Short summary for the first miderm exam in Math 356, Spring

2010

• ( G, ∗) is a group if ∗ is: closed on G, associative, there is an

identity element, and every element has an inverse.

• If ∗ is in addition commutative on G then ( G, ∗) is abelian.

• ( G, ∗) is a semigroup if ∗ is: closed on G, associative.

• ( G, ∗) is a semigroup with unity if ∗ is: closed on G, associa-

tive, there is an identity element.

• Cancellation law holds in any group G: ac = bc implies a = b

(and similarily: ca = cb implies a = b).

• | G | denotes cardinality of G. | G | can be: finite, countably

infinite or uncountably infinite.
| G | is finite, if there are n elements in the set G where n is
some natural number.
| G | is countably infinite if there is a bijection between G
and N.
| G | is uncountably infinite if there is a bijection between G
and R.
Examples of countably infinite sets are: N, Z, aZ (for some
a ∈ Z), Q.
Examples of uncountably infinite sets are: R, any non-empty
interval in R, set of irrational numbers.
There exists no bijection between a set which is countably infinite
and one which is uncountably infinite. There exists no bijection be-
tween a finite set and an infinite set

• G-group. H ⊂ G is a subgroup of G if it is a group on its own.

The easiest way to check if H < G is to check if for all a, b ∈ H
one has ab−1 ∈ H.

• All subgroups of (Z, +) are of the form aZ for some a ∈ Z.

• Let G and H be two sets. A map ψ : G → H is onto if for

every h ∈ H there exists g ∈ G such that ψ( g) = h.
Map ψ is one-to-one if ψ( g1 ) = ψ( g2 ) for some g1 , g2 ∈ G,
implies g1 = g2 .
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Map ψ is a bijection between two sets G and H if it is one-

to-one and onto.

• Let ( G, ∗) and ( H, ◦) be two groups. A map φ : G → H is a

group homomorphism if φ( x ∗ y) = φ( x ) ◦ φ(y) for any two
x, y ∈ G.
Every homomorphism must take identity in G to the iden-
tity in H, and inverses in G to inverses in H.

• Kernel of a homomorphism: Ker (φ) = { g ∈ G |φ( g) = id H } <

G.
Image of a homomorphism: Im(φ) = {φ( g) ∈ H | g ∈ G } <
H.
If Ker (φ) = {e} then φ is injective (or one-to-one) in which
case we call φ and embedding.

• A homomorphism φ is one-to-one if and only if φ( g) = id H

for some g ∈ G implies g = idG .

• If a homomorphism φ is onto and one-to-one then it is called

an isomorphism. If in addition to this G = H then φ is an
automorphism of G. The set of all automorphisms of G has a
group structure under the operation of composition of maps,
this group is denoted by Aut( G ).

• For a fixed a ∈ G define the map κ a : g 7→ aga−1 . These maps

are called inner automorphisms of G.
Inn( G ) is the group of inner automorphisms ofG. It is a
subgroup of Aut( G ).
• G-group. Left multiplication in G by an element a of G is the
map: λ a : g 7→ ag for all g ∈ G.

• Cayley embedding theorem Each λ a is a bijection and if | G | =

n is finite, the map λ : a 7→ λ a is an embedding of G into
Symn .

• If H < G then the image of H under the map λ a is called the

left coset of H in G: aH = { ah|h ∈ H }.
Two cosets aH and bH are either disjoint or equal.
All cosets of H partition G into non-overlapping pieces.
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• The set of all cosets of H in G: { aH | a ∈ G }, is denoted by

G/H.

• The number of left cosets of H in G is called the index of H

in G and is denoted by [ G : H ].

• Counting formula-Lagrange theorem [ G : H ] · | H | = | G |.

If G is a finite group and H < G, then | H | divides | G | and
[ G : H ] divides | G | and the index can be computed by

|G|
[G : H ] =
|H|

• Corollary 1: For g ∈ G, G finite, order of g divides order of G,

i.e: ord( g) divides | G |.

• Corollary 2-Classification of groups of prime order: Every

group whose order is a prime number is cyclic.

• Corollary 3: If φ : G → H is a homomorphism then both

|Kerφ| and | Imφ| divide G, and | Imφ| divides H.

• A subgroup N < G is normal in G if: for all h ∈ N and all

g ∈ G we have ghg−1 ∈ N.
Equivalently: N is normal in G if gNG −1 = N.
Equivalently: N is normal in G if all the left and right cosets
gN and Ng of N in G coincide.
Equivalently: N is normal in G if N is invariant under all
inner automorphisms of G.

• If N is a normal subgroup in G then the coset space G/N has

a group structure under the operation on cosets defined by
aNbN := abN.

• If φ : G → H is a homomorphism then Ker (φ) is a normal

subgroup in G.

• First Isomorphism Theorem. If φ : G → H is a homomor-

phism then the group G/Kerφ is isomorphic to Imφ.
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In particular, if φ is onto, then Imφ = H so we have G/Kerφ

is isomorphic to H.

• Classification of groups of order 2p where p is a prime num-

ber. Every group of order 2p with p-prime is either cyclic or
dihedral.

• G-group. For a ∈ G, the centralizer of a in G is the subgroup

ZG ( a) = {b ∈ G |ba = ab}
• G-group. The center of G is the intersection of centralizers of
all elements in G:
Z ( G ) = {b ∈ G |ba = ab for all a ∈ G }
Center of G is a normal subgroup of G.

• G/Z ( G ) is isomorphic to Inn( G ).

• Z ( G ) = G if and only if G is abelian.

• If G/Z ( G ) is cyclic then it must be trivial and G must be

abelian.