Voltage

Voltage is the electrical force that causes current to flow in a circuit. It is

measured in VOLTS.

Electrical Current

Current is the movement of electrical charge - the flow of electrons other

charged particles through the electronic circuit. The direction of a current is
opposite to electrons flow direction. Current is measured in AMPERES (AMPS,
A).

Resistance

Resistance causes an opposition to the flow of electricity in a circuit. It is

used to control the amount of voltage and/or amperage in a circuit. It is
measured in OHMS

Electrical symbols

Electronic component are classed into either being Passive devices or Active
devices. A Passive Device is one that contributes no power gain to a circuit or
system. Examples are Resistors, Light Bulb, and Electrical Heaters. Active
Devices are components that are capable of generating voltages or currents.
Examples are Batteries and other Electrical Current & Voltage Sources.

By using schematics symbols we can represent real-life devices.

Resistance -This is a resistance, measured in ohms. Most often it will be

a resistor.

This is a source of emf (electromotive force) or voltage source, with a

voltage of, measured in units of volts, V. The most common source you will
see will be a battery. However, batteries are really not resistance-free. We
can model this case by putting a 'resistor' in the circuit which has the same
resistance as the batteries would have.

This is a current source, with a current of, measured in units of

amperes, A. Current source is ideal model of electrical power source. The
internal current source resistance is infinity. We can model real life battery
by putting a 'resistor' in parallel with current source.
Ohm’s law

Ohm's law is the main basic electrical law and defines the resistance of a
device to the flow of electrons.

There are three different notations of Ohm’s law

1. Unknown current

2. Unknown voltage

3. Unknown resistance

Superposition Theorem

In a linear network with multiple voltage sources, the current in any branch is the
sum of the currents which would flow in that branch due to each voltage source
acting alone with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff's Current Law

At any instant the sum of all the currents flowing into any circuit node is equal to the sum
of all the currents flowing out of that node:
ΣIin = ΣIout

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the currents at any circuit node is
zero:
ΣI = 0

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

At any instant the sum of all the voltage sources in any closed circuit is equal to
the sum of all the voltage drops in that circuit:
ΣE = ΣIZ

Similarly, at any instant the algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed
circuit is zero:
ΣE - ΣIZ = 0
Reciprocity Theorem

If a voltage source E acting in one branch of a network causes a current I to flow

in another branch of the network, then the same voltage source E acting in the
second branch would cause an identical current Ito flow in the first branch.

Compensation Theorem

If the impedance Z of a branch in a network in which a current I flows is changed

by a finite amount δZ, then the change in the currents in all other branches of the
network may be calculated by inserting a voltage source of -Iδ δZ into that branch
with all other voltage sources replaced by their internal impedances.

Norton & Thevenin equivalent

Thévenin's Theorem

Any voltage network which may be viewed from two terminals can be
replaced by a voltage-source equivalent circuit comprising a single voltage
source E and a single series resistance R.. The voltage V is the open-circuit
voltage between the two terminals and the resistance Z is the resistance of
the network viewed from the terminals with all voltage sources removed
from circuit.
All circuits are equivalent. Resistors R1,R2, R3 and voltage source are transformed into Requ
Eequ,

see parallel, series simplifications.

To determine Eequ we shall break off branch connecting node 1 and node 2

Norton's Theorem

Any current network which may be viewed from two terminals can be
replaced by a current-source equivalent circuit comprising a single current
source I and a single shunt conductance G. The current I is the short-circuit
current between the two terminals and the conductance G is the conductance of
the network viewed from the terminals with all branches containing current
sources are broken off.

Joule's Law

When a current I is passed through a resistance R, the resulting

power P dissipated in the resistance is equal to the square of the
current I multiplied by the resistance R:

P = I2R

Resistors in Series & Resistors in Parallel

A series circuit is one with all the loads in a row. Like links in a chain. There
is only one path for the electricity to flow.

A parallel circuit is one that has two or more paths for the electricity to flow. In other
words, the loads are parallel to each other.
Basic Questions:

1 What is the name for the flow of electrons in an electric circuit?

2 What is the basic unit of electric current?
3 Which instrument would you use to measure electric current?
4 What is the name of the pressure that forces electrons to flow through a
circuit?
5 What is the basic unit of electromotive force (EMF)?
6 How much voltage does an automobile battery usually supply?
7 How much voltage does a wall outlet usually supply (in the US)?
8 Which instrument would you use to measure electric potential or
electromotive force?
9 What limits the current that flows through a circuit for a particular applied
DC voltage?
10 What is the basic unit of resistance?
11 Which instrument would you use to measure resistance?
12 What are three good electrical conductors?
13 What are four good electrical insulators?
14 What does an electrical insulator do?

Q: What is the principle of motor?

A: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in an magnetic field it
produce turning or twisting movement is called as torque.
Q: Operation carried out in Thermal power station?

A: The water is obtained in the boiler and the coal is burnt so that steam is
obtained this steam is allowed to hit the turbine; the turbine which is coupled with
the generator generates the electricity

Q : Why does the US run at 120V when some of the world runs at 240V?

Well, the United States distribution system actually provides a 240 volt
residential service in the form of two 120 volt conductors and a neutral
conductor. You can see this if you look inside your breaker panel.

When a load is applied from either 120 volt conductor to the neutral (as is the
case for typical receptacles, lights, and so forth) it is using 120 volts.

However, when a load is applied from one 120 volt conductor to the other,
without using the neutral, the voltage being used is the sum of both 120 volt
conductors (240 volts). This is the case for many water heaters, air conditioners,
electric furnaces, clothes dryers, and so forth.

So equipment that is connected to strictly 240 volts is connected with only a two
wire cable plus a safety ground wire. (For example 240 volt base board heaters
use this.) The only time a cable with three wires plus safety ground is used is if
120/240 volts is needed in the equipment. (For example kitchen ranges or
washing machines which have time clocks or programmers that require only a
120 volt feed.)

So the answer is that both 'some of the world' and the U.S. distribute 240 volts
to homes, apartments, shops, offices, and many other types of buildings.

It seems like the difference you are talking about is that on the non-U.S.
systems, their receptacles are 240 volts, while ours are 120 volts. One reason is
that lower voltages tend to be safer, which is why you are receiving 240 volts at
the home instead of the thousands of volts generated by the power plant.

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In terms of power production - all power is the same. It is then transmitted over
High Voltage cables - usually above 10K Volts. The power is then stepped down
before it reaches our homes.
U.S, Japanese and some other countries receive 110V in the form of 2 wires - 1
Live and 1 Neutral

Some may argue that the US is behind or has just managed to stay afloat with
this old system longer.

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The US is at 120 volts, not 110 volts. It was increased sometime around the
1950s.

The historic reason for 110 volts was due to the DC power systems created by
Thomas Edison. I think he chose 110 volts because that is what his light bulb
worked on. Later on these systems were converted to AC so you didn't need a
power plant on every corner but the voltage wasn't changed so existing lighting
didn't need to be replaced (they didn't care if they got AC or DC)

An interesting question is why the rest of the world did not wind up using 110
volts. How did 220/230/240V get started over there?

The US system theoretically could be made as good as (slightly better, actually)

than the European system with no infrastructure change, except to houses
themselves. US houses get 240 volts at the panel. If wall outlets all were fed
with 240V you'd have the lower current and higher power advantage of the
European system and it would be safer too, since each "hot" would still be only
120V from ground (not 240V) which keeps the reduced shock hazard advantage.
Of course it is still possible to touch the two hots.

Some places have 120 Volts and others 240 Volts What is the advantage of one
over the other?

The answer given below refers only to USA, Canada and other countries using
the same type of 60 Hz, 240 Volts "balanced around ground" system for standard
mains power supplies to homes, offices, etc. Basically, it comes down to
reducing the amount of lost power due to resistance of the wires in the walls of
your home. Higher voltages can deliver more power to a load, with less power
lost in the transfer. The downside is that higher voltages are more dangerous,
and require more insulation to keep the wires safe to touch.

Why was 120V chosen as the standard voltage of homes in the US and not some
other voltage?

The real answer to why was 120v chosen was economics (money). Originally
 electricity was delivered to homes, and most businesses, for a single purpose
and that was lighting (can openers, TV's and other such things came later). At
the time the most cost effective form of light bulb was a carbon filament bulb that
operated "best" at 100v to 110v, this when figured with transmission voltage drop
set most supply lines at 120v. By the time cost effective metal filament bulbs,
working at higher voltages, were brought to the market most of the cities (In the
USA) were already running 120v supply lines. Europe was just starting such
systems and opted for higher voltage supply lines.

Higher voltages are used for long-distance transmission and power distribution
because more power can be transferred over the same size wire at a higher
voltage (lower current). Power generation plants often use voltages in the
hundreds of thousands, 115,000 to 165,000 volts to move power over long
distances. For lines of up to 20 miles long around a city, 2400 volts works well to
reduce the voltage loss in the wires.

In the United States, the electricity utility power lines going to residential streets
and roads are operated from 2300 to 2400 volts. With a 2400 volt supply, it is
very convenient and easy to design and build pole transformers that have a 10-
to-1 step-down ratio, thus providing 240 volts to the houses. The transformers
also have a center tap to provide 120 volts from each 240-volt leg to the center
point. This center point tap also provides a convenient point for a grounding
connection. The actual measured voltage in your house receptacle circuits will
normally be 120 to 125 volts. All appliances are rated for the minimum operating
voltage (110-115), thus there is much confusion about the actual level of the
supply voltages.

Different voltage levels are used in different countries around the world. The
reason to use higher voltage is that it is more economical. The current is less, so
the wires can be smaller. On the other hand, the reason to use lower voltage in
homes is safety: the lower the voltage, the safer it is.

What are advantages and disadvantages of electricity?

• Electricity is beneficial because it is clean, cheap, safe and a convenient source

of energy.

• An advantageous use of electricity is restarting a person's heart.

• Its the most expensive to use for heating of any kind

Answer
One advantage of electricity is that we have a more convenient way of life - light,
power to our house, etc.

Another disadvantage is the risk for injury because of shock.

Electricity has a good and bad side,
Some of the advantages of electricity are it can give you lighting, heat, and
computers wouldn't work without it. The disadvantages are if you're in the wrong
place at the wrong time, it could give you an electric shock (which can reduce
your physical energy and also have lasting mental damage).

What are the methods to calculate and improve power factor?

The best way to improve power factor is by adding capacitors. Low power factor
is due to reactive loads (motors, pumps, etc.) that are connected to your
electrical system.

ADDITION
The best way to improve power factor in the case of motors is to use a motor
drive, like a Variable Frequency Drive. These drives allow very precise control
over a motor, unlike the very sudden, jerky starting and stopping across the line
seen when using a motor starter. They eliminate the huge inrush current required
to start motors that causes low PF.

What is difference between kw and kva?

kW is the unit of real power & kVA is the unit of Apparent power.
Apparent Power= real power + reactive power

How do you convert 12 volts to 3 volts?

Stepping down AC voltage

To step down 12 VAC to 3 VAC, you could use a step-down transformer with a
winding ratio of 4:1 between primary and secondary.
Stepping Down DC Voltage

There are a number of ways one can step down 12 VDC to 3 VDC, but they
basically fall into three categories:
• Unregulated voltage dividers
• Linear voltage regulators
• Switching voltage regulators

What is a fuse and what is it used for?

A fuse is a safety device that lies in series in a circuit between an electrical

source and its associated load(s). When the current, or flow of electricity,
exceeds its designed threshold, the fuse is calibrated to permanently open the
series circuit, thereby disconnecting the load(s) from the power source. Unlike
circuit breakers, which can be reset to allow current to flow again, once a fuse
disconnects, it must be discarded and replaced with a new fuse.

Modern houses are most commonly equipped with circuit breakers, not fuses, for
the house wiring. Fuses are still commonly embedded in vehicles, electrical
devices, and electronic components.

A fuse is usually constructed using a thin metal strip or filament encased in a

protective transparent glass or plastic enclosure. Each end of this metal strip is
connected to a separate terminal on the outside of the fuse, and these external
terminals in turn connect to matching terminals attached to the circuit being
protected. All the electrical current that flows through the circuit passes through
this single strip of metal inside the fuse.

The metal strip inside the fuse is designed to overheat and melt if the current
exceeds the fuse's rating. When this metal melts away, the strip is broken, and
there is no longer a path permitting the current to flow, and therefore the fuse
disconnects the electrical circuit. We commonly describe a fuse as being "blown",
or we say the fuse "blows" when it disconnects the electrical circuit.

Fuses are available in pre-defined ratings, such as 1 Amp, 5 Amps, 15 Amps, 25

Amps, and so on, and these ratings are clearly indicated on the fuse. Many fuses
are also color coded to simplify the rating identification. The transparent
enclosure permits visual inspection of the metal strip or filament, so you can see
if the fuse has blown.

It is important to turn off or disconnect the electrical load(s) that caused a fuse to
blow, because if you leave all those electrical devices turned on, then the next
fuse will also blow as soon as you replace the first one. It is also very important
to replace a blown fuse with good fuse of exactly the same rating. You should
never, for example, replace a 15 Amp fuse with a 25 Amp fuse, because then the
wiring is no longer properly protected, and it could overheat and cause a fire.
It is important to distinguish a fuse from a Ground Fault Interrupt (GFI) safety
device. A fuse will not prevent death by electrocution. Nor does a fuse protect
against fire due to arc faults. The fuse's only purpose is to protect against
excessive current flow in a circuit. Like it's dynamite!

What is an eddy current?

In magnetism:
An eddy current is induced into a metal when magnetic lines of force move
across it. A South pole causes circulating current in clockwise direction while a
North pole causes current in counter-clockwise direction. These eddy currents
thus buck the applied forces. Eddy currents are undesirable when induced into
transformer cores causing power loss. Lamination of core material reduces
current flow in the core. Current induced into the secondary winding of a
transformer is a used to step-up or step-down voltages so that they can be of a
correct size for end-use applications.

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When time-varying magnetic field is applied to electrical machines like

transformers, a time-varying emf is induced in the transformer cores. A short
circuit occurs at the molecular level in the core. Due to less resistance, a large
current begins to flow in the core. This causes heating in the core. Actually the
path of the current is circular resembling the circular waves in a pool of water
(eddy). Hence these currents are called eddy currents.

In fluids:
In water flow, an eddy is a current that flows opposite the normal flow. If on a
river, an eddy is a current that will flow upstream in a side channel filling it, even
if the flow is in an opposite direction of the original flow. It is equivalent to a
stream's water level rising because the river it feeds has more water in it than the
stream, thus making the water flow upstream. It can also be an area that seems
not to have a current at all.

What is an Ampere-hour?
Short answer: an Ampere-hour is a unit of electrical charge. A current source that
delivers one amp-hour can deliver one amp for an hour or two amps for half an
hour or sixty amps for one minute.

What are different types of grounds in electronic circuits?

A "ground" in electric or electronic circuits, is a theoretical entity that is at zero
volts everywhere. The Earth itself is often used as an approximation to this, and
sometimes grounds are called "Earth" connections. There is only one ideal
ground.

However, in electric and electronic engineering, much of the challenge is dealing

with real-world things that differ from the ideal or theoretical model. Grounding is
one of those where the difference between the ideal and real-world must be
addressed. The topic of grounding and shielding is complex.
Engineers take complete courses in grounding and shielding and very senior
engineers can puzzle over grounding issues for days or weeks, so it is not
possible to give a comprehensive answer in a short space.

It is useful to think of some of the different functions of a ground:

1. A ground provides a return path for current
2. A ground provides a reference point for measuring other potentials or signals
3. A ground provides a safety connection for metal enclosures
4. A ground provides a shield to screen out electromagnetic noise, as in a coaxial
cable or Faraday cage
5. A ground plane is needed for an antenna to function properly
6. In electronic circuits, the ground is often used as a heat sink to dissipate heat
from components

It is often a good idea to use different "grounds" for different functions. For
example in electrical wiring both the neutral and protective ground wires are
ground connections, but one serves as a current return path and the other is a
safety connection. There are very good practical reasons to have these
implemented as two different wires.

In electronic circuits, different grounds are often used because real ground paths
have resistance, inductance and capacitance and signals take time to travel from
one part of the circuit to another--especially when thin copper traces are used on
a circuit board.

The primary concern in real-world grounding is considering current flow and

current paths. For example in a PC board, power returns and high-speed clock
signals usually use different copper ground traces than low-level audio or sensor
signal reference grounds, so that the transient current from switching does not
affect the ground reference for tiny signals. The grounds are tied together at one
point, so that there is no circuit path for current to travel between the paths, but
they are at the same potential voltage.

None of this would be necessary if we had an ideal ground--zero volts

everywhere, with no impedance between any two points.

What is the use of Earthing Transformer?

An earthing transformer is usually associated with three phase supply systems.
Earthing of any electrical system at the source is considered by most countries to
be the safer practice with regard to personnel and equipment safety.
On a three phase system, the neutral would be earthed either directly or through
some limiting impedance / resistance. When the neutral point is not available or
does not exist with a delta secondary winding of the transformer, a neutral point
needs to be created. This is the purpose of the earthing transformer, which could
consist of a zig- zag winding, or a two winding star delta transformer where the
star winding of correct voltage supplies an accessible neutral point when
connected to the supply system.

What is a multiplexer?
A multiplexer combines more than one input into a single output. In electronics,
the multiplexer or mux combines several electrical signals into a single signal.
There are different types of multiplexers for analog and digital circuits.
In digital signal processing, the multiplexer (often abbreviated to mux or muldex)
takes several separate digital data streams and combines them together into one
data stream of a higher data rate. This allows multiple data streams to be carried
from one place to another over one physical link, which saves cost.
At the receiving end of the data link a complementary demultiplexer or demux is
normally required to break the high data rate stream back down into the original
lower rate streams. In some cases, the far end system may have more
functionality than a simple demultiplexer and so, whilst the demultiplexing still
exists logically, it may never actually happen physically. This would be typical
where a multiplexer serves a number of IP network users and then feeds directly
into a router which immediately reads the content of the entire link into its routing
processor and then does the demultiplexing in memory from where it will be
converted directly into IP packets.
It is usual to combine a multiplexer and a demultiplexer together into one piece of
equipment and simply refer to the whole thing as a "multiplexer". Both pieces of
equipment are needed at both ends of a transmission link because most
communications systems transmit in both directions.
A real world example is the creation of telemetry for transmission from the
computer/instrumentation system of a satellite, space craft or other remote
vehicle to a ground system. Schematic of a Multiplexer Enlarge Schematic of a
Multiplexer
In digital circuit design, the multiplexer is a device that has multiple input streams
and only one output stream. It forwards one of the input streams to the output
stream based on the values of one or more "selection inputs" . For example, a
two-input multiplexer is a simple connection of logic gates whose output Y is
either input A or input B depending on the value of a third input S which selects
the input. Its boolean equation is:
Y = (A and S) or (B and not S)

What is a relay circuit?

A relay circuit is typically a smaller switch or device which drives (opens/closes)
an electric switch that is capable of carrying much larger current amounts. Or a
circuit which operates the coil or electronic actuator from one source and uses a
separate power source to drive an isolated device.

Why are circuit breakers and contacts coated with silver?

How do you convert from AC to DC power?

A rectifier converts from AC to DC power by blocking one half of the AC current.
A full-wave bridge rectifier is actually 4 rectifiers combined in such a way that it
reverses the blocked half of the power, allowing it to flow through.

What are the difference between magnetic circuit electrical circuit?

In the general sense, a magnetic circuit is any path taken by magnetic flux. More
specifically, it is associated with the magnetic flux within (usually) silicon steel
'cores' such as those found in transformer, generators, motors, relays, etc. They
can be 'homogenous', where the flux path is completely contained with the same
material (e.g. a transformer core), or 'compound', where the flux path
incorporates, say, an air gap (e.g. motor/generator fields).

A magnetic circuit can be compared with an electric circuit, where

-magnetomotive force (mmf) is equivalent to electromotive force

-flux is equivalent to electric current
-reluctance is equivalent to resistance

The source of a magnetic circuit's magnetomotive force is a current-carrying coil.

The magnitude of this mmf is the product of the current flowing through the coil,
and the number of turns (I x N). Since the number of turns is dimensionless, the
SI unit of measurement of mmf is the ampere (A), although it is frequently
'spoken' of as 'ampere turns', to avoid confusion with the unit for electric current.

Magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb), pronounced 'vay-bers'.

Reluctance is measured in amperes per weber (A/Wb) although, again, it is

frequently spoken as 'ampere-turns per weber'.

Another similarity with electric circuits, is that the equivalent of 'Ohm's Law' also
applies to magnetic circuits: i.e. flux = mmf / reluctance.