out
or the lungs.
Changes to the gaseous exchange: when we talk about
gaseous exchange during exercise we tend to associate it with
the oxygen-haemoglobin
association curve, this curve
informs us of the amount of
haemoglobin saturated with
oxygen. When haemoglobin is fully
bound with oxygen it is termed
saturated or associated, whereas
oxygen unloading from haemoglobin
is called disassociation. At rest
only 25% of oxygen transported in the blood is used (leaving
75% of venous blood still saturated with oxygen), during
exercise (maximal exertion) up to 85% of oxygen is used by
the body and is transported. During exercise there is a low
partial pressure of oxygen in the muscle, this causes an
increase in the diffusion gradient between the muscles and the
blood. This gradient encourages disassociation of
oxyhaemoglobin, the release of oxygen to the tissue. It is
further encouraged during exercise by an increase of
temperature and a decrease in pH. During exercise the
diffusion distance between the blood and muscles is decreased
as more capillaries open and muscle fibres contain a pigment
called myoglobin. The myoglobin has a higher affinity to oxygen

During exercise

than haemoglobin so increases the oxygen uptake by the muscle

cells.
During exercise the oxyhaemoglobin disassociation curve is
shifted to the right, this is caused by an increase in carbon
dioxide and blood acidity. This shift to the right is known as
the Bohr shift. The graph shows us that there is a high amount
of oxygen in the lungs and a low carbon dioxide level, it also
shows us there is a low amount of oxygen and a high amount of
carbon dioxide in the muscles.
 Lung volumes and capacities

Measurement of lung volumes will be different for each

individual and varies depending on age, fitness levels and size. I
will give an average measurement. This also shows the change
to the lung volumes and capacities during exercise.
Tidal volume is the amount of air inspired or expired in one
breath.
Resting rate: 500ml per breath
During exercise: 3-4 litres per breath
Minute ventilation is the amount of air inspired or expired per
minute.
Resting value: 6.5-7 litres per minute
During exercise: 120-180 litres per minute
Breathing rate is the number of breaths per one minute.
Resting value: 12-15
During exercise: 40-60
From the tidal volume and the breathing rate we could work
out the minute ventilation:
Minute ventilation = Tidal Volume x Breathing rate