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FOUNDATIONS
OF MATHEMATICS
This book is in the
ADDISON-WESLEY SERIES I N
INTRODUCTORY COLLEGE MATHEMATICS
Consulting Editors
S. PIETERS
RICHARD GAILS. YOUNG
THE ALGEBRAIC
FOUNDATIONS
OF MATHEMATICS
ROSS A . BEAUMOXT
and
RICHARD S. PIERCE
Department of Mathematics
University of Washington
This book is an offspring of two beliefs which the authors have held for
many years: it is worthwhile for the average person to understand what
rnathematics is al1 about; it is impossible to learn much about mathe-
matics without doing mathematics. The first of these convictions seems
to be accepted by most educated people. The second opinion is less widely
held. Mathematicians teaching in liberal arts colleges and universities are
often under pressure from their colleagues in the humanities and social
sciences to offer short courses which will painlessly explain mathematics
to students with varying backgrounds who are seeking a broad, liberal
education. The extent to which such courses do not exist is a credit to the
good sense of professional mathematicians. Mathematics is a big and diffi-
cult subject. I t embraces a rigid method of reasoning, a concise form of
expression, and a variety of new concepts and viewpoints which are quite
different from those encountered in everyday life. There is no such thing
as "descriptive7' mathematics. In order to find answers to the questions
"What is mathematics?" and "What do mathematicians do?", it is neces-
sary to learn something of the logic, the language, and the philosophy of
mathematics. This cannot be done by listening to a few entertaining
lectures, but only by active contact with the content of real mathematics.
I t is the authors' hope that this book will provide the means for this
necessary contact.
For most people, the road from marketplace arithmetic to the border
of real mathematics is long and steep. I t usually takes severa1 years to
make this journey. Fortunately, because of the improving curriculum in
high schools, many students are completing the elementary mathematics
included in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry before entering college,
so that as college freshmen they can begin to appreciate the attractions
of sophisticated mathematical ideas. Many of these students have even
been exposed to the new programs for school mathematics which introduce
modern mathematical ideas and methods. Too often, such students are
shunted into a college algebra or elementary calculus course, where the
main emphasis is on mathematical formalism and manipulation. Any
enthusiasm for creative thinking which a student may carry into college
will quickly be blunted by such a course. It is often claimed that the
manipulative skills acquired in elementary algebra and calculus are what
a student needs for the application of mathematics to science and engi-
neering, and indeed to the practica1 problems of life. Although not
altogether wrong, this argument overlooks the obvious fact that in almost
any situation, the ability to use mathematical technique and reasoning is
more valuable than the ability to manipulate and calculate accurately.
v
vi PREFACE
in these sections is very elementary. A star has been attached to just those
sections which are not sufficiently important to be considered indispensable,
but which are still too interesting to omit.
The complete book can be covered in a two semester or three quarter
course meeting three hours per week. The following table suggests how
the book can be used for shorter courses.
Above all, this book represents an effort to show college students some
of the real beauty of mathernatics. The appreciation of mathematical
beauty is not like the enjoyment of literature, music, and other art forms.
I t requires serious effort and hard study. I t is much more difficult for a
mathematician to explain his triumphs and masterpieces than for any other
kind of artist or scientist. Consequently, most mathematicains do not try
to interpret their work to the general public, but only communicate with
viii PREFACE
* It is true.
ISTRODUCTION 5
TABLE2
Form Example
p is equivalent to q x = y +1 y+1
is equivalent to x =
TABLE3
The logical structure of a mathematical proof may have one of two forms.
The direct proof starts from certain axioms or definitions, and proceeds by
application of logical rules to the required conclusion. The second method,
the so-called indirect proof, is perhaps less familiar, even though it is often
used unconsciously in everyday thinking. The indirect proof begins by
assuming "hat the statement to be proved is false. Then, using this assump-
tion, together with the appropriate axioms and definitions, a contradiction
of some kind is obtained by means of a logical argument. From this con-
tradiction it is inferred that the statement originally assumed to be false
must actually be true.
For example, let us show by an indirect proof that there is no largest
natural iiumber. This proof uses three general properties of numbers,
which, for our purposes can be considered as axioms:
(a) if n is a natural iiumber, theii n + 1 is a natural iiumber;
(b) n < n + 1;
(c) if n < m, then n 2 m is impossible.
Our indirect proof begins with the assumption that the statement to be
proved is false, that is, we assume that there is a largest natural number.
Let this number be deiioted by n. To say that n is the largest natural
number means two things:
(i) n is a natural number;
(ii) if m is a natural number, then n > m.
Applying the rule of detachment to (a) aiid (i) gives
+
(iii) n 1 is a natural number.
+
Substituting n 1 for m in (ii), we obtain
+
(iv) if n 1 is a natural number, then n > + n 1.
The rule of detachment can nolv be applied to (iii) and (iv) to conclude that
(v) n 2 n+ 1.
However, substituting n + 1 for m iii (c) gives
+
(vi) if n < n > +
1, then n n 1 is impossible.
This, together with (b) and the rule of detachmeiit yields
+
(vii) n 2 n 1 is impossible.
The statements (v) and (vii) provide the contradiction which completes
this typical indirect proof.
In spite of the elementary character of the logic used by mathematicians,
it is a matter of experience that understanding proofs is the most difficult
aspect of mathematics. Most people, mathematiciaiis included, must work
hard to follow a difficult proof. The statements follow each other relent-
10 INTRODUCTION
lessly. Each step requires logical justification, which may not be easy to
find. The result of this labor is only the beginning. After the step-by-step
correctness of t,he argument has been checked, it is necessary to go on and
find the mathematical ideas behind the proof. Truly, real mathematics is
not easy.
CHAPTER 1
SET THEORY
1-1 Sets. The notion of a set enters into al1 branches of modern mathe-
matics. Algebra, analysis, and geometry borrow freely from elementary
set theory and its terminology. Indeed, al1 of mathematics can be founded
on the theory of sets. As is to be expected, an idea with such a wide range
of application is quite simple, and any intelligent person can learn enough
about set theory for most useful applications of the subject.
The central idea of set theory is that of dealing with a collection of
objects as an individual thing. Mathematics is not alone in using this
idea, and many occurrences of it are found in everyday experience. Thus,
for example, one speaks of the Smith family, meaning the collection of
people consisting of John Smith, his wife Mary, and their son William.
Also, if we referred to Mrs. Smith's wardrobe, we would be treating as a
single thing the collection of individual pieces of clothing belonging to
Mrs. Smith. The mathematical use of this device of lumping things
together into a single entity differs from common usage only in the fre-
quency and systematic manner of its application.
EXAMPLE 5. The set of al1 numbers x/2, where x is a real number which
satisfies -2 5 x 5 2.
EXAMPLE 6. The set of al1 points a t a distance less than one from a point
p in some plane.
EXAMPLE 7. The set of al1 points inside a circle of radius one with center
a t the point p in the plane of the preceding example.
EXAMPLE 8. The set of al1 circles with center a t the point p in the plane of
Example 6.
EXAMPLE 9. The set consisting of ¿he single number O.
EXAMPLE10. The set which contains no objects whatsoever.
IVe often wish to cxpress the fact t,hat an object is not contained in
a certaiii set. If a is not an element of t,he set A, \ve writc
and rcad this cxpressioii "a is iiot in A . " Thus if A again is the set of
Examplc 2, wc would havc 2 4 A, 3 4 A, 4 4 A, etc.
I t \vas mentioned earlier that a set is ofteri dcfincd by some property
possessed by its elements. There is a very uscful ilotatioiial device iri set
theory which gives a standard method of symbolizing thc sct of al1 objects
having a certain property. For instaiice, the sets of Kxamples 2 and 4
are respcct ivcly writtcn
{2-~z2-x=0], and {al-l5a<l).
The symbolic form (*I*] is sometimcs called the set builder. In using it,
we replace ttie first asterisk by a variable elemcnt symbol (x aild a in the
examples), aiid the second astcrisk is rcplaced by a meaningful condition
which the object represented by thc variable miist satisfy to be an element
of the set (x2 - n: = O and - 1 5 a 5 1 in the examplcs). Thus, the
SET THEORY
(xlcondition on x)
(or with some variable other than x), and this expression represents the
set of al1 elements which satisfy the stated condition. Often, the totality
of possible objects for which the variable stands is evident from the con-
dition required of the variable. For example, if the real roots of algebraic
equations are under discussion, then in (x/x2 - x = O), it is clear that
x stands for a real number, and that the set consists of the real numbers
which satisfy x2 - x = O. In {al-1 5 a 5 11, it may not be clear
what kind of numbers are allowed as values of the variable. If it is neces-
sary to be more explicit, we would write
where R is the set of al1 real numbers. Similarly, in Example 6, the set
builder notation would be
where P is the set of al1 points in some plane and d(p, q) is the distance
between points p and q in the plane. Here, the variable q can take as its
value any point in the plane P, and the set in question consists of those
points in P which satisfy d(p, q) < l. Other forms of the set builder
notation for this example are
{1, 2, 3, . . . , 2165)
represents thc set of al1 natural numbers from 1 t o 2165. Some infinite
sets caii also he represented in this way. For example,
EXAMPLE 1l . The set of al1 even integers, 23 = (0, &2, &4, . . .), is a proper
subsct of the sct Z of al1 intcgers.
EXAMPLE 12. The set of a11 poirits a t distance Iess than one from a point p
in a plane P is a proper subset of the set of points of P a t distance less than or
equal to oiie f r o n ~p.
16 SET THEORY
The reader should carefully check to see that in each of these examples
the condition of Definition 1-1.2 is satisfied. The fact that Q, is a subset of
every set may seem straiige. However, it is certainly true according to
our definitions: every element of is an element of A, or in other words,
no element of can be found which is not in A. Since Q, has no elements,
this condition is certainly satisfied.
The inclusion relation has three properties which, although direct con-
sequences of our definition, are quite important. The first of these has
already been noted.
Proof. We will prove property (b) in detail, leaving the proof of (c) t o
the reader. If A c B and B E A , then every element of A is an element of
B and every element of B is an element of A. That is, A and B contain
exactly the same elements. Thus, by Definition 1-1.1, A = B.
l. Using the set builder form, write expressions for the follon-ing sets.
(a) The set of al1 even integers.
(b) The set of al1 integers which are divisible by five.
(c) The set of al1 integers which leave a remainder of one mhen divided
by five.
(d) The set of al1 rational numbers greater than five.
(e) The set of al1 points in space which are inside a sphere with center a t
the point p and radius r .
(f) The set of solutions of the equation x3 - 2x2 - x + 2 = 0.
2. Te11 in words what sets are represented by the following expressions.
(a) {x E NIx > 10)
(b) {x E QIX - 3 E N)
( 4 ( 5 , 6 , 7, . . -1
(4 {a, b, , Y, 2 )
(e) { X ~ X +
= y2 +
z2, y E R, z E R, x2 - y2 = (x - y)(x y))
3. Describe the following sets by listing their elements.
(a) {xIx2 = 1)
(b) {x1x2 - 2x = 0)
(c) {x1x2 - 2x + 1 = O)
4. List the following collections of sets.
(a) The sets {a, b, c), where a, b, and c are natural numbers less than or
equal to 3.
+ +
(b) The sets {a2 a 1), where a is a natural number less than or
equal to 5 .
(c) The three element sets (a, b, c), where a, b, and c are integers between
-2 and 4.
5. State al1 inclusion relations which exist between the folloñing sets: N, 2,
Q, R, the set of al1 even integers, {n(n = m2, m E Z), {zjx = y2, y E Q),
{ X ~ X = y2 - n, y E R, n E 2).
6. Prove Theorem 1-1.3(c).
7. Prove that if A B, B C C, then A C C, and if A C B and B G C,
then A c C.
18 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
1-2 The cardinal number of a set. The simplest and most important
classification of sets is given by the distinction between finite and infinite
sets. Returning to the examples considered in Section 1-1, the set of
Examples 1, 2, and 3, and the sets of Examples 8 and 9 are finite, while the
sets of Examples 4 through 7 are infinite. Note that the empty set @ is
considered to be finite. I t is not altogether easy to explain the difference
between a finite and an infinite set, although almost everyone with some
experieiice learns to distinguish finite from infinite sets. Roughly speaking,
a finite set is either the empty set, or a set in which we can designate a
first element, a second element, a third element, and so on, until at some
stage we reach an nth element and find that there are no more left. Of
course, the number n of elements in the set may be one, two, three, four,
. . . , a million, or any natural number whatsoever.
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite, that is, if its elements cannot
be counted. Examples of infinite sets are the set N of al1 natural numbers,
the set Z of al1 integers, the set Q of al1 rational numbers, the set R of al1
real numbers, etc. These examples show that some of the most important
sets encountered in mathematics are infinite.
If A is a finite set, it is meaningful to speak of the number of elements
of A. This number is called the cardinal number (or cardinality) of the set
A. We will use the notation iA 1 to designate the cardinal number of A .
As examples,
0 , l a = l(O,1,4)1=3.
I t was remarked above that the empty set 4> is regarded as being finite:
Since @ has no elements, it is natural to say that the cardinality of (P is
zero. Thus, in symbols, (@l = 0.
There are many synonyms for the expression "cardinal number of
A." Besides the term "cardinality of A," which we have already men-
tioned, one finds such expressions as "power of A " and "potency of A. "
The notation IA( for the cardinal number of the set A is not universal
either. The symbolism A is perhaps even more common (but difficult
to print and type), and such expressions as card A or N(A) can also
be found.
These descriptions of finite and infinite sets, and of the cardinal number
of a finite set are too vague to be called mathematical definitions. More-
over, we have not said anything about the cardinal numbers of sets which
are not finite. The first man to systematically study the cardinal number
concept for arbitrary sets (both finite and infinite) was Georg Cantor
(1845-1918). His researches have had a profound influence on al1 aspects
of modern mathematics. In the remainder of this section, we will examine
one of Cantor's most important ideas, and see in particular how it enables
as to explain the concept of a finite set in more exact terms.
1-21 THE CARDINAL KUMBER OF A SET 19
The reader should study the following examples to be sure that he fully
understands the meaning of the fundamental concept defined in Defini-
tion 1-2.1.
EXAMPLE1. Let A = (1, 2, 31, and B = (a, b, e]. Then there are six pos-
sible one-to-one correspondences between -4 and B:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
a b c b c a c a b b a c a c b c b a
Cantor observed that it is possible to say when two sets A and B have
the same number of elements, without referring to the exact number of
elements in A and B. This idea is illustrated in the following example.
Suppose that in a certain mathematics class, every chair in the room is
occupied and no students are standing. Then without counting the number
of students and the number of chairs, it can be asserted that the number
of students in the class is the same as the number of chairs in the room.
The reason is obvious; there is a one-to-one correspondence between the
set of al1 students in the class and the set of al1 chairs in the room.
DEFINITION 1-3.3. Two sets A and B are said to have the same cardinal
number, or the same cardinality, or to be equivalent if there exists a
one-to-one correspondence between A and B.
By Example 1, the two sets {1,2,3) and {a, b, c ) have the same cardi-
nality. By Example 3, so do the sets N and 2. However, according to
Example 2, the sets {1,2, 3) and (1,2) do not have the same cardinal
number .
In accordance with Definition 1-2.3, the existence of any one-to-one
correspondence between A and B is enough to guarantee that A and B
have the same cardinal number. As in Example 1, there may be many
one-to-one correspondences between A and B.
If A = {al, a2, . . . , a,) and B = {bl, b2, . . . , b,) are finite sets which
both have the cardinal number n, then there is a one-to-one correspondence
between A and B :
so that A and B are equivalent in the sense of Definition 1-2.3. That is,
if A and B are finite sets, then A and B are equivalent if 1 A 1 = 1 BI.
The important fact to observe about Definition 1-2.3 is that it applies to
infinite as well as finite sets. One of Cantor's most remarkable discoveries
was that infinite sets can have different magnitudes, that is, in some sense,
certain infinite sets are "bigger than" others. To appreciate this fact
requires some work. Example 3 has already illustrated the fact that in-
finite sets which seem to have different magnitudes may in fact have the
same cardinality. An even more striking example of this phenomenon is
the following one.
EXAMPLE
5 . The set iV of natural numbers has the same cardinality as the
set
F = (m/nlm E N, n E N)
of al1 positive rational numbers. This can be seen with the aid of a dia.gram
as in Fig. 1-2. By following the indicated path, each fraction will eventually
be passed. If we number the fractions in the order that they are encountered,
skipping fractions like S, 2, S, and
2, which are equal to numbers which have
22 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
Cantor showed that many important collections of numbers have the same
cardinality as the set N of al1 natural numbers. For example, this is true for
the set d of al1 real algebraic numbers, that is, real numbers r which are solu-
tions of an equation of the form
where no, ni, . . . , nk-1, n k are any integers. The set A includes al1 rational
numbers, since m / n is a root of the equation nx - m = O; A also includes
numbers like
d2,4%)4 3 , a,. . . .
Judging from these examples, one might guess that al1 infinite sets
have the same cardinality. But this is not the case. Cantor proved that it
is impossible to give a pairing between N and the set R of al1 real numbers.
Later, we will be able to present Cantor's proof that these sets do not have
the same cardinal numbers. The fact that the set A of real algebraic
numbers has the same cardinality as N and the result that R and N do
not have the same cardinal numbers together imply that R # A . That
is, there are real numbers which are not solutions of any equation
4. Using the method by which we proved that the positive rational numbers
have the same cardinality as the set N of natural numbers, indicate how to
prove that N has the same cardinal number as the set of al1 pairs (m, n,) of
natural numbers. List the pairs which correspond to al1 numbers up to 21.
5. Prove that the set of al1 rational numbers Q has the same cardinality as
the set of al1 natural numbers N.
6. Let A be the set of al1 positive real numbers x, and let B be the set of al1
real numbers y satisfying O < y < l. Show that the pairing x ++ y, where
y = 1/(1 + x) is a one-to-one correspondence between A and B.
7. Let A be a denumerable set, and let B be a finite set. Show that the set
S = ((2, y)lx E A, y E B) is denumerable.
8. Suppose that sets A and B have the same cardinality, and that sets B
and C have the same cardinality. Show that A and C have the same cardinality.
1-3 The construction of sets from given sets. I n this section, we will
discuss two important methods of constructing sets from given sets. The
first process combines two sets X and Y to obtain a set called the product
of X and Y. The second construction leads from a single set X to another
set called the power set of X. There are severa1 other methods of building
sets from given sets, but they will not be considered in this book.
The definition of the product of two sets is based on the concept of an
ordered pair of elements. Suppose that a and b denote any objects what-
soever. If the elements a and b are grouped together in a definite order
(a, b), where a is the first elernent and b is the second element, then the
resulting object (a, b) is called an ordered pair of elements. Two ordered
pairs are the same if and only if they have the same first element and the
same second element. Thus we arrive a t the following definition."
DEFINITION
1-3.1. (a, b) = (e, d) if and only if a = c and b = d.
EXAMPLE 1. Let A = (1, 2, 3). Then the following distinct ordered pairs of
elements of A can be fornied: (1, l), (1, 2)) (1, 3)) (2, l ) , (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, l),
(3, 2), (3, 3). Note that (a, b) = (b, a) only if a = b. By Definition 1-3.1, this
is true in general.
EXAMPLE 2. A man has tulo pairs of shoes, one brown pair and one black
pair. If he dresses in the dark, what are the possible combinations of shoes
* There is a simple way to define an ordered pair in the framework of set theory,
namely, for objects a and b let (a, b) = ({a, b), a). An ordered pair is then a
definite object, and i t is possible to prove that (a, b) = (e, d) if and only if
a = c and b = d. However, we will use the informal description given in the
text and regard this property of ordered pairs as a definition.
1-31 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SETS FROM GIVEN SETS 25
which he can put on? Let X = {left brown shoe, left black shoe) and Y =
{right brown shoe, right black shoe). Then the set of al1 possible combinations
which the man might wear is the set of al1 ordered pairs with the first element
taken from the set X and the second element taken from the set Y, that is, the
set of al1 pairs (left brown shoe, right brown shoe), (left brown shoe, right black
shoe), (left black shoe, right brown shoe), (left black shoe, right black shoe).
EXAMPLE3. The set of al1 ordered pairs of natural numbers is the set
S = ((n, m)(n E N, m E N ) .
Thus,
DEFINITION 1-3.2. Let X and Y be sets. Then the product of the sets X
and Y is t,he set of al1 ordered pairs (x, y), where x E X and y E Y.
The product of X and Y is denoted by X X Y. Thus, in symbols
EXAMPLE4. The ordered pairs listed in Examples 1, 2, and 3 are exactly the
elements of the products A X A, X X Y, and N X N, respectively.
EXAMPLE5. Let U = (1, 2, 3), V = (1, 31, and PV = (2, 3). Then
ux V = i(1, l), (1, 3)) (2? 1)) (2, 3), (3, l), (3, 3)), and V X U = ((1, l),
(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, l), (3, 2), (3, 3)). I t follows that U X V f V X U . Thus, in
forming the product of two sets, the order in which the sets are taken is significant.
We also have
(U x x = {(O, 0, 2), ((1) 3), 2), ((2) 1), 2), ((2, 3), 2)) ((3, 1), 2),
((3, 3)) 2)) ((1) l), 3), ((1) 3), 3), ((2, 1), 3)) ((2, 3), 3),
((3, l ) , 3), ((3) 3), 3)),
Note that the elements of ( U X V ) X TV are different from al1 of the elements of
U X ( V X TV). I n fact, the elements of ( U X V ) X TV are ordered pairs whose
first element is an ordered pair of numbers, and the second element is a number.
I n U X ( V X TV) i t is just the other way around: the elements are ordered pairs
in which the first element is a number and the second element is an ordered
pair of numbers. The reader must be careful to make a distinction between
((2, l), 3) and (2, (1, 3)), for example.
26 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
THEOREM
1-3.5. If 1x1 = n, then IP(X)I = 2".
There is another way to prove this theorem which is worth examining,
since it gives additional information about the number of subsets of a
finite set. Let X consist of the distinct elements al, a,, . . . , a,. With
each ak in X, associate a symbol xk, and consider the formal product
We can specialize even more by letting t have the value l . Then the
identity (1-1) becomes
The sum 011 the right-hand side of this identity represents the number of
subsets containing no elements of X (the empty set), plus the number of
subsets containing one element of X, plus the number of subsets containing
two elements of X, and so on, until we reach N,,,, the number of subsets
containing n elements of X. Clearly, this sum is just the total number of
subset,s of X, since every subset contains some number of elements of X
between zero and n. Thus, we have arrived a t the same conclusion as
before : there are exactly 2" subsets of a set X with n elements.
The coefficient of t j is *
n(n - l ) . . . (n - j + 1) -
-
n!
j! j!(n - j)!
for al1 numbers t. This leads us to expect that the coefficients of the same
powers of t on each side of the equation must be equal. That is, No,, =
1, Ni,, = n, Nz,, = n(n - 1)/2,. . . , N,,, = 1, and in general
for al1 values of t, then a. = bo, a l = bl, . . . , a, = b,. This will justify
(1-4). Thus, our somewhat longer proof of Theorem 1-3.5 yields the in-
teresting fact that in a set X containing n distinct elements, there are
n!/j!(n - j) ! different subsets containing exactly j elements. For example,
in a set containing ten elements, there are 10!/4!6! = 210 subsets of
cardinality 4.
xn = X X X X . . . X X ,
where n is a natural number. Show that if X = (1, 2), and Y = (1, 2, . . . , n),
then IXnJ = J P ( Y ) I .
30 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
B = (aja E X , a - A a n d a G? A ) .
1-4 The algebra of sets. The ordinary number systems satisfy severa1
important laws of operation, such as a + +
b = b a , a ( b . c) = ( a . b ) c
and a (b + c) = a b + a c. There are also natural operations of com-
bining sets which satisfy rules analogous to these identities. Moderii
algebra is largely eoncerned with systems which satisfy various laws of
operation, so it is natural that the algebra of sets should be a part of this
subject. Our objective in this section is to study the principal operating
rules for sets. The first two basic operations of set theory are analogous
to addition and multiplication of numbers. They are binary operations,
that is, they are performed on a pair of sets to obtain a new set.
DEFIXITION
1-4.1. Let A and B be sets. Theil
A UB = (xlx E A o r x E B ) ,
A nB = (XIXE Aandx E B ) .
The set A U B is called the union (or join or set s u m ) of A and B. The
set A n B is called the intersection (or meet or set product) of A and B.
EXAMPLE
1. (1, 3, 4 , 5, 7 ) U (2, 3, 6 ) = ( 1 , 2, 3, 4 , 5, 6 , 7 ) .
EXAMPLE
2. ( 1 , 3, 4 , 5, 7 ) n ( 2 , 3, 6 ) = (3).
EXAMPLE
3. (1, 3, 4, 5, 7 ) n (2, 6 ) = @.
EXAMPLE
4 . (a10 <a< 1) U {O, 1 ) = (a10 < a 2 1).
EXAMPLE
5 . (a10 <a< 1) n (al$ < a < 2) = {al$ <a< 1).
EXAMPLE 6 . If *4 is the set of al1 points of a line through the point p and if
B is the set of al1 points of a second (different) line through p, then A í l B = ( p ) .
The set A" is called the complement of A in X (or simply the comple-
ment of A if it is understood that A is being considered as a subset of
the universal set X).
32 SET THEORY [CHAP.1
(a) A uB=BuA,AnB=BnA;
(b) A u (B u C) = (A u B) u C, A n (B n C ) = (A n B) n C ;
(c) A u A = A , A n A = A;
(d) A n (B u C ) = (A n B ) u (A n C ) ,
A u(BnC)= (AuB)n(AuC);
(e) A U A " = X, A n A " = iP;
(f) A uX=X,An@=@;
(g) A u @ = A , A n X = A.
This inclusion relatioii, combined with the one obtained above, yields
Let us illust'rate by a Venn diagram the identity (d) which we have just
proved. The heavily outliiied region in Fig. 1-5 represents either side of
the identity. The reader should illust,rate the other identities of Theorem
1-4.3 by Venn diagrams.
The identities (a) through (g) in Theorem 1-4.3 are the basic rules
of operation in the algebra of sets. By algebraic manipulations alone,
it is possible to derive from these numerous other laws of operation.
34 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
EXAMPLE
10. Let A, B, and C be subsets of a universal set X.
(a) (A U B) n C = C n ( A U B) = ( C n A) U ( C n B) =
(A n C) U ( B n C), and similarly,
(b) A U (B n A) = (A U B) n (A U A) = ( A U B) n A = A n (B U A) =
( - ~ ~ ( B u A ) ) u @ (= A ~ ( B u A ) ) u ( A ~ A ~A) =n ( ( B u A ) u A ' ) =
A n (B U (A U AC)) = A n ( B U X) = A n X = A, t h a t is,
A U ( B n A) = A sncl A n ( B U A) = A-
THEOREM
1-4.4. Let A, B, and C be sets.
(a) A c A u B , B c A u B ; A = , A n B , B A n B .
(b) If A 2 C and B C, then A U B E C; if A 2 C and B 2 C,
then A n B 2 C.
(c) If A S B, then A U C B U C and A n C 2 B n C.
(d) A E B if and only if A n B = A ; A 2 B if and only if
AuB=A.
The proofs of the various statements in Theorem 1-4.4 are again simple
applications of the definitions. For exahple, let us prove the first part
of (d). If A c B, then x E A implies z E B, and hence x E A n B.
Thus A A n B. If x E A n B, then in particular, x E A, so that
A n B c A . Therefore, A = A n B. Conversely, if A = A n B, then
every element of A is in A n B and, in particular, in B. Therefore A 2 B.
The statements (a), (e), and (d) of Theorem 1-4.5 should be clear.
Let us examine (b). To say that x E (A U B)" is the same as saying
x é A U B, which in turn amounts to x é A and x é B. That is, x E AC
and x E Bc, which means x E Ac n Bc. Thus (A U B)" and A" n Bc
contain exactly the same elements, so they are equal. The proof that
(A n B)" = A" U Bc is similar.
We illustrate the identity (A n B)" = A" U BC by a Venn diagram.
In Fig. 1-6, the region outside of the doubly shaded region represents
each of the sets (A n B)" and A" U Bc.
DEFINITION
1-5.1. Let S be a set whose elemeiits are sets. Then
As in the case of two sets, u(S) is called the u n i o n of the sets of S and
n(S) is called the intersection of the sets in S.
Thus, u(S) contains those elemeizts which are in any one or more of the
sets in S, and n(S) contains those elemeizts which are in every set in S.
For these definitions, S need not be a finite collectioiz of sets (see Example
3 below).
In Fig. 1-7, S = {A, B, C, D); u(S) is the total shaded area and
n(S) is the most heavily shaded area, inside the heavy outline.
EXAMPLE1. Let S = ((1, 2), {l., 3, 5:-, (2, 5, 6)). Then U(S) = (1, 2, 3, 5, 6)
and n(S) = @.
EXAMPLE2. If S = { A , B), then U(S) = A U B and n(S) = *4 í l B.
1-51 FURTHER ALGEBRA O F SETS. GENERAL RULES O F OPERATION 37
The reader should carefully check these examples to be sure that they
satisfy the condition of Definition 1-5.1. Example 4 may perhaps be sur-
prising, but it is nevertheless correct according to the definition. Moreover,
the intersection or union of the empty set of sets is often eiicountered.
It would be a nuisance if these operations were undefined in this case.
If S is a collection of sets, and if its member sets can be labeled by the
elements of another set 1,then we write S = (CJi E 1). For example,
let I = N = (1, 2, 3, . . .), and let S be the collection of sets
Then the set {1,2,. . . , i) can be denoted by Ci7and we have S = {Cili E N).
When this notation is used, the set I is called aiz index set. If S =
(CiJi E I ) , it is customary to write uieICi for u(S) and n i ~ ~ for
C i n(S).
The identities of Theorem 1-4.3(b) are called the associative laws for the
operations of set union and set intersection. These are special cases of
a general associativity principle.
If the sets of this collection are intersected in any way, two at a time,
using each set a t least once, the resulting set is equal to
Four sets can be united, two a t a time using each set once, in 120 ways:
1-5.3. Let S and T be two sets whose elements are sets. Then
THEOREM
I~XAMPLE5. Let S = ((1, 2, 31, {2,4)), and T = ((2, 31, (2, 4)). Then
S uT= {{l,2,3), {2,4), (2,3117
U(S u T ) = {1,2,3,4), ncs u T ) = (21,
U(S) = (1, 27 3,4), U(T) = (2, 3,4),
n ( S ) = {2),n(T) = (21,
U(S)U U(T) = {1,2, 3,4),
n ( S ) ri n ( T ) = (2).
1-5.4. Let (Bili E 1)be a set of sets, and let A be any set.
THEOREM
Then
A ri ( u ~ E I B=~ U) E E I( A n Bi),
A U ( n i ~ ~ B=i ) ( A U Bi).
Proof. Suppose that x E A n ( u i ~ ~ B i Then). by Definition 1-4.1,
x E A and x E UiEIBi. TO say that x E u ~ E means ~ B ~that x E Bi for
some i E I by Definition 1-5.1. For this particular i, x E A n Bi. There-
fore, x E ui€1(A n Bi). On the other hand, if x E u ~ € I ( n A Bi), then
x E A n Bi for some i E I. By Definition 1-5.1, it follows that x E A
and x E uiEIBi. Consequently, x E A n (Ui€IBi).This argument S ~ O W S
that the elements of A n (uiEIBi)are exactly the same as the elements
of uiEI(A n Bi). The other statement is proved in a similar way.
Finally,
. . . , i, i + 2, i + 4, . . .) if i is even
(1, 2, . . . , i, i + 1, i + 3, . . .) if i is odd.
Therefore,
n i ~ l ( AU Bi) = (1, 2, 4, 6, . . .).
For example, if n = 3,
MOOO
= Al n A 2 n A3, MOOl= Al n A 2 n A;,
M010 = A l n A; n A,, Moll = Al n A; n A;,
M100 = A ? n A2 n A,, M,,, = A", A2 n A;,
Mi10 = A" A; n A,, M,,, = A; n A; n A;.
By the theorem, every possible nonempty combination of A l , A2, and A 3
can be obtained as a union of one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, or al1
of these Mijk. For instance,
The proof of Theorem 1-5.5, like the proof of Theorem 1-5.2, can be
carried out only by mathematical induction. Since this result will not be
needed in later parts of this book, a formal proof will not be given.
Severa1 ways of "measuring" sets are already known to the reader. For
example, the measure of a line segment (which may be considered as a set
of poiiits) is usually taken to be the length of the segment. A good measure
of a finite set A is 1 Al, the number of elements in A. But there are situa-
tions where different measures of line segments and finite sets are more
useful. For example, a railroad map usually indicates the route between
major cities by a sequence of line segments connecting intermediate
points as shown in Fig. 1-10. Here the length of each line segment is of
little interest. The important measure of these segments is the actual rail
line distance between the cities corresponding to the points which the
segments connect. Another useful measure for these line segments might
be the annual cost of upkeep of that section of the rail line which is repre-
sented by them. Note that this measure has a natural extension to those
subsets of the map which are unions of two or more segments. For example,
if I I represents the part of the rail line between Milwaukee and Chicago
and if I 2 represents the part between Detroit and Buffalo, then the cost
of upkeep of the part of the rail line represented by I l U I 2 would be the
cost for I l plus the cost for 1 2 .
We will now consider a measure for finite sets which links our discussion
to the application of set theory to probability. Suppose that a pair of
dice, labeled A and B, are rolled. Both A and B will come to rest with a
number of dots from 1 to 6 on the "up" face. The result of the roll can
therefore be represented by an ordered pair (m, n) of natural numbers,
where m gives the number of dots on the "up" face of A and n gives the
number of dots on the "up" face of B. Thus, m and n can be any natural
numbers from 1 to 6. If the dice are "honest," then it is reasonable to sup-
pose that for any roll of the dice, the 36 different pairs (m, n) are equally
likely to occur. Now it is customary to define the "point" which is made on
any roll of the dice to be the total number of spots on the two "up" faces.
Thus, if the outcome of the roll is represented by (m, n), then the point
made on the roll is m + n. Therefore, the possible points which can be
made on a roll of the dice are the numbers from 2 to 12, that is, the set of
possible points is (2, 3, . . . , 12). We now assign a measure to the subsets
of (2, 3, . . . , 12). If S is such a subset, assign as the measure of S the
probability that on a roll of the dice the point made will be a member of
S. The probability of making a certain point is the ratio of the number of
different ways that the point can be made, to 36, the number of possible
results of a roll. For example, the probability of making the point 2 is
1-61 MEASURES ON SETS 43
6,
since 2 can be made in only one way, by the roll (1,l). Thus our meas-
ure would assign to the subset (2) the number h. Suppose now that the
subset S is the set (7). The outcome of the roll will be in (7) only if the
point made is 7. Since 7 can be made in six possible ways: (1, 6), (2, 5),
(3, 4,) (4, 3), (5, 2 ) ) (6, 1), the probability of making 7 is = 3, and the
measure of (7) is i.As another example, take S = (7, 11). The point
made on a roll will be in this set if it is a 7 or 11. We have seen that there
are six ways of making 7. There are tmo ways of making 11: ( 5 , 6) and
(6,5). Thus, the measure of the set (7, 11) is & = 4j. It is clear now that
this "probability measure" can be determined for each of the Z1 = 2048
different subsets of possible points.
Let us now look for some common properties of the measures described in
the above examples and try to arrive a t a suitable mathematical notion of
measure. One property is immediately evident. In each case, there is a
rule for assigning a certaiii number to various subsets of a giveii set. In
the example of a railroad map, two different measures were suggested for
line segments making up the map. The second of these measures, the cost
of upkeep, was actually defined for unions of segments of the map. In
both cases, however, the measures are defined only for very special sub-
sets of the whole map. In general, measures need not be defined 011 al1
subsets of a given set, but only on some collection of subsets. However,
unless these collections satisfy certain "closure " conditions, the measures
on them will not be very useful.
(a) E S;
(b) If A E S and B E S, then A n B E S ;
(c) If Al, A2, . . . , A, E S , then Al U A2 U U A, E S and
Al n A 2 n . - . nA , E S .
EXAMPLE4. The sets (7, 11) and (2, 12) are disjoint.
EXAMPLE5. The collection of line segments in the railroad map example are
pairwise disjoint, provided we agree that each line segment includes its left-
hand endpoint, but not its right-hand endpoint.
EXAMPLE6. Let A l , A2, A3, . . . be the sets of real numbers x defined by
Al = (x(1< x < 21, A2 = {xl2 < x 5 31, A3 = (213 < x 5 41, etc.
Then the collection A l , A2, A3, . . . is pairwise disjoint.
subsets of a finite set S is of this form. This will become clear after we
observe t,hat the additive property of measures has a simple generalization.
Since the collection {A1, A2, A3) is pairwise disjoint, we know in particu-
lar, that A2 n A3 = Qj. Since m is a measure, by Definition 1-6.3,
By the distributive law for the set operations (Theorem 1-4.3), we obtain
This argument shows that any measure m on P(X) is a measure of the type
described in Example 7, that is, Example 7 is the most general possibility
for a measure on the set of al1 subsets of a finite set. Indeed, starting
with a measure m on P(X) for which nothing is assumed except that it
satisfies the conditions of Definition 1-6.3, we have shown that there are
numbers mi corresponding to the distinct elements xi E X such that for
any nonempty subset A of X, the measure m(A) is precisely the sum of
those mi for which xi is in A. But this is just the measure of Example 7,
except possibly for A = <P. However, in the iiext section we will show that
m(@) = O for every measure.
1. I n the dice rolling example, find the measure of the following sets:
(2, 3, 41, (10, 11, 12)) (2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12).
2. Find al1 collections S of subsets of (1, 2, 3) wliich are rings of sets. (There
are 15 such collections.)
3. Show that the number of sets in a ring of subsets of a finite set is always
a power of 2. [Hint: Let S be such a ring. Let Al, A2, . . . , A, be al1 those
nonempty sets in S which do not contain a smaller nonempty set of S. Show
that I ++ U ; E T A ~defines a one-to-one correspondence between the subsets I
of (1, 2, . . . , n) and S.]
4. Show that m, defined in Example 7, is a measure, that is, m satisfies the
condition of Definition 1-6.3.
5. Prove Theorem 1-6.4 in the case n = 4.
6 . Give the details of the proof that if m is a measure defined on a finite set
(21, x2, . . . , x,), then there are real numbers mi, m2, . . . , m, such that for a
nonempty subset A, m ( A ) is the sum of al1 m; for which x; E A.
48 SET THEORY [CHAP. 1
7. I n a certain game, three pennies are tossed a t the same time and points
are scored, depending on the outcome of the toss, as follows:
3 heads = 20 points, 3 tails = 15 points,
2 heads and a tail = 10 points, 2 tails and a head = 5 points.
Define a probability measure m on the collection of subsets of the possible points
(20, 15, 10, 51, as was done for the dice rolling example in the text. Find
m((20, 15, 10, 5)), m((20, lo)), and m((5)). What is the probability that a t
least two heads will appear in the outcome of a toss?
8. I n a certain card game, two cards are dealt from a standard deck of 52
cards. Aces count 4 points, kings 3 points, queens 2 points, jacks 1 point, and
al1 other cards O points. I n a given deal, the possible points range from O points
(neither card is an ace or a face card) to 8 points (a pair of aces). For a subset
A of the set {O, 1, 2, . . . , 8) of possible points, define m(A) to be the probability
that on a given deal the number of points scored is an element of A. Find
m((O)>, n2({%9, m((5, 6, 7,811, and m((l1).
m ( A U B ) = m ( A n Bc) + + ( A V B) + m ( A n B ) ,
m ( A ) = m ( A n Bc) + m(A n B),
m(B) = m(Ac n B ) + m ( A n B).
Subtracting the second and third equalities from the first one gives
EXAMPLE 1. In a certain class, 40% of the students are blonds, the rest are
brunettes, 12% are left-handed, and 5% are both blond and left-handed. Find
the percentage of atudents who are right-handed brunettes. Let A be the sub-
set of blonds in the class and B be the subset of left-handed students. Then
A 17 B is the subset of left-handed blonds and A U B is the subset of students
who are either blond or left handed. Moreover ( A U B)" is the subset of students
who are neither blond nor left handed, that is, the subset of right-handed
brunettes. Recalling that cardinality is a measure on the set of al1 subsets of a
finite set, Theorem 1-7.2 gives
Now if there are n students in the class, and C is any subset of students, then
1Cl/n gives the fraction of the class which is in C and 1001Cl/n gives the per-
centage of the class which is in C. Thus, we have
Hence, m(X) = +
+ ( m ( ~ l ) m(A2) + m(&)). Therefore,
+
= m(A)
-
m(B)
[ m ( An B) ++m(B
m(C)
flC) + m(C n A ) ] + m(A n B n C).
1-71 PROPERTIES AND EXAMPLES OF MEASURES 51
O, Rh negative no antigens
O, Rh positive Rh
A, Rh negative A
A, Rh positive A and Rh
B, Rh negative B
13, Rh positive B and Rh
AB, Rh negative A and B
AB, ~h positive al1 antigens