Articles - Explore The Brain & Spinal Cord

Neuroscience for Kids - Explore the Nervous System Page 1 of 7
A-PDF Merger DEMO : Purchase from www.A-PDF.com to remove the watermark
Explore the Brain and Spinal

Cord
Brain Higher Peripheral Nervous
Spinal Cord
Basics Functions System
Methods and
The Neuron Sensory Systems Drug Effects
Techniques
Neurological and Mental Disorders
Common questions about the brain and neuroscience
Another Day, Another Neuron
Questions/Answers from the "Neuroscientist Network"
First use of "neuro" words in recorded history
Women In Neuroscience
A Computer in Your Head?
A Career in Neuroscience: A Game of "Survivor?"
Jobs in Neuroscience
Milestones in Neuroscience Research
Nobel Prize Winners - Neuroscience
Neuroscience on Stamps
Neuroethics
Brain Basics
Divisions of the Nervous System
Divisions of the Brain
Our Divided Brain: Lobes of the Brain
Functional Divisions of the Cerebral Cortex

The Brain "Right Down the Middle"
Brain Size/Cerebral Cortex
1 brain or 2? Split Brain Experiments
She Brains - He Brains
Brain Development
The Nervous System in Old Age
The Cranial Nerves
The Blood-Brain-Barrier
Your Brain's Home: The Skull
The Ventricles and CSF
The Meninges
Blood Supply of the Brain
How the Nervous System Interacts with Other Body Systems
Directions and Planes of Section
Compare the brains of 9 different species
More brains: comparative neuroanatomy
The Invertebrate Nervous System
The Brain during Sleep
How Much do Animals Sleep?
Brain Fitness - Your Guide to Good Brain Health
Disorders of the Brain
"Higher" Functions
Chocolate and the Nervous System
Do We Use Only 10% of our Brain?

Laughter and the Brain
Oh Say Can You Say...The Brain and Language
Nutrition and the Brain
"Smart" Drugs?
The Musical Brain
The Brain vs. The Computer
What Became of Albert Einstein's Brain?
Eugene O'Neill: What Went Wrong?
Yawning: Why We Yawn and Why They are "Contagious"
Moonstruck: Does the Full Moon Influence Behavior?
Synesthesia
Brain "Plasticity": Learning and Memory
Face Recognition
The Spinal Cord

Our Divided Spinal Cord: Segments of the Spinal Cord
The Knee Jerk Reflex (monosynaptic reflex)
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Neuron
Millions and Billions of Cells: Types of Neurons
Making Connections: The Synapse

Gallery of Neurons
The Sounds of Neuroscience
The Synapse - Up Close and Personal
Lights, Camera, Action Potential
Glia: The Forgotten Brain Cell
Dangerous Chemicals: Neurotoxins - Source and Effect
Neurotransmitters and Neuroactive Peptides
Chemical Weapons: Nerve Agents
Conduction Velocity
Salty What? Saltatory Conduction
Sensory Systems
The Skin and its Sensory Receptors
Pain and Why it Hurts
The Tooth
I Spy...The Eye
The Retina
The Visual Pathway
Do you wear glasses? Find out why!
Eye Safety Tips
Hear Ye, Hear Ye - The Ear
How the Nose Knows - The Nose
That's Tasty!
Does the COLOR of Foods and Drinks Affect Their Taste?
Amazing Animals Senses

Neuroscience Methods and Techniques

Statistics: By the Numbers
The 10-20 System of Electrode Placement (for the EEG)
Common Methods Used in Neuroscience Research
Brain Imaging Methods
Glossary of Neuroscience Words
Careers in Neuroscience
The Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System

Alcohol Amphetamines
Barbiturates Caffeine
Cocaine Ecstasy
Heroin Inhalants
LSD Marijuana
Nicotine Rohypnol
1,4-Butanediol PCP
GHB Hallucinogenic Mushrooms

Alzheimer's Disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Asperger's Syndrome Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Autism Bacterial Meningitis
Bipolar Disorder Common Eye Diseases and Disorders

Dyslexia - I Dyslexia - II
Epilepsy Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Gulf War Syndrome Huntington's Disease
Lead and the Nervous System Lyme Disease
Mercury and the Nervous System Multiple Sclerosis
Narcolepsy Polio
Rabies Restless Legs Syndrome
Schizophrenia Soccer and the Brain (Heading for Injury?)
Spina Bifida Stroke
Tourette Syndrome Transient Ischemic Attack
West Nile Virus

[Table of Contents]
Send Fill out Get Search Take Donate to

E-mail survey Newsletter Pages Notes Neuroscience for
Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Divisions of the NS Page 1 of 8
Adventures in Neuroanatomy: Parts of the Nervous

System
Contents of this Page

Central Nervous
System
Peripheral Nervous
System Neuroanatomy: the structure of the nervous system. To learn how
Divisions of the the nervous system functions, you must learn how the nervous system is
Nervous System put together.
Brain Structures
Brain Structure Poll
The nervous system can be divided into several connected systems that function together. Let's start with a
simple division:
The Nervous System is divided into:

The Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System
Let's break the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system into more parts.
Central Nervous System

The central nervous system is divided into two parts: the brain and
the spinal cord. The average adult human brain weighs 1.3 to 1.4 kg
(approximately 3 pounds). The brain contains about 100 billion nerve
cells (neurons) and trillons of "support cells" called glia. The spinal
cord is about 43 cm long in adult women and 45 cm long in adult
men and weighs about 35-40 grams. The vertebral column, the The Central
collection of bones (back bone) that houses the spinal cord, is about Nervous
70 cm long. Therefore, the spinal cord is much shorter than the System
vertebral column. (Brain and
Spinal Cord)
For brain weights of other animals, see brain facts and figures.
Did you know?

A stegosaurus dinosaur weighed approximately 1,600 kg but had a brain that
weighed only approximately 70 grams (0.07 kg). Therefore, the brain was only
0.004% of its total body weight. In contrast, an adult human weighs
approximately 70 kg and has a brain that weighs approximately 1.4 kg.
Therefore, the human brain is about 2% of the total body weight. This makes the
brain to body ratio of the human 500 times greater than that of the stegosaurus.
See "My Brain is Bigger than Your Brain" for more about brain size.
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two major parts: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.
1. Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system consists of peripheral nerve

fibers that send sensory information to the central
nervous system AND motor nerve fibers that project to
skeletal muscle.
The picture on the left shows the somatic motor system.

The cell body is located in either the brain or spinal cord
and projects directly to a skeletal muscle.
2. Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is divided into

three parts: the sympathetic nervous system,
the parasympathetic nervous system and the
enteric nervous system. The autonomic
nervous system controls smooth muscle of the
viscera (internal organs) and glands.
This picture shows the general organization of

the autonomic nervous system. The
preganglionic neuron is located in either the
brain or the spinal cord. This preganglionic neuron projects to an autonomic ganglion. The postganglionic
neuron then projects to the target organ.
Notice that the somatic nervous system has only one neuron between the central nervous system and the
target organ while the autonomic nervous system uses two neurons.
The enteric nervous system is a third division of the autonomic nervous system that
you do not hear much about.
The enteric nervous system is a meshwork of nerve fibers that innervate the viscera
(gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, gall bladder).
The following table shows how the nervous system can be divided. The bottom row of the table contains the names of
specific areas within the brain.
Click on any word in the bottom two rows to hear how the term is pronounced. These are ".wav" files
(about 10k each).
Here is a quick look at one way to divide the brain.
Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon
Click on a word to hear how it is pronounced. These are "wav" files.
Basal Cerebral
Amygdala Cerebellum Diencephalon
Hear IT! Ganglia Cortex
Hippocampus Hypothalamus Medulla Mesencephalon Metencephalon
Myelencephalon Pons Tectum Tegmentum Telencephalon Thalamus
Check out the glossary for definitions of these brain areas.
From a top view, notice how the brain is divided into two halves, called
hemispheres. Each hemisphere communicates with the other through the
corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers. (Another smaller fiber bundle

that connects the two hemispheres is called the anterior commissure).
Hear Cerebral Corpus

Cerebellum
IT! Cortex Callosum
Some differences between the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and the Central Nervous System
(CNS):
1. In the CNS, collections of neurons are called nuclei.

In the PNS, collections of neurons are called ganglia.
2. In the CNS, collections of axons are called tracts.

In the PNS, collections of axons are called nerves.
In the Peripheral Nervous System, neurons can be functionally divided in 3 ways:
Sensory (afferent) carry information INTO the central nervous system from sense organs.
1 OR
Motor (efferent) carry information away from the central nervous system (for muscle
control).
Cranial connects the brain with the periphery.

2 OR
Spinal connects the spinal cord with the periphery.
Somatic connects the skin or muscle with the central nervous system.
3 OR
Visceral connects the internal organs with the central nervous system.
Brain Structures
Cerebral Cortex
The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree).
Functions: This is because the cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer
layer of the brain. The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6
mm. The right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a
Thought thick band of nerve fibers called the "corpus callosum." In higher
Voluntary movement mammals such as humans, the cerebral cortex looks like it has many
bumps and grooves. A bump or bulge on the cortex is called a gyrus
Language (the plural of the word gyrus is "gyri") and a groove is called a sulcus
Reasoning (the plural of the word sulcus is "sulci"). Lower mammals, such as rats and mice,
have very few gyri and sulci.
Perception
Cerebellum
The word "cerebellum" comes from the Latin word for "little brain."
Functions:
The cerebellum is located behind the brain stem. In some ways, the
cerebellum is similar to the cerebral cortex: the cerebellum is divided
Movement into hemispheres and has a cortex that surrounds these hemispheres.
Balance
Posture
Brain stem
Functions: The brain stem is a general term for the area of the brain between
the thalamus and spinal cord. Structures within the brain stem
include the medulla, pons, tectum, reticular formation and
Breathing tegmentum. Some of these areas are responsible for the most basic
Heart Rate functions of life such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
Blood Pressure
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at
Functions: the base of the brain. Although it is the size of only a pea (about 1/300 of
Body Temperature the total brain weight), the hypothalamus is responsible for some very important
functions. One important function of the hypothalamus is the control of body
Emotions temperature. The hypothalamus acts as a "thermostat" by sensing changes in
Hunger body temperature and then sending signals to adjust the temperature. For
example, if you are too hot, the hypothalamus detects this and then sends a
Thirst signal to expand the capillaries in your skin. This causes blood to be cooled
Circadian Rhythms faster. The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary.
Thalamus
The thalamus receives sensory information and relays this information to
Functions:
the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the
thalamus which then transmits this information to other areas of the brain and
Sensory processing spinal cord.
Movement
The limbic system (or the limbic areas) is a group of structures

Limbic System that includes the amygdala, the hippocampus, mammillary
bodies and cingulate gyrus. These areas are important for
Functions: controlling the emotional response to a given situation. The
hippocampus is also important for memory.
Emotions
Hippocampus
The hippocampus is one part of the limbic system that is important
Functions: for memory and learning.
Learning
Memory
Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia are a group of structures, including the globus
pallidus, caudate nucleus, subthalamic nucleus, putamen and
Functions: substantia nigra, that are important in coordinating movement.
Movement
Midbrain
Functions:
The midbrain includes structures such as the superior and
inferior colliculi and red nucleus. There are several other areas
Vision also in the midbrain.
Audition
Eye Movement
Body Movement
Now that you have read about many of the areas of the brain, here is where some of these areas are located:
Check out the glossary for definitions of other brain areas.
Travel through the brain with the incredible Brain Fly-Through game. (Requires the FLASH plug-in for your
browser.)
Did you know?
John Adams (2nd President of the US)

and his son, John Quincy Adams (6th
President of the US), were both born
in Braintree, Massachusetts.
BACK Exploring the Nervous Table of

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Divisions Page 1 of 4
Divisions of the
Brain
The brain can be separated into phylogenetic (through evolution) and

embryological (through development) divisions. Below are two tables that
show how the brain can be divided - do not get caught up in the terminology -
these are just names for specific areas of the brain. "Divisions of the Nervous
System" discusses the functions of many of these areas.
Major Division Subdivision Structures
Neocortex; Basal Ganglia; Amygdala; Hippocampus;

Telencephalon
Lateral Ventricles
Prosencephalon
(Forebrain)
Thalamus; Hypothalamus; Epithalamus; Third
Diencephalon
Ventricle
Mesencephalon
Mesencephalon Tectum; Tegmentum; Cerebral Aqueduct
(Midbrain)
Metencephalon Cerebellum; Pons; Fourth Ventricle

Rhombencephalon
(Hindbrain)
Myelencephalon Medulla Oblongata; Fourth Ventricle
Not enough detail for you? Here is another table showing more brain structures and their associated
divisions. The roman numerals (I through XII) refer to the cranial nerves.

External Internal
Landmarks Landmarks
Major Nuclei Major Ventricles

Fiber
Tracts
Telencephalon Gyri and sulci Cerebral Cortex Internal Lateral

Capsule Ventricles
Olfactory Nerve Amygdala
(I) Corpus Interventricular
Hippocampus Callosum Foramen
Basal Ganglia Anterior

Commissure
Caudate
nucleus
Putamen
Globus
Pallidus
Claustrum
Diencephalon Infundibulum Thalamus Fornix Third Ventricle
Optic Nerve (II) Hypothalamus Mammillo-

thalamic
Optic Chiasm Tract
Mammillary
bodies
Mesencephalon Superior Substantia Crus Cerebral

(Midbrain) Colliculus Nigra Cerebri Aqueduct
Inferior Central Gray

Colliculus
Red Nucleus
Cerebral
Peduncles
Oculomotor
Nerve (III)
Trochlear Nerve
(IV)
Metencephalon Pons Pontine Nuclei Fornix Fourth

Ventricle
Cerebellum Deep Cerebellar Mammillo-
Nuclei thalamic
Trigeminal Nerve Tract
(V)
Abducens Nerve
(VI)
Facial Nerve
(VII)
Vestibulocochlear
Nerve (VIII)
Myelencephalon Medulla Inferior Olive Pyramids Fourth

Ventricle
Glossopharyngeal Mammillo-
Nerve (IX) thalamic
Tract
Vagus Nerve (X)
Spinal Accessory
Nerve (XI)
Hypoglossal
Nerve (XII)

TO: System Contents

Kids
Explore the Brain and Spinal

Cord
Brain Higher Peripheral Nervous
Spinal Cord
Basics Functions System
Methods and
The Neuron Sensory Systems Drug Effects
Techniques
Common questions about the brain and neuroscience
Another Day, Another Neuron
Questions/Answers from the "Neuroscientist Network"
First use of "neuro" words in recorded history
Women In Neuroscience
A Computer in Your Head?
A Career in Neuroscience: A Game of "Survivor?"
Jobs in Neuroscience
Milestones in Neuroscience Research
Nobel Prize Winners - Neuroscience
Neuroscience on Stamps
Neuroethics
Brain Basics
Our Divided Brain: Lobes of the Brain

The Brain "Right Down the Middle"
Brain Size/Cerebral Cortex
1 brain or 2? Split Brain Experiments
She Brains - He Brains
Brain Development
The Nervous System in Old Age
The Cranial Nerves
Your Brain's Home: The Skull
The Ventricles and CSF
The Meninges
Blood Supply of the Brain
How the Nervous System Interacts with Other Body Systems
Directions and Planes of Section
Compare the brains of 9 different species
More brains: comparative neuroanatomy
The Invertebrate Nervous System
The Brain during Sleep
How Much do Animals Sleep?
Brain Fitness - Your Guide to Good Brain Health
Disorders of the Brain
"Higher" Functions
Chocolate and the Nervous System
Do We Use Only 10% of our Brain?

Laughter and the Brain
Oh Say Can You Say...The Brain and Language
Nutrition and the Brain
"Smart" Drugs?
The Musical Brain
The Brain vs. The Computer
What Became of Albert Einstein's Brain?
Eugene O'Neill: What Went Wrong?
Yawning: Why We Yawn and Why They are "Contagious"
Moonstruck: Does the Full Moon Influence Behavior?
Synesthesia
Brain "Plasticity": Learning and Memory
Face Recognition
The Spinal Cord

Our Divided Spinal Cord: Segments of the Spinal Cord
The Knee Jerk Reflex (monosynaptic reflex)
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Neuron
Millions and Billions of Cells: Types of Neurons
Making Connections: The Synapse

Gallery of Neurons
The Sounds of Neuroscience
The Synapse - Up Close and Personal
Lights, Camera, Action Potential
Glia: The Forgotten Brain Cell
Dangerous Chemicals: Neurotoxins - Source and Effect
Neurotransmitters and Neuroactive Peptides
Chemical Weapons: Nerve Agents
Conduction Velocity
Salty What? Saltatory Conduction
Sensory Systems
The Skin and its Sensory Receptors
Pain and Why it Hurts
The Tooth
I Spy...The Eye
The Retina
The Visual Pathway
Do you wear glasses? Find out why!
Eye Safety Tips
Hear Ye, Hear Ye - The Ear
How the Nose Knows - The Nose
That's Tasty!
Does the COLOR of Foods and Drinks Affect Their Taste?
Amazing Animals Senses

Neuroscience Methods and Techniques

Statistics: By the Numbers
The 10-20 System of Electrode Placement (for the EEG)
Common Methods Used in Neuroscience Research
Brain Imaging Methods
Glossary of Neuroscience Words
Careers in Neuroscience
The Effects of Drugs on the Nervous System

Alcohol Amphetamines
Barbiturates Caffeine
Cocaine Ecstasy
Heroin Inhalants
LSD Marijuana
Nicotine Rohypnol
1,4-Butanediol PCP
GHB Hallucinogenic Mushrooms

Alzheimer's Disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Asperger's Syndrome Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Autism Bacterial Meningitis
Bipolar Disorder Common Eye Diseases and Disorders

Dyslexia - I Dyslexia - II
Epilepsy Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Gulf War Syndrome Huntington's Disease
Lead and the Nervous System Lyme Disease
Mercury and the Nervous System Multiple Sclerosis
Narcolepsy Polio
Rabies Restless Legs Syndrome
Schizophrenia Soccer and the Brain (Heading for Injury?)
Spina Bifida Stroke
Tourette Syndrome Transient Ischemic Attack
West Nile Virus

[Table of Contents]

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Functional Divisions Page 1 of 2

The cerebral cortex is responsible for many "higherorder" functions like language and
information processing. Language centers are usually found only in the left cerebral hemisphere.
For more information on language and differences between the right and left cerebral
hemisphere, read about split brain experiments.
Cortical Area Function
Problem Solving, Emotion,

Prefrontal Cortex
Complex Thought
Motor Association Coordination of complex

Cortex movement
Primary Motor Cortex Initiation of voluntary movement
Primary Somatosensory Receives tactile information from

Cortex the body
Broca's Area
Processing of multisensory
Sensory Association Area
information
Complex processing of visual

Visual Association Area
information
Visual Cortex Detection of simple visual stimuli
Wernicke's Area
Neuroscience for Kids - Functional Divisions Page 2 of 2
Wernicke's Area Language comprehension
Auditory Association Complex processing of auditory

Area information
Detection of sound quality

Auditory Cortex
(loudness, tone)
Speech Center Images courtesy of Slice of

Speech production and articulation
(Broca's Area) Life.
Take the Cerebral Cortex Review Test. Requires the Adobe Acrobat
Reader.
Answers to the test.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Send E-mail Take Notes
survey Newsletter Pages
Neuroscience for Kids - Middle Page 1 of 3
The Brain:
Right down the
Middle
Although some people may think that the brain is like a

bowl of jellO, the brain is NOT a bowl of jellO.
Unlike a bowl of jellO, the brain is not a uniform
material. Rather, the brain is made up of many different
areas, each having a particular structure and function. To
separate the brain into right and left hemispheres, you need
to cut the brain in the "midsagittal plane".
Midsaggital Plane
Only some of the structures that are visible on a real brain have been labeled.
Brain Structures
Cerebral
Cortex
The word "cortex" comes from the Latin word for "bark" (of a tree). This
Functions: is because the cortex is a sheet of tissue that makes up the outer layer of
the brain. The thickness of the cerebral cortex varies from 2 to 6 mm. The
right and left sides of the cerebral cortex are connected by a thick band of
Thought nerve fibers called the "corpus callosum". In higher mammals like
Voluntary humans, the cerebral cortex looks like it has many bumps and grooves. A
movement bump or bulge on the cortex is called a gyrus (the plural of the word
gyrus is "gyri") and a groove is called a sulcus (the plural of the word
Language sulcus is "sulci"). Lower mammals like rats and mice have very few gyri and
Reasoning sulci.
Perception
Cerebellum
The word "cerebellum" comes from the Latin word for "little brain".
Functions:
The cerebellum is located behind the brain stem. In some ways, the
cerebellum is a bit like the cerebral cortex: the cerebellum is divided
Movement into hemispheres and has a cortex that surrounds these hemispheres.
Balance
Posture
Brain stem
Functions: The brain stem is a general term for the area of the brain between the
thalamus and spinal cord. Structures within the brain stem include
Breathing the medulla, pons, tectum, reticular formation and tegmentum. Some
of these areas are responsible for the most basic functions of life
Heart Rate such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
Blood
Pressure
Hypothalamus
Functions: The hypothalamus is composed of several different areas and is located at

the base of the brain. It is only the size of a pea (about 1/300 of the total
Body brain weight), but it is responsible for some very important behaviors. One
Temperature important function of the hypothalamus is the control of body temperature. The
hypothalamus acts as like a "thermostat" by sensing changes in body temperature
Emotions and then sending out signals to adjust the temperature. For example, if you are too
Hunger hot, the hypothalamus detects this and then sends out a signal to expand the
capillaries in your skin. This causes blood to be cooled faster. The hypothalamus
Thirst also controls the pituitary.
Circadian
Rhythms
Thalamus
Functions:
The thalamus receives sensory information and relays this information to
Sensory the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the
Integration thalamus which then transmits this information to other areas of the brain and
Motor spinal cord.
Integration
Corpus
Hear Cerebellum Cortex Hypothalamus Thalamus
Callosum
IT!
Check out the glossary for definitions of other brain areas.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Size Page 1 of 4
The Cerebral Cortex

(or "My Brain is Bigger than Your
Brain")
Brain Weight
Species
(gm)
As you might imagine, larger animals have larger Elephant
brains. However, this does not mean that animals
with larger brains are smarter than animals with 6,000
smaller brains. For example, a larger brain is
necessary to control larger muscles in larger
animals and a larger brain is necessary to process Adult Human
more sensory information from the skin in larger 1,300-1,400
animals - this has nothing to do with intelligence.
Rhesus Monkey
97
72
Dog
30
Cat
10
Rabbit
2.2
Owl
More brain weights
During the course of evolution, the brain areas

that show the most changes are the cerebral
hemispheres (the red areas in the figure): the
more recently evolved animals have a larger
proportion of the brain taken up by the
cerebral cortex. In the "higher" animals
(especially the higher mammals), the surface of
the cerebral cortex becomes folded. This creates
grooves on the surface of the brain called
"sulci" (singular = "sulcus"). The bumps or ridges
on the surface of the brain are called

"gyri" (singular = "gyrus"). The folding of the
cortex increases the cortical surface area. The
cerebral cortex, made up of four lobes is
involved in many complex brain functions
including memory, perceptual awareness,
"thinking", language and consciousness.
(Brains drawn to about the same scale)
Hear Gyri Gyrus Sulcus Sulci

IT!
The Primary Somatosensory Cortex
Parts of the cerebral cortex in the parietal lobe are involved with
processing information related to touch. One such area is the primary
somatosensory cortex which is located behind the central sulcus. Neurons
in the primary somatosensory are activated when the skin is touched.
However, the body is NOT represented in the cortex in proportion to the
amount of skin. A map of the human somatosensory cortex was drawn by
Dr. Wilder Penfield, a neurosurgeon, in the 1950's. After stimulating the
cortex of patients undergoing brain surgery for epilepsy, Dr. Penfield asked the patients what
they felt. By observing the location on the brain that caused
patients to feel sensations on different parts of their bodies, Dr.
Penfield was able to draw a map of the brain. As you can see in
this figure above, even though the arms and trunk make up most
of your body, they are not given much cortical tissue. However, the
face and hands take up a good portion of the primary
somatosensory cortex. This is because the amount of primary
somatosensory cortex is directly related to the sensitivity of a body
area and the density of receptors found in different parts of the
body. The areas of skin with the higher density of receptors (like
the face, hands and fingers) have more cortical tissue devoted to
them. If you were "built" in proportion to the amount of cortex
devoted to each part of your body, you would look a bit distorted:
you would have a big head and hands and a small torso and tiny legs. This distorted body
map is called a homunculus which means "little man".
Think about how sensitive your fingertips are compared to your leg. For a
demonstration of the sensitivity of different body areas, test your two point
discrimination.
Hear Homunculus
IT!
Try the REALLY WEIRD BODY MAP animation to learn more about the homunculus. Requires
the shockwave plugin for your browser.
Why don't you probe the motor cortex with this science odyssey activity from PBS. Requires the
shockwave plugin for your browser.
Touch
BACK TO: Experiments
Exploring the Nervous
Table of Contents
System
Fill out Get Search Donate to

Send Email Take Notes Neuroscience for
Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Hemispheres Page 1 of 6
1One Brain...or Two?2

How many brains do you have one or two?
Actually, this is quite easy to answer...you
have only one brain. However, the cerebral
hemispheres are divided right down the
middle into a right hemisphere and a left
hemisphere. Each hemisphere appears to be
specialized for some behaviors. The
hemispheres communicate with each other
through a thick band of 200250 million
nerve fibers called the corpus callosum. (A
smaller band of nerve fibers called the anterior
Left Right
commissure also connects parts of the cerebral
Hemisphere Hemisphere
hemispheres.)
Handedness
Are you righthanded or lefthanded? As you probably know,
most people (about 90% of the population) are righthanded they
prefer to use their right hand to write, eat and throw a ball.
Another way to refer to people who use their right hand is to say that they are "right hand
dominant." It follows that most of the other 10% of the population is lefthanded or "left hand
dominant." There are few people who use each hand equally; they are "ambidextrous." (Most
people also have a dominant eye and dominant ear...test your "sidedness" here.)
Exactly why people are righthanded or lefthanded is somewhat of a mystery. Dr.

William Calvin has developed a fascinating theory about the origin of handedness and
has written an essay called The Throwing Madonna to explain it.
Right Side
Left Side
The right side of the
brain controls muscles on
the left side of the body
and the left side of the
brain controls muscles on

the right side of the body.
Also, in general, sensory
information from the left
side of the body crosses
over to the right side of
the brain and information
from the right side of the
body crosses over to the
left side of the brain.
Therefore, damage to one Broca's Area
side of the brain will
affect the opposite side of
the body.
In 95% of righthanders,
the left side of the brain
is dominant for language.
Even in 6070% of left
handers, the left side of Wernicke's Area
brain is used for
language. Back in the
1860s and 1870s, two
neurologists (Paul Broca
and Karl Wernicke)
observed that people who
had damage to a
particular area on the left
side of the brain had Images courtesy of Slice of
speech and language Life.
problems. People with
damage to these areas on
the right side usually did
not have any language
problems. The two
language areas of the
brain that are important
for language now bear
their names: Broca's area
and Wernicke's area.
Left Cerebral Dominance Right

Hemisphere Hemisphere
Each hemisphere of the brain is dominant for other
behaviors. For example, it appears that the right brain is

dominant for spatial abilities, face recognition, visual
Language imagery and music. The left brain may be more dominant Spatial
Math for calculations, math and logical abilities. Of course, abilities
these are generalizations and in normal people, the two Face
Logic hemispheres work together, are connected, and share
recognition
information through the corpus callosum. Much of what
we know about the right and left hemispheres comes from Visual
studies in people who have had the corpus callosum split - imagery
this surgical operation isolates most of the right Music
hemisphere from the left hemisphere. This type of surgery
is performed in patients suffering from epilepsy. The
corpus callosum is cut to prevent the spread of the
"epileptic seizure" from one hemisphere to the other.
Split-Brain Experiments
Roger Sperry (who won the Nobel prize in 1981) and Michael Gazzaniga are two
neuroscientists who studied patients who had surgery to cut the corpus callosum.
These studies are called "Split-Brain Experiments". After surgery, these
people appeared quite "normal" - they could walk, read, talk, play sports and do
all the everyday things they did before surgery. Only after careful experiments
that isolated information from reaching one hemisphere, could the real effects of
the surgery be determined.
Dr. Sperry used a tachistoscope to present visual information to one hemisphere or the other. The
tachistoscope requires people to focus on a point in the center of their visual field. Because each half
of the visual field projects to the opposite site of the brain (crossing in the optic chiasm), it is
possible to project a picture to either the right hemisphere OR the left hemisphere.
So, say a "typical" (language in the LEFT hemisphere)

split-brain patient is sitting down, looking straight
ahead and is focusing on a dot in the middle of a
screen. Then a picture of a spoon is flashed to the right
of the dot. The visual information about the spoon
crosses in the optic chiasm and ends up in the LEFT
HEMISPHERE. When the person is asked what the
picture was, the person has no problem identifying the
spoon and says "Spoon." However, if the spoon had
been flashed to the left of the dot (see the picture), then
the visual information would have traveled to the
RIGHT HEMISPHERE. Now if the person is asked
what the picture was, the person will say that nothing
was seen!! But, when this same person is asked to pick

out an object using only the LEFT hand, this person
will correctly pick out the spoon. This is because touch
information from the left hand crosses over to the right
hemisphere - the side that "saw" the spoon. However,
if the person is again asked what the object is, even
when it is in the person's hand, the person will NOT be
able to say what it is because the right hemisphere
cannot "talk." So, the right hemisphere is not stupid, it
just has little ability for language - it is "non-verbal."
Another type of experiment performed with split brain patients uses

chimeric figures, like this one to the right. In this figure, the face on
the left is a woman and the face on the right is a man. Therefore, if
the patient focuses on the dot in the middle of the forehead, the
visual information about the woman's face will go to the right
cerebral hemisphere and information about the man's face will go to
the left hemisphere. When a split brain patient is asked to point to a
whole, normal picture of the face that was just seen, the patient will
usually pick out the woman's picture (remember, the information
about the woman's face went to the RIGHT cerebral hemisphere).
However, if the patient is required to say whether the picture was a
man or a woman, the patient will SAY that the picture was of a man.
Therefore, depending on what the patient is required to do, either
the right or left hemisphere will dominate. In this case, when speech
is not required, the right hemisphere will dominate for recognition
of faces.
Before different types of brain surgery, it is important to identify which

cerebral hemisphere is dominant for language so that the neurosurgeon
can avoid damaging speech areas. One way to test which hemisphere is
dominant for language is with a procedure called the Wada Test. During
this test, a fast acting anesthetic called sodium amytal (amobarbital) is
injected into the right or left carotid artery. The right artery supplies the
right cerebral hemisphere and the left artery supplies the left cerebral
hemisphere. Therefore, either the right or left hemisphere can be "put to
sleep" temporarily. If the left hemisphere is put to sleep in people who
have language ability in the left hemisphere, then when asked to speak,
they cannot. However, if the right hemisphere is put to sleep, then these
people will be able to speak and answer questions. (Remember too that
because the right hemisphere controls muscles on the left side, people will
not be able to move the left side of their bodies.)
Another way to test for language representation in the

brain is to electrically stimulate the cerebral cortex. A
neurosurgeon can place an electrode on various areas
of the exposed brain of an awake patient during
surgery. The patient can say what he or she feels and
thinks. Placement of the electrode on the brain does
NOT hurt because the brain itself does not have any
receptors for pain. In people who have left side
dominance for language, electrical stimulation of
various locations on the left cerebral cortex will
interfere with speech.
A great page on split brain experiments can be found at Macalester University. There are also
several other pages with more information on splitbrain experiments and handedness and brain
lateralization.
Play the Split Brain Experiments Game from the Nobel eMuseum.
Are you one of the few left handers? Well, then you have something in common with some famous
people that include Bill Clinton, Jimmy Connors, and Marilyn Monroe. For information all about left
handedness, see Lorin's Lefthandedness Site. If you are interested in seeing some pictures of the
cerebral hemispheres, the Virtual Hospital has some great images.
BACK Explore the Nervous Experiments and Table of

TO: System Activities Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - He-She Page 1 of 4
She Brains - He
Brains
Bigger - Stronger - Faster...are there really any differences between
female brains and male brains? Differences between the brains of men
and women have generated considerable scientific and public interest.
If there are differences in the way that men and women behave, then it
is reasonable to suppose that their brains have something to do these
behavioral differences. Just what are these differences and where in
the brain might these differences be located?
For hundreds of years, scientists have searched for differences between the
brains of men and women. Early research showing that male brains were
larger than female brains was used to "prove" that male brains were superior
to female brains. Of course, this "proof" is NOT so simple and straight
forward as you will see. Nevertheless, even today, there is plenty of
controversy about the differences in the brains of men and women. Not only
from an anatomical point of view, but also from a functional point of view -
in other words, just what do the differences in the brains mean?
Hormones that are present during a baby's development will affect the brain and determine whether
the brain will be female or male. Studies that have looked at differences in the brains of males and
females have focused on:
1. Total Brain Size

2. The Corpus Callosum
3. The Hypothalamus
Differences in Total Brain Size?

Almost all studies show that at birth, a
boy's brain is bigger than a girl's brain.
At birth, the average brain of boys is
between 12-20% larger than that of
girls. The head circumference of boys
is also larger (2%) than that of girls.
However, when the size of the brain is
compared to body weight at this age,
there is almost no difference between
boys and girls. So, a girl baby and a Brain Weights
boy baby who weigh the same will

have similar brain sizes.
In adults, the average brain weight in

men is about 11-12% MORE than the
average brain weight in women. Men's
heads are also about 2% bigger than
women's. Remember though, men on
average weigh more than women and
that absolute brain size may not be the
best measure of intelligence. Many
behavioral differences have been
reported for men and women. For
example, it has been said that women
are better in certain language abilities
and men are better in certain spatial
abilities. Many studies have tried to
find differences in the right and left
cerebral hemispheres to suggest that
male and female brains are different.
However, few of these experiments
have found meaningful differences
between men and women. If fact, there
are many similarities between the
cerebral hemispheres of men and (Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in brain
women. weights during the span of human life: relation of brain weights to
body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology, 4:345-356, 1978)
Differences in the Corpus Callosum?

The major pathway that connects the right and left
cerebral hemispheres is called the corpus callosum. (The
corpus callosum is the fiber tract made up of 200-250
million axons that is cut in split brain patients.) Some
claims have been made that the corpus callosum is bigger
and more developed in women than in men. These claims
have even been reported in the popular media (Time Magazine, Jan. 20,
1992, pp. 36-42; Newsweek Magazine, March 27, 1995, pp. 51). However, other studies have told a
different story. Using magnetic resonance imaging methods, some researchers have found no
differences in the size of the corpus callosum in men and women. Further research that compares the
size of the corpus callosum size in men and women is needed.
Differences in the Hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus is one area of the brain with well-documented differences between men and
women. Two areas of the hypothalamus, the preoptic area and the suprachiasmatic nucleus, have
clear differences in female and male brains.
Preoptic Area of the Hypothalamus

This area of the hypothalamus is involved in mating behavior. In males of several species
including humans, the preoptic area is greater in volume, in cross-sectional area and in the
number of cells. In men, this area is about 2.2 times larger than in women and contains 2 times
more cells. Apparently, the difference in this area is only apparent after a person is 4 years old.
At 4 years of age, there is a decrease in the number of cells in this nucleus in girls. The exact
function of this nucleus in behavior is not fully known.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus of the Hypothalamus

This area of the hypothalamus is involved with circadian rhythms and reproduction cycles.
The only difference between women and men in this area is one of shape: in males, this
nucleus is shaped like a sphere; in females it is more elongated. However, the number of
cells and volume of this nucleus are not different in men and women. It is possible that the
shape of the suprachiasmatic nucleus influences the connections that this area makes with
other areas of the brain, especially the other areas of the hypothalamus.
Women and Men Boys and Girls
The behavioral and neurological differences between men and women require further study. Perhaps
new studies will find neuroanatomical differences that explain some of the complex differences
between male and female behavior. However, from a review of the current scientific evidence, it
appears that differences in many cognitive behaviors (for example, memory) are related more to
individual differences between people than to whether people are female or male.
Corpus
Hear Hypothalamus
Callosum
IT!
More about the possible differences between male and female brains:
Beyond the gender myths from Time Magazine, 1998

Brain imaging study of spatial memory
Gender and the Brain from the Society for Neuroscience
Gender Differences Found In The Way Boys And Girls Solve Math Problems

TO: System Contents

Send E-mail Take Notes Neuroscience for
Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Development Page 1 of 3
Brain
Development
The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during

brain development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute!! At birth,
almost all the neurons that the brain will ever have are present. However, the
brain continues to grow for a few years after birth. By the age of 2 years old,
the brain is about 80% of the adult size.
You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has
most of the neurons it will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial
cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply. Glia carries out many important functions for normal
brain function including insulating nerve cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many
new connections after birth.
The Brain During Development
The nervous system develops from embryonic tissue called the ectoderm. The first sign of the developing
th
nervous system is the neural plate that can be seen at about the 16 day of development. Over the next few
st
days, a "trench" is formed in the neural plate - this creates a neural groove. By the 21 day of development,
a neural tube is formed when the edges of the neural groove meet. The rostral (front) part of the neural tubes
goes on to develop into the brain and the rest of the neural tube develops into the spinal cord. Neural crest
cells become the peripheral nervous system.
At the front end of the neural tube, three major brain areas are formed: the prosencephalon (forebrain),
mesencepalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). By the 7th week of development, these three
areas divide again. This process is called encephalization.
Average brain weights at different times of

development:
AGE BRAIN WEIGHT (grams)
20 weeks of gestation 100
Birth 400
18 months old 800
3 years old 1100
Adult 13001400
Brain Weight
The top graph on the left shows the brain weights of

males and females at different ages. The bottom
graph shows the brain weight to total body weight
ratio (expressed as a percentage). The adult brain
makes up about 2% of the total body weight.
(Data from Dekaban, A.S. and Sadowsky, D., Changes in

brain weights during the span of human life: relation of brain
weights to body heights and body weights, Ann. Neurology,
4:345356, 1978)
More about Brain Development

The Teen Brain Online Newshour (October 13, 2004)
Embryological Development of the Human Brain
Society for Neuroscience
Brain reorganization
Neuron migration
Axon guidance
Visual development
Brain workouts
Child abuse and the brain
Parental care and the brain
Secret Life of the Brain a PBS special exploring the brain from
birth to old age
Child Development Articles from BrainConnection.com
Baby Talk Learning Language from US News and World
Report, June 15, 1998
Development and Neurobiology Column
Understanding TV's effects on the developing brain
The TEEN Brain articles from US News and World Report
(August 9, 1999). Some of these articles are available online.
Inside the Teenage Brain PBS
Zero to Three BrainWonders
The brain during old age

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience Resources for Kids - Aging Brain Page 1 of 4
The Nervous System in Old

Age
Over the last 100 years there has been a dramatic

increase in the population of elderly (age 65 years
and older) people. As shown in the graph, elderly
people in the US made up only 4.1% of the
population in 1900, but 8.1% in 1950 and 12.8% in
1995. By 2050, it is estimated that 20% of the
population will be 65 years
old or older. This increase in
the elderly population and
the high incidence of age-
related neurological
disorders make it important
to understand how the
human brain ages.
To investigate the changes

that the brain undergoes during aging,
neuroscientists use brain imaging methods to
observe the anatomy and physiology of the living
Data from Malmgren, R., in Textbook
brain. Scientists can also study autopsy specimens of Geriatric Neuropsychiatry, 2000.
to investigate how the brain changes over time.
Brain changes
Enlargement of the ventricular system: as people get older, the

volume of the ventricles (the spaces in the brain that contain
cerebrospinal fluid) increases. It is thought that this enlargement
occurs because cells surrounding the ventricles are lost.
Widening of sulci (the grooves) on the surface of the brain.
Reduced brain weight and brain volume: these changes are probably
caused by the loss of neurons. Reductions in the size of many areas
of the cerebral cortex have been reported.
Neurological disorders: brain disorders such as Alzheimer's disease,

Parkinson's disease and stroke are more common in the elderly.
Changes in the Senses
Vision
Lens: proteins in the lens change with age and the elasticity of the lens is
reduced. Therefore, many elderly individuals have trouble focusing their
eyes. Exposure to ultraviolet light can also yellow the lens. Changes in the
lens may affect color vision.
Cornea: the cornea may become less transparent and more flat. This may
cause images to appear distorted or blurred. There may also be a loss of
color sensitivity to green, blue and violet shades.
Pupil: changes in the autonomic nervous system alter the ability of older people to dilate the
pupil. By age 70, the pupil may not dilate easily in low lighting conditions (Hampton, 1997).
Cataracts: cloudy areas of the lens. Cataracts decrease the amount of light that passes through
the lens and can bend light abnormally. The National Eye Institute estimates that over 50% of
Americans age 65 years and older have a cataract.
Retina: the peripheral retina is thinner and contains fewer rods in older individuals.
Other disorders of the eye common in the elderly: glaucoma, macular degeneration,
presbyopia.
Olfaction
Changes in the nasal mucosa, cribriform plate and air passages may
contribute to impaired odor recognition.
The amygdala and other brain areas involved with smell may be
damaged in older individuals.
Taste
Impairment in the ability to taste may be caused by:
Medications that the elderly need.

Reductions in the number of taste buds.
Dentures that cover taste buds on the soft palate.
Audition
Hearing loss in the elderly may result from:
Ear wax build up.
Stiffening of the tympanic membrane (eardrum).
Atrophy of small ear muscles.
Degeneration of hair cells and support cells in the cochlea.
Stiffening of basilar membrane.
Loss of nerve fibers leading from the cochlea to the brain.
Loss of neurons in auditory areas of the brain.
Touch
Agerelated changes in the ability to perceive tactile stimuli may be due to:
Loss of various receptors (for example, Meissner's and Pacinian

corpuscles) in the skin.
Reductions in the number of sensory fibers innervating the skin.
For more information on the aging nervous system, see:
1. The American Psychiatric Press Textbook of Geriatric Neuropsychiatry, edited by C. E.

Coffey, J. L. Cummings, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 2000.
2. Hampton, J.K., Craven, R.F., and Heitkemper, M.M. The Biology of Human Aging, Dubuque:
Wm. C. Brown, 1997.
3. Hooper, C.R., Sensory and sensory integrative development, in Functional Performance in

Older Adults, edited by B.R. Bonder and M.B. Wagner, Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company,
2001, pp. 121-136.

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Cranial Nerves Page 1 of 6
Cranial
Nerves
The cranial nerves

are 12 pairs of
nerves that can be
seen on the ventral
(bottom) surface of
the brain. Some of
these nerves bring
information from the
sense organs to the
brain; other cranial
nerves control
muscles; other
cranial nerves are
connected to glands
or internal organs
such as the heart and
lungs.
Cranial Nerves
Number Name Function Location
I Olfactory Nerve Smell

II Optic Nerve Vision
Oculomotor Eye movement;

III
Nerve pupil dilation
IV Trochlear Nerve Eye movement
Somatosensory
information
(touch, pain)
V Trigeminal Nerve from the face
and head;
muscles for
chewing.
VI Abducens Nerve Eye movement

Taste (anterior
2/3 of tongue);
somatosensory
information
VII Facial Nerve from ear;
controls
muscles used in
facial
expression.
Vestibulocochlear Hearing;
VIII
Nerve balance
Taste (posterior
1/3 of tongue);
Somatosensory
information
Glossopharyngeal
IX from tongue,
Nerve
tonsil, pharynx;
controls some
muscles used in
swallowing.
Sensory, motor
and autonomic
functions of
X Vagus Nerve
viscera (glands,
digestion, heart
rate)
Controls
Spinal Accessory
XI muscles used in
Nerve
head movement.
Controls
Hypoglossal
XII muscles of
Nerve
tongue
Note: the olfactory "nerve" is composed of the rootlets of olfactory hair cells in the nasal mucosa
and is not visible on the ventral surface of the brain. The rootlets end in the olfactory bulb. The
olfactory tract contains nerve fibers projecting out of the olfactory bulb to the brain.
The images in this table have been adapted from those in the Slice of Life project.
Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear

Trigeminal Abducens Facial Vestibulocochlear
Hear
Spinal
IT! Glossopharyngeal Vagus Hypoglossal
Accessory
Can't remember the names of the cranial nerves? Here is a handy-dandy mnemonic for you:
On Old Olympus Towering Top A Famous Vocal German Viewed Some Hops.
The bold letters stand for:
olfactory, optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, vestibulocochlear,

glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal accessory, hypoglossal.
Still can't remember the cranial nerves? Perhaps you need some Cranial Nerve Bookmarks to
help you study! After you print the bookmarks, cut them into three individual bookmarks and use
them to mark your place when you study.
Test Your Cranial Nerves

Now that you know the names and functions of the cranial nerves, let's test them. These tests will
help you understand how the cranial nerves work. These tests are not meant to be a "clinical
examination" of the cranial nerves.
You will need to get a partner to help...both of you can serve as the experimenter (tester) and the
subject. Record your observations of what your partner does and says.
Olfactory Nerve (I)

Gather some items with distinctive smells (for example, cloves, lemon, chocolate or coffee).
Have your partner smell the items one at a time with each nostril. Have your partner record what
the item is and the strength of the odor. Now you be the one who smells the items...have your
partner use different smells for you.
Optic Nerve (II)

Make an eye chart (a "Snellen Chart") like the one on the right. It doesn't
have to be perfect. Have your partner try to read the lines at various distances
away from the chart.
Oculomotor Nerve (III), Trochlear Nerve (IV) and Abducens

Nerve (VI)
These three nerves control eye movement and pupil diameter. Hold up a
finger in front of your partner. Tell your partner to hold his or her head still and
to follow your finger, then move your finger up and down, right and left. Do
your partner's eyes follow your fingers?
Check the pupillary response (oculomotor nerve): look at the diameter of your partner's eyes in dim
light and also in bright light. Check for differences in the sizes of the right and left pupils.
Trigeminal Nerve (V)

The trigeminal nerve has both sensory and motor functions. To test the motor part of the
nerve, tell your partner to close his or her jaws as if he or she was biting down on a piece of gum.
To test the sensory part of the trigeminal nerve, lightly touch various parts
of your partner's face with piece of cotton or a blunt object. Be careful not
to touch your partner's eyes. Although much of the mouth and teeth are
innervated by the trigeminal nerve, don't put anything into your subject's
mouth.
Facial Nerve (VII)

The motor part of the facial nerve can be tested by asking your
partner to smile or frown or make funny faces. The sensory part of the
facial nerve is responsible for taste on the front part of the tongue. You
could try a few drops of sweet or salty water on this part of the tongue and see if your partner can
taste it.
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)

Although the vestibulocochlear nerve is responsible for hearing
and balance, we will only test the hearing portion of the nerve here.
Have your partner close his or her eyes and determine the distance at
which he or she can hear the ticking of a clock or stopwatch.
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) and Vagus Nerve (X)

Have your partner drink some water and observe the swallowing reflex. Also the
glossopharyngeal nerve is responsible for taste on the back part of the tongue. You could try a few
drops of salty (or sugar) water on this part of the tongue and see if your partner can taste it.
Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI)

To test the strength of the muscles used in head movement, put you hands on the sides of
your partner's head. Tell your partner to move his or her head from side to side. Apply only light
pressure when the head is moved.
Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)

Have your partner stick out his or her tongue and move it side to side.
Try it! Do you like interactive word search puzzles? Make sure your browser is "javaenabled" and
try this one:
Cranial Nerve Puzzle
Cranial Nerve Information from Yale

University.
Examination of the Cranial Nerves
More details about the cranial nerves.
A great cranial nerve review with quizes.

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Blood-Brain-Barrier Page 1 of 3
(BBB)
"Keep Out"
Over 100 years ago it was discovered that if blue dye was injected
into the bloodstream of an animal, that tissues of the whole body
EXCEPT the brain and spinal cord would turn blue. To explain
this, scientists thought that a "Blood-Brain-Barrier" (BBB) which
prevents materials from the blood from entering the brain existed.
More recently, scientists have discovered much more about the
structure and function of the BBB.
Anatomy of the BBB

The BBB is semi-permeable; that is, it allows some materials to
cross, but prevents others from crossing. In most parts of the
body, the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, are lined with
endothelial cells. Endothelial tissue has small spaces between
each individual cell so substances can move readily between the
inside and the outside of the vessel. However, in the brain, the
endothelial cells fit tightly together and substances cannot pass
out of the bloodstream. (Some molecules, such as glucose, are
transported out of the blood by special methods.)
Although glial cells (astrocytes) form a layer around brain blood

vessels, they do NOT contribute to the BBB. Rather, the
astrocytes may be important for the transportation of ions from
the brain to the blood.
Functions of the BBB

The BBB has several important functions:
1. Protects the brain from "foreign substances" in the blood that may injure the brain.
2. Protects the brain from hormones and neurotransmitters in the rest of the body.
3. Maintains a constant environment for the brain.
General Properties of the

BBB
1. Large molecules do not pass
through the BBB easily.
2. Low lipid (fat) soluble molecules
do not penetrate into the brain.
However, lipid soluble
molecules, such as barbituate
drugs, rapidly cross through
into the brain.
3. Molecules that have a high
electrical charge to them are
slowed.
The BBB can be broken down by:

1. Hypertension (high blood pressure): high blood
pressure opens the BBB
2. Development: the BBB is not fully formed at
birth.
3. Hyperosmolitity: a high concentration of a
substance in the blood can open the BBB.
4. Microwaves: exposure to microwaves can open
the BBB.
5. Radiation: exposure to radiation can open the
BBB.
6. Infection: exposure to infectious agents can open
the BBB.
7. Trauma, Ischemia, Inflammation, Pressure:
injury to the brain can open the BBB.
Circumventricular Organs
There are several areas of the brain where the BBB is weak. This allows substances to cross
into the brain somewhat freely. These areas are known as "circumventricular organs".
Through the circumventricular organs the brain is able to monitor the makeup of the blood.
The circumventricular organs include:
Pineal body
Secretes melatonin and neuroactive peptides. Associated with circadian rhythms.
Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)

Releases neurohormones like oxytocin and vasopressin into the blood.
Area postrema
"Vomiting center": when a toxic substance enters the bloodstream it will get to the
area postrema and may cause the animal to throw up. In this way, the animal protects
itself by eliminating the toxic substance from its stomach before more harm can be
done.
Subfornical organ
Important for the regulation of body fluids.
Vascular organ of the lamina terminalis

A chemosensory area that detects peptides and other molecules.
Median eminence
Regulates anterior pituitary through release of neurohormones.
More information about the BBB and circumventricular organs from Loyola University
School of Medicine and the Society for Neuroscience.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Neuroscience for Kids - The Skull Page 1 of 2
The
Skull
Your 3 pound (1.4 kg) brain needs a home...your skull!
Your brain is protected by

several bones. There are eight
bones that surround your brain:
one frontal bone; two parietal
bones, two temporal bones, one
occipital bone, one sphenoid
bone and one ethmoid bone.
These eight bones make up the
cranium.
Another 14 bones in the face

make up the entire skull. There
are also 3 small bones in each
ear. Also protecting your brain
are 3 layers of tissue called the
meninges. A few of the bones
have been colored in the
diagram to the right.
There is a large opening, called the foramen magnum,

located in the back of the occipital bone. This is where the
medulla ends and projects out of the skull. Smaller holes in
the skull, called foramina, allow nerves and blood vessels
to enter and leave the cranium. The picture on the left
shows the base of the skull.
The places in the skull where the bones come together are
called sutures. These sutures are flexible in young
children, but become fixed as you age.
Neuroscience for Kids - The Skull Page 2 of 2
DeLoy Roberts, a science teacher in Idaho Falls, has a nice collection of animal skulls that he has
made available on the Internet.

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Ventricles Page 1 of 3
The Ventricular System and CSF

(Cerebrospinal Fluid)
The entire surface of central nervous system is bathed by a clear, colorless fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The CSF is contained within a system of fluid-filled cavities called
ventricles. The ventricles are shown in blue on the following midsagittal section of the brain.
The Ventricles
CSF is produced mainly by a structure called the choroid plexus in the

lateral, third and fourth ventricles. CSF flows from the lateral ventricle to
the third ventricle through the interventricular foramen (also called the
foramen of Monro). The third ventricle and fourth ventricle are connected
to each other by the cerebral aqueduct (also called the Aqueduct of
Sylvius). CSF then flows into the subarachnoid space through the
foramina of Luschka (there are two of these) and the foramen of Magendie
(only one of these).
Absorption of the CSF into the blood stream takes place in the superior sagittal sinus through
structures called arachnoid villi . When the CSF pressure is greater than the venous pressure, CSF
will flow into the blood stream. However, the arachnoid villi act as "one way valves"...if the CSF
pressure is less than the venous pressure, the arachnoid villi will NOT let blood pass into the
ventricular system.
Ok..so there is CSF flowing through the

ventricles...what does the CSF do? The CSF has
several functions including:
1. Protection: the CSF protects the brain from

damage by "buffering" the brain. In other
words, the CSF acts to cushion a blow to the
head and lessen the impact.
2. Buoyancy: because the brain is immersed in
fluid, the net weight of the brain is reduced
from about 1,400 gm to about 50 gm.
Therefore, pressure at the base of the brain
is reduced.
3. Excretion of waste products: the one-way
flow from the CSF to the blood takes
potentially harmful metabolites, drugs and
other substances away from the brain.
4. Endocrine medium for the brain: the CSF
serves to transport hormones to other areas Image adapted from Biodidac
of the brain. Hormones released into the
CSF can be carried to remote sites of the
brain where they may act.
Under some pathological conditions, CSF builds up within the ventricles. This condition is
called hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus may result from:
1. Overproduction of CSF
2. An obstruction at some point within the ventricular system
3. Problems with CSF absorption
To model how the CSF works, try out this experiment with Mr. Egghead!
Some CSF facts:

1. The total volume of CSF is 125150 ml.
2. Normal resting pressure of the CSF is between 150180 mm H O.
2
3. Total production of CSF is about 400500 ml/day (about .36 ml/min).
"Choroid "Arachnoid
Hear "Ventricle" "Hydrocephalus"
Plexus" villi"
It
For more about CSF and hydrocephalus, see:
1. Formation, circulation and absorption of

CSF
2. The Hydrocephalus Foundation
3. National Hydrocephalus Foundation
4. The Hydrocephalus Association
5. Hydrocephalus from Beth Israel Hospital
6. Hydrocephalus from Pediatric Neurosurgery

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Coverings Page 1 of 2
Coverings (Meninges) of the

Brain
There are several layers of tissue that separate your brain from the outside
world. First, there is your skin (scalp). Beneath the skin is bone (your
skull). Below the skull are three special coverings called the meninges.
You may have heard of the illness called meningitis. Meningitis is an
infection of the meninges.
The outer layer of the meninges is called the dura mater or just the dura.
The dura is tough and thick and it can restrict the movement of the brain
within the skull. This protects the brain from movements that may stretch
and break brain blood vessels.
The middle layer of the meninges is called the arachnoid. The inner layer, the one closest to the
brain, is called the pia mater or just the pia.
The Coverings of the Brain
Here is an easy way to remember the order of the meninges:
"The meninges PAD the brain."
Pia; Arachnoid; Dura.
The word "arachnoid" comes from the Greek words "arachne" and "oid" which
Did you mean "spiderlike." The arachnoid was not discovered until 1664 by the Dutch
Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Coverings Page 2 of 2
know? anatomist Gerardus Blasius.
The word "Arachne" which means "spider" comes from Greek mythology.
According to the myth, a girl named Arachne was an excellent weaver. She
challenged the Greek goddess Athena to a weaving contest. When Arachne wove
a beautiful, perfect tapestry, Athena broke Arachne's loom and turned her into a
spider.
See the Meningitis Research Foundation or the Meningitis Foundation of America for more
information about Meningitis. Perhaps your questions about the meninges will be answered here
at Top 20 Frequently Asked about Meningitis. Killer on Campus (from PBS) describes how
meningitis affects young adults.
[Photographs of the Meninges]

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Send Email Take Notes
Neuroscience for Kids - Blood Supply Page 1 of 4
The Blood Supply of the

Brain
Food and oxygen are carried to

the brain by many blood vessels.
These vessels are found on the
surface of the brain and deep
within the brain. The blood
vessels (and nerves) enter the
brain through holes in the skull
called foramina (red arrows in
the picture on the right).
Although the brain is only about 2% of the total

body weight in humans, it receives 15-20% of
the body's blood supply. Because brain cells will
die if the supply of blood which carries oxygen
is stopped, the brain has top priority for the
blood. Even if other organs need blood, the body
attempts to supply the brain with a constant flow
of blood.
The blood brings many materials necessary for the brain to function properly. The blood also
removes materials from the brain.
Blood is supplied to the entire brain by 2 pairs of arteries: the

internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries. As you can see
in the figure below, the right and left vertebral arteries come
together at the base of the brain to form a single basilar artery.
The basilar artery joins the blood supply of the internal
carotid arteries in a ring at the base of the brain. This ring of
arteries is called the circle of Willis. The circle of Willis

provides a safety mechanism...if one of the arteries gets
blocked, the "circle" will still provide the brain with blood.
Base of the brain
Only some of the vessels that exist in a real brain have been labeled.
Brain Attack = Stroke
You may know someone, a parent or grandparent, who has had a "stroke," also called a "brain attack."
What exactly is a stroke? A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is stopped. If this happens
for enough time, neurons will start to die because they will not get enough oxygen. Paralysis or aphasia
(loss of speech) are possible consequences of a stroke.
There are two major causes of a stroke:

Blockage of a blood vessel (in the brain or neck) caused by:

a blood clot in the brain or neck (this is called a thrombosis)
a blood clot from somewhere else that has moved and now blocks a blood vessel in the
brain or neck (this is called an embolism)
constriction or narrowing of an artery in the head or neck (this is called a stenosis)
Bleeding of a blood vessel (this is called hemorrhagic stroke)
There are several warning signs that occur with a brain attack:
Reprinted with permission from The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
Sudden weakness or numbness of the face, arm, or leg on one side of the body.
Sudden dimness or loss of vision, particularly in one eye.
Sudden difficulty speaking or trouble understanding speech.
Sudden severe headache with no known cause.
Unexplained dizziness, unsteadiness, or sudden falls, especially with any of the other signs.
There are several conditions linked to stroke:

Reprinted with permission from The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
High blood pressure Eat a balanced diet, maintain a healthy weight, and
exercise to reduce blood pressure. Drugs are also available.
Cigarette smoking Don't start smoking and if you do smoke, quit!
Heart disease Your doctor will treat your heart disease and may also
prescribe medication to help prevent the formation of clots.
Diabetes Treatment can delay complications that increase the risk of stroke.
Transient ischemic attacks These are brief episodes of stroke's warning signs and can be
treated with drugs or surgery.
Each year there are 600,000 people in the United States who suffer a
stroke. Stroke is the THIRD leading cause of death in the US and kills
about 160,000 Americans each year. (Statistic from American Stroke Association)
The word "carotid" (carotid artery) comes from the Greek word karotis
Did you meaning "deep sleep." This is because it has been known for a long time
know? that pressure to the carotid arteries causes animals to become sleepy.
In humans, the brain uses 1520% of the body's oxygen supply. In the
African elephant nose fish, the brain uses 60% of the oxygen supply!
(Source: Nilsson, G.E., Brain and body oxygen requirements of Gnathonemus perterssi, a
fish with an exceptionally large brain. J. Experi. Biol., 199:603607, 1996.)
More about stroke:
Chilled Brains Hibernating animals may hold clues to novel stroke treatments
Fighting back against Brain Attack
Images of the brain after a stroke
More facts about brain blood flow
National Stroke Association
StrokeCenter at Washington University School of Medicine
Stanford Stroke Center
Stroke Quick Facts and Figures
Stroke Relief

TO: System Contents

Email survey Newsletter Pages Notes Neuroscience for
Kids
Brain Facts and Figures Page 1 of 15
Brain Facts and Figures

These data were obtained from several textbooks. Note that all data are estimates and averages. Check
literature for appropriate references. All numbers are for humans unless otherwise indicated.
Table of Contents
BRAIN NEURON
SPINAL
CORD
SENSORY BLOOD
APPARATUS SUPPLY
Brain
Average Brain Weights (in grams)

Species Weight (g) Species Weight (g)
adult human 1,300 - 1,400 newborn human 350 - 400
sperm whale 7,800 fin whale 6,930
elephant 6,000 humpback whale 4,675
gray whale 4,317 killer whale 5,620
bowhead whale 2,738 pilot whale 2,670
bottle-nosed dolphin 1,500 - 1,600 walrus 1,020 - 1,126
Pithecanthropus Man 850 - 1,000 camel 762
giraffe 680 hippopotamus 582

leopard seal 542 horse 532
polar bear 498 gorilla 465 - 540
cow 425-458 chimpanzee 420
orangutan 370 California sea lion 363
manatee 360 tiger 263.5
lion 240 grizzly bear 234
sheep 140 baboon 137
adult rhesus monkey 90-97 dog (beagle) 72
aardvark 72 beaver 45
shark (great white) 34 shark (nurse) 32
cat 30 porcupine 25
squirrel monkey 22 marmot 17
rabbit 10-13 platypus 9
alligator 8.4 squirrel 7.6
opossum 6 flying lemur 6
fairy anteater 4.4 guinea pig 4
ring-necked pheasant 4.0 hedgehog 3.35
tree shrew 3 fairy armadillo 2.5
owl 2.2 grey partridge 1.9
rat (400 g body weight) 2 hamster 1.4
elephant shrew 1.3 house sparrow 1.0
european quail 0.9 turtle 0.3-0.7
bull frog 0.24 viper 0.1
goldfish 0.097 green lizard 0.08
Reference for many of these brain weights:
1. Blinkov, S.M. and Glezer, I.I. The Human Brain in Figures and Tables. A
Quantitative Handbook, New York: Plenum Press, 1968.
2. Demski, L.S. and Northcutt, R.G. The brain and cranial nerves of the white shark:
an evolutionary perspective. In Great White Sharks. The Biology of Carcharodon
carcharias, San Diego: Academic Press, 1996.
3. Nieuwenhuys, R., Ten Donkelaar, H.J. and Nicholson, C. The Central Nervous
System of Vertebrates. Vol. 3, Berlin: Springer, 1998.
4. Berta, A., et al. Marine Mammals. Evolutionary Biology, San Diego: Academic
Press, 1999.
5. Mink, J.W., Blumenschine, R.J. and Adams, D.B. Ratio of central nervous system
to body metabolism in vertebrates: its constancy and functional basis. Am. J.
Physiology, 241:R203-R212, 1981.
6. Rehkamper, G., Frahm, H.D. and Zilles, K. Quantitative development of brain and
brain structures in birds (Galliformes and Passeriforms) compared to that in
mammals (Insectivores and Primates). Brain Beh. Evol., 37:125-143, 1991.
7. Ridgway, S.H. and Harrison, S., Handbook of Marine Mammals, Vol. 3, London:
Academic Press, 1985.
% brain of total body weight (150 pound human) = 2%

Average brain width = 140 mm
Average brain length = 167 mm
Average brain height = 93 mm
Intracranial contents by volume (1,700 ml, 100%): brain = 1,400 ml (80%); blood = 150 ml (10%);
cerebrospinal fluid = 150 ml (10%) (from Rengachary, S.S. and Ellenbogen, R.G., editors, Principles of Neurosurgery,
Edinburgh: Elsevier Mosby, 2005)
Average number of neurons in the brain = 100 billion

Number of neurons in brain (octopus) = 300 million (from How Animals See, S. Sinclair, 1985)
Number of neurons in Aplysia nervous system = 18,000-20,000
Number of neurons in each segmental ganglia in the leech = 350
3
Volume of the brain of a locust = 6mm (from The Neurobiology of the Insect Brain, Burrows, M., 1996)
Ratio of the volume of grey matter to white matter in the cerebral hemipheres (20 yrs. old) = 1.3 (Miller,
A.K., Alston, R.L. and Corsellis, J.A., Variation with age in the volumes of grey and white matter in the cerebral hemispheres
of man: measurements with an image analyser, Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol., 6:119-132, 1980)
Ratio of the volume of grey matter to white matter in the cerebral hemipheres (50 yrs. old) = 1.1 (Miller
et al., 1980)
Ratio of the volume of grey matter to white matter in the cerebral hemipheres (1000 yrs. old) = 1.5
(Miller et al., 1980)
% of cerebral oxygen consumption by white matter = 6%
% of cerebral oxygen consumption by gray matter = 94%
Average number of glial cells in brain = 10-50 times the number of neurons
(For more information about the number of neurons in the brain, see R.W. Williams and K. Herrup, Ann.
Review Neuroscience, 11:423-453, 1988)
Number of neocortical neurons (females) = 19.3 billion (Pakkenberg, B., Pelvig, D., Marner,L., Bundgaard, M.J.,
Gundersen, H.J.G., Nyengaard, J.R. and Regeur, L. Aging and the human neocortex. Exp. Gerontology, 38:95-99, 2003 and
Pakkenberg, B. and Gundersen, H.J.G. Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age. J. Comp. Neurology,
384:312-320, 1997.)
Number of neocortical neurons (males) = 22.8 billion (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Average loss of neocortical neurons = 85,000 per day (~31 million per year) (Pakkenberg et al., 1997;
2003)
Average loss of neocortical neurons = 1 per second (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Average number of neocortical glial cells (young adults ) = 39 billion (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Average number of neocortical glial cells (older adults) =36 billion (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Length of myelinated nerve fibers in brain = 150,000-180,000 km (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Number of synapses in cortex = 0.15 quadrillion (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Difference number of neurons in the right and left hemispheres = 186 million MORE neurons on left side
than right side (Pakkenberg et al., 1997; 2003)
Proportion by Volume (%)

Rat Human
Cerebral Cortex 31 77
Diencephalon 7 4
Midbrain 6 4
Hindbrain 7 2
Cerebellum 10 10
Spinal Cord 35 2
(Reference: Trends in Neuroscience, November
1995)
Composition of Brain and Muscle

Skeletal Muscle (%) Whole Brain (%)
Water 75 77 to 78
Lipids 5 10 to 12
Protein 18 to 20 8
Carbohydrate 1 1
Soluble organic substances 3 to 5 2
Inorganic salts 1 1
(Reference: McIlwain, H. and Bachelard, H.S., Biochemistry and the Central Nervous System,
Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1985)
2 2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex = 2,500 cm (2.5 ft ; A. Peters, and E.G. Jones, Cerebral Cortex, 1984)
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (lesser shrew) = 0.8 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (rat) = 6 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (cat) = 83 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (African elephant) = 6,300 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (Bottlenosed dolphin) = 3,745 cm (S.H. Ridgway, The Cetacean
Central Nervous System, p. 221)
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (pilot whale) = 5,800 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (false killer whale) = 7,400 cm
(Reference for surface area figures: Nieuwenhuys, R., Ten Donkelaar, H.J. and Nicholson, C., The Central nervous System of
Vertebrates, Vol. 3, Berlin: Springer, 1998)
Total number of neurons in cerebral cortex = 10 billion (from G.M. Shepherd, The Synaptic Organization of the
Brain, 1998, p. 6). However, C. Koch lists the total number of neurons in the cerebral cortex at 20 billion
(Biophysics of Computation. Information Processing in Single Neurons, New York: Oxford Univ. Press,
1999, page 87).
Total number of synapses in cerebral cortex = 60 trillion (yes, trillion) (from G.M. Shepherd, The
Synaptic Organization of the Brain, 1998, p. 6). However, C. Koch lists the total synapses in the cerebral
cortex at 240 trillion (Biophysics of Computation. Information Processing in Single Neurons, New York:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1999, page 87).
Percentage of total cerebral cortex volume (human): frontal lobe = 41%; temporal lobe = 22%; parietal
lobe = 19%; occipital lobe = 18%. (Caviness Jr., et al. Cerebral Cortex, 8:372-384, 1998.)
Number of cortical layers = 6

Thickness of cerebral cortex = 1.5-4.5 mm
Thickness of cerebral cortex (Bottlenosed dolphin) = 1.3-1.8 mm (S.H. Ridgway, The Cetacean Central Nervous
System, p. 221)
EEG - beta wave frequency = 13 to 30 Hz

EEG - alpha wave frequency = 8 to 13 Hz
EEG - theta wave frequency = 4 to 7 Hz
EEG - delta wave frequency = 0.5 to 4 Hz
World record, time without sleep = 264 hours (11 days) by Randy Gardner in 1965. Note: In Biopsychology
(by J.P.J. Pinel, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000, p. 322), the record for time awake is attributed to Mrs. Maureen Weston. She
apparently spent 449 hours [18 days, 17 hours] awake in a rocking chair. The Guinness Book of World Records [1990] has the
record belonging to Robert McDonald who spent 453 hours, 40 min in a rocking chair.
Time until unconsciousness after loss of blood supply to brain = 8-10 sec
Time until reflex loss after loss of blood supply to brain = 40-110 sec
Rate of neuron growth (early pregnancy) = 250,000 neurons/minute

Length of spiny terminals of a Purkinje cell = 40,700 micron
Number spines on a Purkinje cell dendritic branchlet = 61,000
2
Surface area of cerebellar cortex = 50,000 cm (from G.M. Shepherd, The Synaptic Organization of the Brain, 1998,
p. 255)
Weight of adult cerebellum = 150 grams Afifi, A.K. and Bergman, R.A., Functional Neuroanatomy, New York:
McGrawHill, 1998
Number of Purkinje cells = 1526 million
Number of synapses made on a Purkinje cell = up to 200,000
Weight of hypothalamus = 4 g
3
Volume of suprachiasmatic nucleus = 0.3 mm
Number of fibers in pyramidal tract above decussation = 1,100,000
Number of fibers in corpus callosum = 250,000,000
2
Area of the corpus callosum (midsagittal section) = 6.2 cm
Body Weight
Species Cerebellum Weight (grams)
(grams)
Mouse 0.09 58
Bat 0.09 30
Flying Fox 0.3 130
Pigeon 0.4 500
Guinea Pig 0.9 485
Squirrel 1.5 350
Chinchilla 1.7 500
Rabbit 1.9 1,800
Hare 2.3 3,000
Cat 5.3 3,500
Dog 6.0 3,500
Macaque 7.8 6,000
Sheep 21.5 25,000
Bovine 35.7 300,000
Human 142 60,000
Source: Sultan, F. and Braitenberg, V. Shapes and sizes of different
mammalian cerebella. A study in quantitative comparative
neuroanatomy. J. Hirnforsch., 34:7992, 1993.
Total volume of cerebrospinal fluid = 125150 ml

Half life of cerebrospinal fluid = 3 hours
Daily production of CSF = 400 to 500 ml
Specific gravity of cerebrospinal fluid = 1.007
Color of normal CSF = clear and colorless
3
White Blood cell count in CSF = 03 per mm
3
Red Blood cell count in CSF = 05 per mm
Normal intracranial pressure = 150 180 mm of water
Composition of Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

CSF Serum
Water (%) 99 93
Protein (mg/dl) 35 7000
Glucose (mg/dl) 60 90
Osmolarity (mOsm/l) 295 295
Na (meq/l) 138 138
K (meq/l) 2.8 4.5
Ca (meq/l) 2.1 4.8
Mg (meq/l) 0.3 1.7
Cl (meq/l) 119 102
pH 7.33 7.41
(Reference: Fishman, R.A. Cerebrospinal Fluid in Disease of the Nervous System. Philadelphia:
Saunders, 1980)
Number of cranial nerves = 12
I- olfactory
II- optic
Number of fibers in human optic nerve = 1,200,000

Number of fibers in cat optic nerve = 119,000
Number of fibers in albino rat optic nerve = 74,800
Length of optic nerve = 50 mm
III- oculomotor
Number of fibers in oculomotor nerve = 25,000-35,000
IV- trochlear
Number of fibers in trochlear nerve = 2,000-3,500

Number of neurons in nucleus of the trochlear nerve = 2,000-3,500
V- trigeminal
Number of fibers in motor root of trigeminal nerve = 8,100

Number of fibers in sensory root of trigeminal nerve = 140,000
VI- abducens
Number of fibers in abducens nerve (at exit from brain stem) = 3,700
VII- facial
Number of fibers in facial nerve (at exit from brain stem) = 9,000-10,000
Length of nucleus of the facial nerve = 2 to 5.6 mm
Number of neurons in nucleus of the facial nerve = 7,000
VIII-vestibulocochlear
IX- glossopharyngeal
X- vagus
Length of dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve = 10 mm
XI- spinal accessory

XII- hypoglossal
Number of neurons in nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve = 4,500-7,500

Length of nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve = 10 mm
Spinal Cord
Number of neurons in human spinal cord = 1 billion (from Kalat, J.W.,
Biological Psychology, 6th Edition, 1998, page 24)
Length of human spinal cord = 45 cm (male); 43 cm (female)
Length of human vertebral column = 70 cm
Length of cat spinal cord = 34 cm
Length of rabbit spinal cord = 18 cm
Weight of human spinal cord = 35 g

Weight of rabbit spinal cord = 4 g
Weight of rat spinal cord (400 g body weight) = 0.7 g
Maximal Circumference of cervical enlargement = 38 mm
Maximal Circumference of lumbar enlargement = 35 mm
Pairs of Spinal Nerves = 31
Number of Spinal Cord segments = 31
8 cervical segments
12 thoracic segments
5 lumbar segments
5 sacral segments
1 coccygeal segment
Sensory Apparatus
Audition
2
Surface area of the tympanic membrane = 85mm (Hearing. Its
Physiology and Pathophysiology, A.R. Moller, San Diego, Academic Press, 2000)
Length of the eustachian tube = 3.5 to 3.9 cm (Hearing. Its Physiology and Pathophysiology, A.R. Moller, San Diego,
Academic Press, 2000.)
Number of hair cells in cochlea = 10,000 inner hair cells; 30,000 outer hair cells (Hearing. Its Physiology and
Pathophysiology, A.R. Moller, San Diego, Academic Press, 2000. However, in the same book, Moller states that there are only
3,500 inner hair cells and 12,000 outer hair cells.)
Number of fibers in auditory nerve = 28,000-30,000
Length of auditory nerve = 2.5 cm
Number of neurons in cochlear nuclei = 8,800 (Northern, J.L. and Downs, M.P., Hearing in Children, 5th edition,
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002.)
Number of neurons in inferior colliculus = 392,000 (Northern, J.L. and Downs, M.P., Hearing in Children, 5th
edition, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002.)
Number of neurons in medial geniculate body = 570,000
Number of neurons in auditory cortex = 100,000,000
Hearing Range (young adult human) = 20 to 20,000 Hz
Hearing Range (elderly human) = 50 to 8,000 Hz (Guyton, A.C., Textbook of Medical Physiology, 1986)
Hearing Range (rat) = 1,000 to 50,000 Hz
Hearing Range (cat) = 100 to 60,000 Hz
Hearing Range (dolphin) = 200 to 150,000 Hz
Hearing Range (elephant) = 1 to 20,000 Hz
Hearing Range (goldfish) = 5 to 2,000 Hz
Hearing Range (moth, noctuid) = 1,000 to 240,000 Hz
Hearing Range (mouse) = 1,000 to 100,000 Hz
Hearing Range (sea lion) = 100 to 40,000 Hz
(Hearing range reference: Discover Science Almanac, New York: Hyperion, 2003)
Most sensitive range of human hearing = 1,000-4,000 Hz
Length of external auditory meatus (ear canal) = 2.7 cm
Diameter of external auditory meatus (ear canal)= 0.7 cm

Weight of malleus = 23 mg; length of malleus = 8-9 mm
Weight of incus = 30 mg; dimensions of incus = 5 mm by 7 mm
Weight of stapes = 3-4 mg; dimensions of stapes = 3.5 mm high, 3 mm long, 1.4 mm wide
Malleus, incus and stapes references: Gelfand, S.A. Hearing: An Introduction to Psychological and Physiological Acoustics,
4th edition, New York: Marcel Dekker, 2004.
Length of cochlea = 35 mm
Width of cochlea = 10 mm
Number of turns in the cochlea = 2.2-2.9
Length of basilar membrane = 25-35 mm
Width of basilar membrane = 150 microns (at base of cochlea) (Hearing. Its Physiology and Pathophysiology,
A.R. Moller, San Diego, Academic Press, 2000.)
Auditory Pain Threshold = 130 db
Threshold for hearing damage = 90 db for an extended period of time
Decibel Sound Scale

Decibels Sound
180 Rocket launching pad
140 Jet plane
140 Gunshot blast
120 Automobile horn
130 Pain threshold
120 Discomfort
90 Subway
80 Noisy Restaurant
75 Busy traffic
66 Normal conversation
50 Average home
30 Soft whisper
th
Source: Lee, K.J., Essential Otolaryngology, 8 edition, New York: McGraw-Hill,
2003.
Taste
Total number of human taste buds (tongue, palate, cheeks) = 10,000

Number of taste buds on the tongue = 9,000
Height of taste bud = 50-100 microns (From: Farbman, A.I., Taste Bud, in G. Adelman, eds., Encyclopedia of
Neuroscience, 1987)
Diameter of taste bud = 30-60 microns (From: Farbman, A.I.)
Number of receptors on each taste bud = 50-150 (Boron, W.F. and Boulpaep, E.L., Medical Physiology. A Cellular
and Molecular Approach, Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003)
Diameter of taste receptor = 10 micron
Diameter of taste fiber = less than 4 micron
Taste threshold for quinine sulfate = 3.376 mg/liter water
Smell
Number of human olfactory receptor cells = 12 million (Shier, D., Butler, J. and Lewis, R. Hole's Human Anatomy
& Physiology, Boston: McGraw Hill, 2004)
Number of rabbit olfactory receptor cells = 100 million
Number of dog olfactory receptor cells = 1 billion
Number of bloodhound olfactory receptor cells = 4 billion (Shier, D., Butler, J. and Lewis, R. Hole's Human
Anatomy & Physiology, Boston: McGraw Hill, 2004)
2
Surface area of olfactory epithelium (contains olfactory receptor cells) in humans = 10 cm (Bear, M.F.,
Connors, B.W. and Pradiso, M.A., Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 2nd edition, Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins, 2001, p. 269)

2
Surface area of bloodhound olfactory epithelium = 59 in (Shier, D., Butler, J. and Lewis, R. Hole's Human
Anatomy & Physiology, Boston: McGraw Hill, 2004)
2
Area of olfactory epithelium in some dogs = 170 cm (Bear, M.F., Connors, B.W. and Pradiso, M.A.,
Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 2nd edition, Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001, p.
269)
2
Area of olfactory epithelium in cats = 21 cm (Bradshaw, J., Behavioral biology, in The Waltham Book of Dog and
Cat Behaviour, ed. C. Thorne, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1992)
Thickness of olfactory epithelium mucous layer = 2050 microns. (Boron and Boulpaep, 2003)
Diameter of olfactory receptor axons = 0.10.2 micron
Diameter of distal end olfactory receptor cell = 1 micron
Diameter of olfactory receptor cell = 4050 micron
Number of cilia per olfactory receptor cell = 1030
Length of cilia on olfactory receptor cell = 100150 micron
Concentration for detection threshold of musk = 0.00004 mg/liter air
Vision
Length of eyeball = 24.5 mm (from Spaide, R.F., 1999)

3
Volume of eyeball = 5.5 cm
Weight of eyeball = 7.5 g
Average time between blinks = 2.8 seconds
Average duration of a single blink = 0.10.4 seconds (Schiffman, H.R., Sensation and Perception. An Integrated
Approach, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2001)
Thickness of cornea = 0.54 mm in center; 0.65 in periphery
Diameter of cornea = 11.5 mm
Thickness of lens = 4 mm
Diameter of lens = 9 mm
Composition of lens = 65% water; 35% protein
Number of retinal receptor cells = 56 million cones; 120140 million rods
Number of retinal ganglion cells = 800 thousand to 1 million
Number of fibers in optic nerve = 1,200,000
Number of neurons in lateral geniculate body = 570,000
Number of cells in visual cortex (area 17) = 538,000,000
Wavelength of visible light (human) = 400700 nm
Amount of light necessary to excite a rod = 1 photon
Amount of light necessary to excite a cone = 100 photons
o
Location of the greatest density of rods = 20 from fovea
2
Highest density of rods = 160,000 per mm
2
Peak density of rods (cat) = 400,000 per mm
2
Density of cones in fovea = 200,000 per mm
Diameter of fovea = 1.5 mm
Intraocular pressure = 1020 mm Hg
Volume of orbit = 30 ml
2
Area of retina = 2,500 mm
Thickness of retina = 120 microns (ranges from 100 to 230 microns)
Production rate of aqueous humor = 2 microliters/min
Turnover of aqueous humor = 15 times/day
% volume of eye occupied by the vitreous = 80%
Maximal sensitivity of red cones = 570 nm
Maximal sensitivity of green cones = 540 nm
Maximal sensitivity of blue cones = 440 nm
More Facts and Figures about the Human Retina from WebVision.
Touch
Weight of skin (adult human) = 9 lb.(4.1 kg) (Source: Schiffman, H.R., Sensation and Perception. An Integrated
Approach, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2001)
2 2
Surface area of skin (adult human) = 3,000 in (~1.9 m ) (Source: Schiffman, H.R., Sensation and Perception. An
Integrated Approach, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2001)
Number of tactile receptors in the hand = 17,000
2
Number of nerve endings in hand = 1,300 per in
von Frey threshold (Face) = 5 mg
2 point threshold (Finger) = 23 mm
Length of Meissner corpuscle = 90 120 micron
2
Density of receptors on finger tips = 2,500 per cm
2
Density of Meissner's corpuscles on finger tips = 1,500 per cm
2
Density of Merkel's cells on finger tips = 750 per cm
2
Density of Pacinian corpuscles on finger tips = 75 per cm
2
Density of Ruffini's corpuscles on finger tips = 75 per cm
o
Thermal pain threshold = 45 C
Neurons
6
Mass of a large sensory neuron = 10 gram (from Groves and Rebec, Introduction
to Biological Psychology, 3rd edition, Dubuque: Wm.C. Brown Publ., 1988)
Number of synapses for a "typical" neuron = 1,000 to 10,000
Diameter of neuron = 4 micron (granule cell) to 100 micron (motor neuron in
cord)
Diameter of neuron nucleus = 3 to 18 micron
Length of Giraffe primary afferent axon (from toe to neck) = 15 feet
Resting potential of squid giant axon = 70 mV
Conduction velocity of action potential = 0.6120 m/s (1.2250 miles/hr)
Single sodium pump maximum transport rate = 200 Na ions/sec; 130 K ions/sec
2
Typical number of sodium pumps = 1000 pumps/micron of membrane surface (from Willis and Grossman,
Medical Neurobiology, Mosby, St. Louis, 1981, p. 36)
Total number of sodium pumps for a small neuron = 1 million
2
Density of sodium channels (squid giant axon) = 300 per micron (from Hille, B., Ionic Channels of Excitable
Membranes, Sinauer, Sunderland, 1984, p. 210.)
2
Number of voltagegated sodium channels at each node = 1,000 to 2,000 per micron (from Nolte, J., The
Human Brain, Mosby, 1999, p. 163.)
2
Number of voltagegated sodium channels between nodes = 25 per micron (from Nolte, J., The Human Brain,
Mosby, 1999, p. 163.)
2
Number of voltagegated sodium channels in unmyelinated axon = 100 to 200 per micron (from Nolte, J.,
The Human Brain, Mosby, 1999, p. 163.)
Diameter of microtubule = 20 nanometer
Diameter of microfilament = 5 nanometer
Diameter of neurofilament = 10 nanometer
Thickness of neuronal membrane = 5 nanometer
Thickness of squid giant axon membrane = 50100 A
2
Membrane surface area of a typical neuron = 250,000 um (Bear et al., 2001)
2
Membrane surface area of 100 billion neurons = 25,000 m , the size of four soccer fields (Bear, M.F.,
Connors, B.W. and Pradiso, M.A., Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain, 2nd edition, Baltimore: Lippincott
Williams and Wilkins, 2001, p. 97)
Typical synaptic cleft distance = 2040 nanometers across (from Kandel et al., 2000, p. 176)
% neurons stained by Golgi method = 5%
Slow axoplasmic transport rate = 0.2-4 mm/day (actin, tubulin)
Intermediate axoplasmic transport rate = 15-50 mm/day (mitochondrial protein)
Fast axoplasmic transport rate = 200-400 mm/day (peptides, glyolipids)
Number of molecules of neurotransmitter in one synaptic vesicle = 5,000 (from Kandel et al., 2000, p. 277)
Diameter of synaptic vesicle = 50 nanometer (small); 70-200 nanometer (large)
Diameter of neurofilament = 7 - 10 nm
Diameter of microtubule = 25 nm
Internodal Length = 150 - 1500 microns (depends on fiber diameter
% composition of myelin = 70-80% lipid; 20-30% protein
====================================
Ion Concentration (mM) - SQUID NEURON

Intracellular Extracellular
Potassium 400 20
Sodium 50 440
Chloride 40-150 560
Calcium 0.0001 10
Ion Concentration (mM) - MAMMALIAN NEURON

Intracellular Extracellular
Potassium 140 5
Sodium 5-15 145
Chloride 4-30 110
Calcium 0.0001 1-2
Data from Purves et al., Neuroscience, Sunderland: Sinauer Associates,
1997.
====================================
Neurotoxins
Blood Supply
% brain utilization of total resting oxygen = 20%
% blood flow from heart to brain = 15-20% (Kandel et al., 2000)
Blood flow through whole brain (adult) = 750 ml/min
Blood flow through whole brain (adult) = 54 ml/100 g/min
Blood flow through whole brain (child) = 105 ml/100 g/min
Cerebral blood flow = 55 to 60 ml/100 g brain tissue/min
Cerebral blood flow (gray matter) = 75 ml/100 g brain tissue/min
Cerebral blood flow (white matter) = 45 ml/100 g brain tissue/min (Rengachary, S.S. and Ellenbogen, R.G.,
editors, Principles of Neurosurgery, Edinburgh: Elsevier Mosby, 2005)
3
Oxygen consumption whole brain = 46 cm /min
Oxygen consumption whole brain = 3.3 ml/100 g/min
Blood flow rate through each internal carotid artery = 180 ml/min
Blood flow rate through basilar artery = 380 ml/min
Diameter of vertebral artery = 2-3 mm
Diameter of common carotid artery (adult) = 6 mm
Diameter of common carotid artery (newborn) = 2.5 mm
[Return to Neuroscience for Kids] | [Return to Eric H. Chudler's Home Page]

Neuroscience Resources for Kids - Body System Interaction Page 1 of 5
How the Nervous

System Interacts
with Other Body
Systems
All of the systems within the body interact with one another to keep an organism healthy. Although
each system has specific functions, they are all interconnected and dependent on one another. The
nervous system controls various organs of the body directly. The brain also receives information
from many organs of the body and adjusts signals to these organs to maintain proper functioning.
ASSOCIATED INTERACTION WITH THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM FUNCTION
ORGANS SYSTEM
Skeletal The skeletal Bones (e.g., Bones provide calcium that is

System system makes skull,
essential for the proper functioning
up the vertebrae)
of the nervous system.
framework of
the body and The skull protects the brain from
allows us to injury.
move when The vertebrae protect the spinal
our muscles
cord from injury.
contract. It
stores Sensory receptors in joints between
minerals (e.g. bones send signals about body
calcium, position to the brain.
phosphorous) The brain regulates the position of
and releases
bones by controlling muscles.
them into the
body when
they are
needed. The
skeletal
system also
protects
internal
organs and
produces
blood cells.
Cardiovascular The Heart, blood

System cardiovascular vessels Endothelial cells maintain the

system
blood-brain barrier.
delivers
oxygen, Baroreceptors send information to
hormones, the brain about blood pressure.
nutrients and Cerebrospinal fluid drains into the
white blood
venous blood supply.
cells around
the body by The brain regulates heart rate and
pumping blood pressure.
blood, and it
removes
waste
products.
Muscular Different Muscles Receptors in muscles provide the

System types of (smooth,
brain with information about body
muscles skeletal and
position and movement.
enable cardiac
motion, muscles) The brain controls the contraction of
generate heat skeletal muscle.
to maintain The nervous system regulates heart
body
rate and the speed at which food
temperature,
moves through the digestive tract.
move food
through
digestive tract
and contract
the heart.
Endocrine The endocrine Pineal body, Hormones provide feedback to the

System system pituitary gland,
brain to affect neural processing.
secretes hypothalamus,
hormones into thyroid, Reproductive hormones affect the
blood and parathyroid, development of the nervous system.
other body heart, adrenal The hypothalamus controls the
fluids. These gland, kidney,
pituitary gland and other endocrine
chemicals are pancreas,
glands.
important for stomach,
metabolism, intestines,
growth, water ovary
and mineral
balance, and
the response
to stress.
Lymphatic The lymphatic Adenoid, The brain can stimulate defense

System system tonsils,
mechanisms against infection.
protects the thymus, lymph
body from nodes, spleen
infection.
Respiratory The Lungs, larynx, The brain monitors respiratory

System respiratory pharynx,
volume and blood gas levels.
system trachea,
supplies bronchi The brain regulates respiratory rate.
oxygen to the
blood and
removes
carbon
dioxide.
Digestive The digestive Stomach, Digestive processes provide the

System system stores esophagus,
building blocks for some
and digests salivary
neurotransmitters.
foods, glands, liver,
transfers gallbladder, The autonomic nervous system
nutrients to pancreas, controls the tone of the digestive
the body, intestines tract.
eliminates The brain controls drinking and
waste and
feeding behavior.
absorbs water.
The brain controls muscles for
eating and elimination.
The digestive system sends sensory
information to the brain.
Reproductive The Testes, vas Reproductive hormones affect brain

System reproductive deferens,
development and sexual behavior.
system is prostate gland,
responsible ovary, The brain controls mating behavior.
for producing fallopian tubes,
new life. uterus, cervix
Urinary The urinary Bladder, The bladder sends sensory

System system urethra, kidney
eliminates
waste The brain controls urination.
products and
maintains
water balance
and chemical
balance.
Integumentary The Skin, hair Receptors in skin send sensory

System integumentary
system
reduces water The autonomic nervous system
loss, contains regulates peripheral blood flow and
receptors that sweat glands.
respond to Nerves control muscles connected
touch,
to hair follicles.
regulates
body
temperature,
and protects
the inside of
the body from
damage.

TO: System Contents
Send Fill out Get Search Take

E-mail survey Newsletter Pages Notes Donate to
Neuroscience for
Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Directions/Planes Page 1 of 4
Directions and Planes of

Section
There are a number of special words
that are used to describe the position
and direction of brain structures. These
words help describe the location of
structures relative to other structures.
For example, we can say that the
frontal lobe is "rostral" to the occipital
lobe.
The brain, like all biological structures,

is three dimensional. So, any point on
or inside the brain can be localized on
three "axes" or "planes" the x, y and
z axes or planes. The brain is often cut
("sectioned") into pieces for further
study. These slices are usually made in
one of three planes: the coronal plane,
the horizontal plane or the sagittal
plane.
The coronal plane, horizontal plane

and sagittal plane are shown in the
figure on the right. The coronal plane
is also called the frontal plane. Slices
of the brain taken in the coronal plane are similar to the
slices from a loaf of bread. Horizontal cuts are made as
if you were slicing a hamburger bun or bagel.
The sagittal plane divides the right and left side of the
brain into parts. The midsagittal plane would divide the
right and left sides of the brain into two equal parts,
like cutting down the middle of a baked potato before
you put on the toppings.
The figures below show the human brain in the three planes of section on "synthetic MR" images
produced by BrainWeb:
Horizontal
Coronal Section Sagittal Section
Section
You can find some photographs of coronal sections from the human brain at the Comparative
Mammalian Brain Collection.
The LONI Resource is also available for viewing in coronal, horizontal and sagittal planes.
While visiting a new city or country, people often bring along a map. Neuroscientists who study the
brain also use maps to identify exactly what part of the brain they are examining. These maps of the
brain are called stereotaxic atlases. Just like maps, stereotaxic atlases use words to describe
direction. However, instead of "north", "south", "east" and "west", the following words are used to
describe direction in the brain (and other parts of the body too):
Directional Terms of the Body

Direction Description
Ventral Toward the belly (front)
Dorsal Toward the back
Rostral Toward the nose
Caudal Toward the tail
Toward the top of the
Superior
head/body
Lateral Away from the middle
Medial Toward the middle
Bilateral On both sides
Ipsilateral On the same side
Contralateral On the opposite side Side View Front View
Do you like interactive word search puzzles? Make sure your browser is "javaenabled" and
Try it! try this one:
Directions and Planes of Section Puzzle

The Washington University School of Medicine also discusses planes of section and has
some excellent human brain coronal section images.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Send Email survey Newsletter Pages Take Notes

Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Comparisons Page 1 of 3
Brains, Brains, Brains

Can you guess which animal goes with each of these brains?
You can play three ways:
1. Click on the "answer button" below the picture after you have made a guess.
2. Click on a brain to see the animal the brain belongs to.
3. See all the answers at one time.
Here are your choices:
Squirrel Spiny
Chimpanzee Cat Beaver
Monkey Anteater
Dolphin Manatee Capybara Least Weasel
Brain 1 Brain 2 Brain 3 Brain 4 Brain 5

Answer Answer Answer Answer Answer
Brain 6 Brain 7 Brain 8 Brain 9

Answer Answer Answer Answer
Now that you have seen these brains, ask yourself the following questions.
1. What are the similarities and differences between the brains?

2. What are their relative sizes?
3. Identify areas of the brain. Cortex? Cerebellum?
4. Are their noticeable differences in any particular parts of the brains?

5. Is the cortex smooth or rough?
6. Compare the placement of the cerebellum and spinal cord.
7. Compare the size of the olfactory bulb.
8. Compare the size of the cerebral cortex.
9. Discuss brain weight vs body weight issues.
10. Discuss brain size and intelligence.
11. Discuss language and brain size.
12. Discuss cortical expansion in higher species.
(Images with the permission of Dr. Wally Welker of the Mammalian Brain Collection at the University of
Wisconsin)
2
The total surface area of the human cerebral cortex is about 2,500 cm . This is about the
size of a pillow case (about 40 cm by 62.5 cm). How do the surface areas of the cortex from
other animals compare? Below are the SURFACE AREAS of various brains. Your job is to
calculate the dimensions (into a square or rectangle or circle) of these surface areas and to
draw them on a piece of paper. After you see the size of each brain, you should think of a
"common object" (such as a postage stamp or a piece of notebook paper) that fits the
2
dimensions. For example, if a surface area is 400 cm , you can draw a square that is 20 cm by
2
20 cm (=400 cm ) and see its actual size (a little more than half a sheet of notebook paper).
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (human) = 2,500 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (lesser shrew) = 0.8 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (rat) = 6 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (cat) = 83 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (African elephant) = 6,300 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (Bottlenosed dolphin) = 3,745 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (pilot whale) = 5,800 cm
2
Total surface area of the cerebral cortex (false killer whale) = 7,400 cm
(References for these surface area figures: Nieuwenhuys, R., Ten Donkelaar, H.J. and
Nicholson, C., The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Vol. 3, Berlin: Springer, 1998; A.
Peters, and E.G. Jones, Cerebral Cortex, 1984; S.H. Ridgway, The Cetacean Central Nervous
System, p. 221)

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Neuroscience for Kids - Invertebrate Nervous System Page 1 of 7
Invertebrates are those animals without a backbone (spinal column).

Invertebrates include animals such as insects, worms, jellyfish, spiders
these are only a few of the many types of spineless creatures.
Invertebrates have played an important role in discoveries about how the

nervous system works. The squid, aplysia (sea hare), leech, horseshoe
crab, lobster, and cockroach have all provided scientists with models by
which to study the nervous system. The squid even helped win the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1963.
Invertebrates are useful animals to study because their nervous system

functions in basically the same way as that of vertebrates. Neurons in all
animals work using an electrochemical process. Because the nervous
system of invertebrates is less complex than that of vertebrates, it is easier
to isolate and study neural functions in these animals without backbones.
Before reading about the nervous systems of some invertebrates, let's

define a ganglion (plural is ganglia). A ganglion is a group or collection
of nerve cell bodies.
Animal Nervous System Features/Behavior
Although the ameba is a singlecelled animal, it does

Ameba/Paramecium appear to be sensitive to the environment. This tiny
animal moves away from light, but it has no
photodetectors or eyes. The paramecium, another single
celled animal, also has no specialized sensory structures.
However, it avoids cold, heat and chemicals by backing
up and moving away.
Euglena have an eyespot that acts as a shield for a light

Euglena (flagellate) sensitive receptor. This small animal can detect the
strength and direction of light. It prefers a location with
moderate light and moves away from darkness and bright
light. Euglena probably use this receptor to keep
themselves in light which they use for photosynthesis.
Euglena use photosynthesis for energy although they can
eat solid food (like animals) if they are kept in the
Image courtesy of Biodidac darkness.
Sponge
Sponges are the only multicellular animals without a

nervous system. They do not have any nerve cells or
sensory cells. However, touch or pressure to the outside
of a sponge will cause a local contraction of its body.
Image courtesy of Biodidac
Hydra The hydra has a nervous system characterized by a nerve

net. A nerve net is a collection of separate, but
"connected" neurons. Neurons are connected by synapse.
Communication between neurons can be in both
directions at the synapse within a nerve net. The nerve
net is concentrated around the mouth. Unlike higher
animals, the hydra does not have any grouping of nerve
cell bodies. In other words, there are no ganglia.
The hydra does have specialized cells for touch and

chemical detection.
Like the hydra, the jellyfish has a nervous system

characterized by a series of interconnected nerve cells (a
nerve net). The nerve net conducts impulses around the
entire body of the jellyfish. The strength of a behavioral
response is proportional to the stimulus strength. In other
Jellyfish words, the stronger the stimulus, the larger the response.
Some jellyfish (for example, Aurelia) have specialized

structures called "rhopalia". These rhopalia have
receptors for:
light (called ocelli)

balance (called statocysts)
chemical detection (olfaction),
touch (called sensory lappets)
Shown to the left

is a statocyst. When the animal moves and body is tilted,

the statocyst makes contact with the cilium. When the
cilium bends, it causes action potentials to fire in a nerve.
This provides information to move muscles.
Anemone
Like the jellyfish and hydra, the anemone has a nerve

net.
Flatworms (Planaria) The nervous system of the flatworm has an organization

different from the invertebrates describe above. It does
have a nerve net, but these are connected by long nerve
cords. These cords are connected to cerebral ganglia
located in the head region. The central nervous system
has been described as "ladder-like" because of the nerves
connecting the nerve cords.
Flatworms have "auricles" that project from the side of

the head. These auricles contain chemoreceptors that are
used to find food. Flatworms also have eyespots called
"ocelli". The ocelli are sensitive to light and are
connected to the cerebral ganglia. Generally, the
flatworm avoids light.
The nervous system of the earthworm is "segmented"

just like the rest of the body. The "brain" is located
above the pharynx and is connected to the first ventral
ganglion. The brain is important for movement: if the
brain of the earthworm is removed, the earthworm will
move continuously. If the first ventral ganglion is
removed, the earthworm will stop eating and will not
dig. Each segmented ganglion gets sensory information
from only a local region of its body and controls muscles
Earthworm only in this local region.
Earthworms have touch, light, vibration and chemical

receptors all along the entire body surface.
Sea Star The nervous system of the starfish is very simple...there

("Starfish") is no brain and there are not even any ganglia to
coordinate movement. The nervous system is
characterized by a nerve ring that surrounds the mouth.
A radial nerve branches off of the nerve ring and extends
to each arm. The picture on the left shows one of 3 nerve
nets that extend throughout the body.
Starfish have an interesting way of detecting light. They

have "eyespots" at the tip of each arm. The eyespot
contains light sensitive pigments that allow the starfish
to detect shadows and changes in the brightness of light.
Snails
The nervous system is characterized by 6 ganglia. Some
snails have chemosensors called "osphradia" in the
mantle cavity. These osphradia are used to detect
chemicals in the air or water.
Aplysia
(Sea Hare) The aplysia has several ganglia that are connected by
long nerves. The cell bodies of some neurons are very
large (1 mm in diameter). Neuroscientists like these cells
because they are easy to: 1) see 2) record action
potentials 3) inject chemicals.
Image courtesy of BrainSurf
Bivalves
(clams, scallops)
The nervous system is comprised of 3 pairs of ganglia
(cerebral, visceral and pedal) each associated with the
esophagus, muscles close to the shell, and foot.
Crab
The crab has a condensed central nervous system

consisting of several ganglia.
Lobster
The lobster has a brain connected to a first ventral

ganglion. This ganglion is located under its stomach. A
double nerve cord extends from the first ventral ganglion
to a series of paired segmental ganglia running through
the entire body on the ventral side of the animal.
The grasshopper has a brain located between its eyes,

just above the esophagus. The brain is connected to the
Insects 1st ventral ganglion by a pair of ventral nerves that
(such as grasshoppers) surround the gut. The grasshopper can do many things,
like walking and jumping, WITHOUT its brain. The
brain is used to relay sensory information to other parts
of the body and to help with movement. The first ventral
ganglion is used primarily to control movement of the
mouth. The segmental ganglia throughout the length of
the grasshopper are connected to the first ventral
ganglion by a double nerve cord and serve to coordinate
local activities.
Insects have a compound eye containing many different

units called "ommatidia". Each ommatidia is like an
individual lens that samples a small part of the visual
field. There can be thousands of ommatidia in a single
insect eye. Science fiction/horror/monster movies that
show an insect that sees thousands of identical images of
the ENTIRE visual field are WRONG -- an insect sees
only ONE picture at a time because each ommatidia sees

only a small part of the entire field. Some insects are
sensitive to ultraviolet light and others can detect
infrared wavelengths of light.
The octopus has the most complicated brain of all the

invertebrates. The octopus brain is estimated to have
300,000,000 neurons. These neurons are arranged in
lobes and tracts that are more specialized than simple
ganglia. An octopus has a "good" memory and can also
learn.
Octopus
The eye of the octopus is very similar to that of
vertebrates in that it has a cornea, lens, iris and retina. It
can also focus and form images. However, the octopus
eye is different from that of vertebrates in that it focuses
light by moving the lens closer and further away from
the retina. The vertebrate eye focuses by changing the
shape of the lens. Octopi can perceive shape, color
intensity and texture. Another difference is that the eye
of the octopus has NO blind spot because the nerve cells
leave from the outside of the eyeball. The octopus also
has a statocyst located next to the brain. The statocyst is
used to detect changes in gravity and respond to
acceleration.
Try this experiment using an

earthworm.
Did you know? The world's largest invertebrate is the GIANT SQUID (Architeuthis dux).
The giant squid can grow up to 18 m (59 ft) long and weigh up to 900 kg
(1,980 lb).
Approximately 99% of the world's animals are invertebrates. (Turin, M.S.
Aardvarks to Zebras, New York: Citadel Press, 1995)
For more information on invertebrates, see:
1. Amazing Animal Senses

2. BEye the eye of the honey bee
3. Insect Anatomy
4. Insect Nervous Systems
5. Insects
6. Jellyfish
7. Using Insects in the Classroom

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Sleep Page 1 of 7
What is Sleep...
and why do we do it?
We spend about 8 hours/day, 56 hours/week, 224 hours/month and 2,688

hours/year doing it...that's right...SLEEPING. We apparently spend one third
of our lives doing nothing. But is sleep really doing nothing? It looks like it...our
eyes are closed, our muscles are relaxed, our breathing is regular, and we do
not respond to sound or light. If you take a look at what is happening inside of
your brain, however, you will find quite a different situation the brain is very active. You are doing
something!
Scientists can record brain activity by attaching electrodes to the scalp and then connecting these
electrodes to a machine called an electroencephalograph. The encephalogram (or EEG) is the record
of brain activity recorded with this machine. The wavy lines of the EEG are what most people know as
"brain waves."
Stages of Sleep
Sleep follows a regular cycle each night. The EEG pattern changes in a predictable
way several times during a single period of sleep. There are two basic forms of sleep:
slow wave sleep (SWS) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. (REM sleep is sometimes
called "paradoxical sleep.") Infants spend about 50% of their sleep time in SWS and 50% in REM sleep. Adults
spend about 20% of their sleep time in REM and 80% in SWS sleep. Elderly people spend less than 15% of
their sleep time in REM sleep.
These lines represent the EEG (electroencephalogram) which shows a record of brain activity; the EMG
(electromyogram) shows muscle activity; the EOG (electroculogram) shows eye movements. Look at the
differences in the EEG, EMG and EOG during waking, REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep) and SWS
sleep.
Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep. During REM

sleep, a person's eyes move back and forth rapidly. Sleep
researchers discovered this when they woke people up
during REM sleep. Often when people in REM sleep wake
up, they say that they were just dreaming. The EEG
pattern during REM sleep is similar to the EEG pattern
when people are awake. However, the muscle activity is
very quiet during REM sleep. Muscles are inactive to
prevent us from acting out our dreams. This also means
that sleepwalkers are not in REM sleep and are not acting
out their dreams.
SWS sleep is actually 4 different stages of sleep (Stage 1,

Stage 2, Stage 3 and Stage 4) with different EEG patterns.
EEG Rate EEG Size

REM Sleep Stage
(Frequency) (Amplitude)
Color in Dreams? Awake 825 Hz Low
Do you dream in color?
Always
1 68 Hz Low
Sometimes
Never
47 Hz
2 Occasional "sleep Medium
Vote spindles"
Current results Occasional "K" complexes
3 13 Hz High
4 Less than 2 Hz High

REM More than 10 Hz Low
While we are asleep, our brains are on a bit of a "roller-coaster" through different stages of sleep. As
we drift off to sleep, we first enter stage 1 sleep. After a few minutes, the EEG changes to stage 2
sleep, then stage 3 sleep, then stage 4 sleep. Then it's back up again: stage 3, stage 2, then a period of REM
sleep...then it's back down again, and back up again, and down again...you get the picture. As shown in the
figure below, in an 8 hour period of sleep, the brain cycles through these stages about 4-5 times.
Age-related changes in total amount of sleep and REM Sleep
Data from Roffwarg et al., Ontogenetic development of the human sleep-dream cycle, Science, 152:604-619, 1966
Sleep patterns change as people age. As shown in the two graphs above, infants spend more time sleeping
and spend a greater percentage of sleep in REM sleep compared with the times of older children and adults.
For example, newborn babies sleep about 16 hours per day and spend about 50% of that time in REM sleep.
Older people (50-85 years old) sleep only 5.75-6 hours per day and spend 13.8-15% of that time in REM
sleep.
As you might expect, as children grow, they spend less time sleeping during the day. The graph below
illustrates how nighttime and daytime sleep time changes with age.
Data from Howard, B.J. and Wong, J. Sleep disorders, Pediatrics in Review, 22:327-341, 2001.
Did you ever think about how much you sleep Sleep Poll
and dream? The "average" human sleeps about About how many hours of sleep do you get each night?
3-5 hours
8 hours every day. That's one third of
6 hours
your life! In other words, you sleep for about
122 days every year. A 75 year old person 7 hours
Did would have spent a total of about 25 years 8 hours
you asleep. There is a wide range in the amount of 9 hours
know? time different animals spend sleeping. 10 hours
11 hours
As for dreaming...we enter REM sleep about 5 12 hours
times in an average 8 hour period of sleep. If
More than 12 hours
we assume that we dream during each of these
REM periods, then in one year, we will have
had 1,825 dreams! Of course we don't Vote
remember all of these dreams. A 75 year old Current results
person would have about 136,875 dreams! Free Web Polls
Why Sleep?
Why sleep at all? It seems like a big waste of time. Think of all you could be doing if you did not sleep.
Nevertheless, sleep appears to be necessary. There is a continuing debate about why we sleep. Why do most
animals sleep? How much sleep is required?
Most "higher" animals appear to sleep during some portion of the day and/or night. they are quiet; they
rest; they do not move. Scientists have recorded sleeplike EEG patterns in birds, reptiles and mammals, but
it is not clear if insects and other invertebrates also sleep.
No one knows for sure why we sleep, but here are 2 basic theories:
1. Sleep has a restorative function.

2. Sleep has an adaptive function.
Sleep as a Restorative Process

This theory of sleep suggests that sleep helps the body recover from all the work it did while an
animal was awake. Experiments have shown that the more physical exercise an animal does, the
more SWS an animal will have. Also, if people are deprived of SWS by waking them up each time
they get to stage 4 sleep, then they complain of being physically tired. If people are deprived of
REM sleep by waking them up each time the have REM type EEG patterns, they can get anxious
and irritable. If animals are deprived of REM for several days and then allowed to get an
undisturbed period of sleep, animals will go into "REM rebound" this is when REM periods of
sleep will happen more often and for a longer time than normal.
Sleep, especially REM sleep, has also been thought to be important for memory and learning. It is possible
that sleep helps form memories.
Sleep as an Adaptive Process

Sleep may have developed because of a need of animals to protect themselves. For example, some animals
search for food and water during the day because it is easier to see when the sun is out. When it is dark, it is
best for these animals to save energy, avoid getting eaten, and avoid falling off a cliff that they cannot see. It
is interesting to note which animals sleep the most and which sleep the least. In general, animals that serve
as food for other animals sleep the least.
Highlights from the National Sleep Foundation's 2001 Sleep in America telephone survey of
1,004 adults:
63% of the surveyed adults get less than the recommended eight hours of sleep per night;
31% get less than seven hours.
40% of surveyed adults in the US report having trouble staying awake during the day.
Over the last five years, people in the US have worked more and slept less.
Eight out of ten people said that they would sleep more if they knew it would improve their
health and memory.
Did you Sleep disorders affect up to 70 million people in the United States. This costs about $100
know? billion each year in accidents, medical bills and lost work. (Statistic from Brain Facts, Society for
Neuroscience, 2002)
Sleepwalking is also known as "somnambulism"; sleeptalking is also known as
"somniloquy."
Try these sleep experiments on your own.
Do you like interactive word search puzzles? Make sure your browser is "javaenabled" and try
this one:
Sleep Puzzle
For more information on sleep, see:
1. National Center on Sleep Disorders Research

2. TalkAboutSleep.com
3. Brain Basics Understanding Sleep
4. National Sleep Foundation
5. Sleep and Learning Society for Neuroscience
6. Tossing and Turning No More: How to Get a Good Night's
Sleep
7. The Phenomena of Human Sleep
"Early to bed, and early to rise,

makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise."
Benjamin Franklin, 1758 (in Poor Richard's Almanack)
"The woods are lovely, dark and deep.

But I have promises to keep,
and miles to go before I sleep."
They said Robert Frost, 1923 (in Stopping By Woods On A Snowy
it!
Evening)
"Sleep is better than medicine."

English Proverb
"The beginning of health is sleep."

Irish Proverb
"In sleep we are all equal."

Spanish Proverb
"Disease and sleep keep far apart."

Welsh Proverb
"Dreaming of eating will not satisfy the hungry."

African Proverb
"Sleep is an acquired habit. Cells don't sleep. Fish swim in the

water all night. Even a horse doesn't sleep. A man doesn't need
any sleep."
Thomas Edison, inventor
"I never use an alarm clock. I can hardly wait until five a.m. In
the army I always woke before reveille. I hate sleeping. It wastes
time."
Isaac Asimov, science fiction writer

TO: System Contents

Kids
Neuroscience for Kids - Animal Sleep Page 1 of 3
How Much Do Animals

Sleep?
Most animals have a daily pattern of rest and activity. Some animals are more active during the day
(diurnal) and some are more active during the night (nocturnal). How much time do animals spend
sleeping? Well, it depends on the animal:
Average Total Sleep Average Total Sleep

Species Time Time
(% of 24 hr) (Hours/day)
Brown Bat 82.9% 19.9 hr
Giant Armadillo 75.4% 18.1 hr
North American
75% 18 hr
Opossum
Python 75% 18 hr
Owl Monkey 70.8% 17.0 hr
Human (infant) 66.7% 16 hr
Tiger 65.8% 15.8 hr
Tree shrew 65.8% 15.8 hr
Squirrel 62% 14.9 hr
Western Toad 60.8% 14.6 hr
Ferret 60.4% 14.5 hr
Three-toed Sloth 60% 14.4 hr
Golden Hamster 59.6% 14.3 hr
Platypus 58.3% 14.0 hr
Lion 56.3% 13.5 hr
Gerbil 54.4% 13.1 hr
Rat 52.4% 12.6 hr
Cat 50.6% 12.1 hr
Cheetah 50.6% 12.1 hr
Mouse 50.3% 12.1 hr
Rhesus Monkey 49.2% 11.8 hr
Rabbit 47.5% 11.4 hr
Jaguar 45% 10.8 hr
Duck 45% 10.8 hr
Dog 44.3% 10.6 hr
Bottle-nosed dolphin 43.3% 10.4 hr

Star-nosed Mole 42.9% 10.3 hr
Baboon 42.9% 10.3 hr
European Hedgehog 42.2% 10.1 hr
Squirrel Monkey 41.3% 9.9 hr
Chimpanzee 40.4% 9.7 hr
Guinea Pig 39.2% 9.4 hr
Human (adult) 33.3% 8 hr
Pig 32.6% 7.8 hr
Guppy (fish) 29.1% 7 hr
Gray Seal 25.8% 6.2 hr
Human (elderly) 22.9% 5.5 hr
Goat 22.1% 5.3 hr
Cow 16.4% 3.9 hr
Asiatic Elephant 16.4% 3.9 hr
Sheep 16% 3.8 hr
African Elephant 13.8% 3.3 hr
Donkey 13.0% 3.1 hr
Horse 12.0% 2.9 hr
Giraffe 7.9% 1.9 hr
References: This table was adapted from four sources:
1. Aserinsky, E., Eyelid condition at birth: relationship to adult mammalian sleep-waking patterns, In Rapid Eye
Movement Sleep, edited by B.N. Mallick and S. Inoue, Narosa Publishing, New Delhi, 1999, p. 7.
2. Campbell, S.S. and Tobler, I., Animal sleep: a review of sleep duration across phylogeny. Neuroscience and
Biobehavioral Rev., 8:269-300, 1984.
3. Kryger, M.H., Roth, T. and Dement, W.C., Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, W.B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, 1989, pp. 39-41.
4. Tobler, I., Napping and polyphasic sleep in mammals, In Sleep and Alertness: Chronobiological, Behavioral and
Medical Aspects of Napping, edited by D.F. Dinges and R.J. Broughton, Raven Press, New York, 1989, pp. 9-31.
Did you
know? The brain of a dolphin appears to sleep one hemisphere at a
time.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Neuroscience for Kids - Brain Fitness Page 1 of 4
Brain Fitness Your Guide to Good Brain

Health
You are born with just about all the neurons (nerve cells) that your
*
brain will ever have . Damaged brains are NOT easy to fix. Here are
some suggestions for good brain health.
Seat Belts
1. Wear your seat belt! When riding in or driving a
car, how often do you wear
a seat belt?
In a car, truck or airplane, your seat belt will help protect your
Always
head and brain from injury. Motor vehicle accidents are by far
Sometimes
the greatest causes of brain injuries, accounting for 3750% of
Never
all brain injuries.
(Statistic from Amer. J. of Diseases of Children, Vol. 144, Vote

Current results
pages 627646, 1990 and Brain Injury Association USA)
Free Web Polls
2. Wear your
helmet!
Whether you are biking,
skating or skateboarding,
your helmet will protect
your head if you fall. Make
Helmets
sure that your helmet meets
When riding a bike, how
often do you wear a
or exceeds the American
helmet? National Standards
Always Institute (ANSI) and Snell
Sometimes Memorial Foundation
Never standards for safety.
Head injury is the most common cause of death in bicycle crashes

Vote accounting for 62% of all bicyclerelated deaths. (Statistic from
Current results
Free Web Polls Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 44, No. RR1, pages 117,
1995)
More information on bicycle injury.

3. Stay away from illegal drugs!

Drugs alter brain function no question about that. Although damage done by some
drugs can be reversed, some drugs may change brain function permanently. Why take
the chance?
4. Know the risks involved with sports!

This applies mainly to boxing, football and the martial arts. However, even soccer,
climbing, horseback riding, diving and skiing have risks. Always wear your safety
equipment properly and be in good physical condition for your sport.
In the United States in 1987 and 1988, 92,763 emergency room visits were made for
injuries related to horseback riding. 18.9% of these visits were made due to injuries to
the head and neck. (Statistic from Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 39, no.
20, pages 329332, 1990)
Did you
know?
Each year there are about 300,000 brain concussions that occur during sports activities.
This statistic from the Center for Disease Control.
5. Look before you leap!

I know it sounds impossible, but people DO dive into swimming pools without water.
Dive only in the deep end of the pool and make sure that the water in the lake and at the
beach is deep enough to dive in head first. Also, be aware of any objects, such as large
rocks, that may be hidden under the water.
There are up to 1,000 spinal cord injuries each year in the United States when people
dive into swimming pools or other bodies of water (Statistic from Morbidity and
Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 37, no. 30, pages 453454, 1988)
6. Look both ways before crossing the street!

I know that you have heard this one before, but accidents do happen and you can't be
wearing your helmet all the time.
7. Stay away from guns!

I don't think I have to explain this one.
8. Make sure you have a "good" surface around your

playground equipment!
Just in case you fall off of a climber, a soft impactabsorbing surface will cushion your
drop.
In the United States from 19831987, 66.5% of the school playgroundrelated injuries
involved the head and neck.(Statistic from Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report,
Vol. 37, no. 41, pages 629632, 1988)
National Program for Playground Safety
9. Eat right!
Your brain needs energy to work its best.
10. Dispose of chemicals properly!

Many chemicals, such as pesticides and cleaners, contain neurotoxins that can kill
nerve cells and damage nerves. These dangerous chemicals can be found in your home
or at places of work. Dispose of these materials properly!
Did you
know? Each year in the United States, there are about 52,000 deaths caused by traumatic brain
injury. This statistic from the Center for Disease Control.
*
Note: Other data suggest that new neurons DO grow in the brain after birth. This has been
demonstrated in rats, tree shrews, marmosets, monkeys and humans.
For more about brain injury and protecting your head, see:
1. Anatomy of Head Injury

2. Bicycle Helmet Effectiveness (large file 150k)
3. Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute
4. Brain Injury Association of Kansas and Greater Kansas City basic information about
prevention of brain injury
5. Brain Injury A Guide for Families and Friends
6. Brain Injury: Prevention
7. Consumer's Guide to Bicycle Helmets
8. InjuryControl Recommendations: Bicycle Helmets
9. Preventing Mental Retardation Through Use of Bicycle Helmets
10. Help in Planning a Helmet Promotion Program
11. Think First Oregon
12. TBI Help Desk
13. Traumatic Brain Injury at the Centre for Neuro Skills
14. Understanding Brain Injury
For information on spinal cord injury, see the the Spinal Cord Injury Home Page and the home page of
Cure Paralysis Now. The National Spinal Cord Injury Association also has lots of good information
about spinal cord damage.

TO: System Contents
Fill out Get Search

Send Email Take Notes
Neurological Disorders Page 1 of 5
Neurological Disorder Resources

Alzheimer's CreutzfeldtJakob
Aphasia Bell's Palsy
Disease Disease
Huntington's
Epilepsy Encephalitis Neuromuscular Disorders
Disease
Neuro
Neurooncology Neurootology Pain
immunology
Pediatric Neurology Phobia List Sleep Disorders Tourette Syndrome
Parkinson's Disease and other movement disorders
Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer Association
Alzheimer's Disease Doctor's Guide
Alzheimer's Disease ScienceWeek Focus Report
Aphasia
Aphasia Fact Sheet
Bell's Palsy
Facial Nerve Paralysis
Bell's Palsy I
Bell's Palsy II
CreutzfeldtJakob Disease (CJD)
Blood Recall/Withdrawal CJD

BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy ("Mad Cow Disease")
CJD information from the National Center for Infectious Diseases
CJD Voice
CreutzfeldtJakob Disease Foundation, Inc.
Official Mad Cow Disease Home Page
Cerebrovascular Disease
Aneurysm Information Project
National Stroke Association
NINDS Stroke Information Guide
Encephalitis
Encephalitis eMedicine
Encephalitis (Arbovirus) CDC
Encephalitis Mayo Clinic
Encephalitis (Nemours Foundation)
Encephalitis Information Resource
Epilepsy
Epilepsy from Neuroscience for Kids
EpiCentre
Epilepsy World Health Organization (WHO)
Epilepsy Treatment WHO
Epilepsy History WHO
Epilepsy Social/Economic WHO
Epilepsy Fact Sheet from NINDS, NIH
Epilepsy Foundation of America
Frequently Asked Questions about Epilepsy
Epilepsy Genes may build the road in treatment
Huntington's Disease
Index Internet Resources for Huntington's Disease
Huntington's Disease Resources

Huntington's Disease Society of America
Pain
American Council for Headache Education
Talaria Cancer Pain Information (Univ. Washington)
Migraine Doctor's Guide to the Internet
Migraine Resource Center
Trigeminal Neuralgia Association Homepage
Trigeminal Neuralgia from the International Radiosurgery Association
Phobia List
Parkinson's Disease and other movement disorders
American Parkinson Disease Association
Michael J. Fox Foundation
Dystonias National Institutes of Health
National Parkinson Foundation
Parkinson's Disease Hope Through Research (NINDS, NIH)
Parkinson's Disease Foundation
Parkinson's Disease Index
Parkinson's Disease Tutorial University of Birmingham
Biology of Parkinson's Disease ScienceWeek Focus Report
Fetal nerve cell transplantation: advances in the treamtent of Parkinson's Disease
The Parkinson Alliance
Parkinson's Disease: New Treatments Slow Onslaught of Symptoms
Parkinson's Disease Medline Plus
Young Parkinson's Information and Referral Center American Parkinson Disease Association
Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation
We Move
Sleep Disorders
SleepNet
Sleep Medicine Home Page
The Sleep Well
Talkaboutsleep.com
Tourette Syndrome
Tourette Syndrome from Neuroscience for Kids
Tourette Syndrome Information from NINDS, NIH
Tourette Syndrome Home Page
Tourette's Syndrome and Dopamine
Neuromuscular/Motor Neuron Disorders

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
NINDS GuillainBarre Syndrome Fact Sheet
GuillainBarre Syndrome Foundation Intl.
CMTnet: CharcotMarieTooth Disease Information Exchange
Muscular Dystrophy Association
Muscular Dystrophy Association of Australia
Spastic Paraplegia Foundation
Neurooncology
National Neurofibromatosis Foundation

Von HippelLindau Disease (VHL) Family Alliance
American Brain Tumor Association ABTA
ABTA Dictionary for brain tumor patients
Brain Tumor Information from the International Radiosurgery Association
Neuroimmunology
Multiple Sclerosis Neuroscience for Kids site

Multiple Sclerosis Central

Multiple Sclerosis Information for Physician and Medical Students
Multiple Sclerosis Society of America
MS page by Aapo Halko
Myelin Project
Pediatric Neurology
Autism Neuroscience for Kids
Dyslexia 2000 Network
Cerebral Palsy Hope Through Research NINDS
Child Neurology Page
Neurootology
Meniere's disease
This site is maintained by Eric H. Chudler.

Send questions and comments to chudler@u.washington.edu
[Return to Neuroscience for Kids] | [Return to Eric H. Chudler's Home Page]
[Useful UW Neuroscience Links] [Professional Organizations] [Government Agencies] [Neuroscience
Education] [Grant and Funding Opportunities] [Commercial Neuroscience Resources] [Seattle Links]
[Searching the Web] [Miscellaneous Links]

Articles - Explore The Brain & Spinal Cord

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Articles - Explore The Brain & Spinal Cord

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Neuroscience for Kids - Explore the Nervous System Page 1 of 7

A-PDF Merger DEMO : Purchase from www.A-PDF.com to remove the watermark

Explore the Brain and Spinal

Common questions about the brain and neuroscience

Another Day, Another Neuron

Questions/Answers from the "Neuroscientist Network"

First use of "neuro" words in recorded history

A Computer in Your Head?

A Career in Neuroscience: A Game of "Survivor?"

Milestones in Neuroscience Research

Nobel Prize Winners - Neuroscience

Divisions of the Nervous System

Divisions of the Brain

Our Divided Brain: Lobes of the Brain

Functional Divisions of the Cerebral Cortex

The Brain "Right Down the Middle"

Brain Size/Cerebral Cortex

1 brain or 2? Split Brain Experiments

She Brains - He Brains

The Nervous System in Old Age

The Cranial Nerves

Your Brain's Home: The Skull

The Ventricles and CSF

Blood Supply of the Brain

How the Nervous System Interacts with Other Body Systems

Directions and Planes of Section

Compare the brains of 9 different species

More brains: comparative neuroanatomy

The Invertebrate Nervous System

The Brain during Sleep

How Much do Animals Sleep?

Brain Fitness - Your Guide to Good Brain Health

Disorders of the Brain

Do We Use Only 10% of our Brain?

Laughter and the Brain

Oh Say Can You Say...The Brain and Language

Nutrition and the Brain

The Musical Brain

The Brain vs. The Computer

What Became of Albert Einstein's Brain?

Eugene O'Neill: What Went Wrong?

Yawning: Why We Yawn and Why They are "Contagious"

Moonstruck: Does the Full Moon Influence Behavior?

Brain "Plasticity": Learning and Memory

The Spinal Cord

The Knee Jerk Reflex (monosynaptic reflex)

The Peripheral Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System

Millions and Billions of Cells: Types of Neurons

Making Connections: The Synapse

The Sounds of Neuroscience

The Synapse - Up Close and Personal

Lights, Camera, Action Potential

Glia: The Forgotten Brain Cell

Dangerous Chemicals: Neurotoxins - Source and Effect

Neurotransmitters and Neuroactive Peptides

Chemical Weapons: Nerve Agents

Salty What? Saltatory Conduction

Pain and Why it Hurts

The Visual Pathway

Do you wear glasses? Find out why!

Eye Safety Tips