1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all I am thankful to Almighty Allah, most gracious and

most merciful who gave me health and courage to carryout this work..
I pay my humble thanks to my parents who cared me to grownup,
supported to carryout my study, also encouraged to conduct this research at
NIA, Tandojam.
I am very much thankful to my brother Nabeel Ahmed who
assisted me while compiling the data, composing manuscript, with his un-
tired efforts made this work completed.
I would like to thank Dr. Basheer Ahmed Ansari,
Professor and Chairman, Department of Plant
Breeding and Genetics, who provided chance of internship to
learn a lot about breeding work at Nuclear Institute of Agriculture (NIA),
Tandojam.
I am thankful of Mr. Shamadad Khanzada, Head, Plant
Breeding and Genetics Division, Nuclear Institute of
Agriculture Tandojam, a God gifted scientist having best abilities
and qualities to search. He has developed and released 4 varieties for
general cultivation.
I am also thankful to Mr. Salman Ahmed, Junior
Scientist, NIA, who helped me in every difficulty while conduct of
experiment in the field.
I am thankful to Mr. Asghar Halo, Field Assistant, NIA,
who helped me for conducting experiment and gathering important data
throughout my internship period.
I am also highly grateful to Dr. Nihaluddin Mari, Deputy
Director (Tech-II), and Zubair Ahmed Rajput, Steno,
Directorate General, Agriculture Research Sindh
Tandojam who helped me to interpret this research work by converting it
from numerical data to understandable words.

Sajida Nazeer Ahmed

2
S.No Contents Page No.

1. Overview of NIA Tandojam. 04-05

2. Introduction of Plant Breeding. 06-12

3. Introduction of Wheat. 13-27

4. Introduction of Heterosis. 28-29

5. Materials and Methods. 30-32

6. Pictures of According to Data 33

Recording.

7. Results and Discussion. 34-37

8. Tables. 38-39

9. Other Activities at NIA Tandojam. 40-42

10. Pictures of Emasculation and 43

Crossing in Wheat Plants.

11. References Cited. 44

3
 OVERVIEWS OF NUCLEAR
INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE (NIA),
TANDOJAM.
The Nuclear Institute of Agriculture (NIA) Tando Jam
is one of the leading Institute of Pakistan Atomic Energy
Commission in term of its establishment and Research
activities.
The main objective of NIA is conduct Research on
Agriculture and related problems using Nuclear and
other advanced techniques for booting Agricultural
productivity. At the institute , the research is under way
in five discipline namely. Mutation breeding, plant
genetics, Agricultural Bio-technology, Plant Protection,
Physiology and Soil Science. To achieve the tongued
objectives, Skill team of Scientist with advanced
knowledge are working in every disciplines of the
institute. NIA being a multi disclipnary setup has well
furnished and will equipped laboratories with modern
analytical facilities NIA has been successful in the
achievement of various goal that is:

1. Evolution of better performing and wide adoptable

crop varieties of Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane, Cotton,

4
 Pulses and Banana through radiation induced
mutation, Hybridization, and in vitro techniques.
2. Development of Eco-friendly techniques to control
major pests of crops, Fruits and Vegetables.
3. Enhancement in crop predictability by understanding
stern physiology and dividing method to utilized
marginal wastelands.
4. Maximization of crop productivity by intensive
cropping, better management practices and
balanced fertilization.

The institute has the credit of evolving 25 crop varieties

that contribute considerably in the national economy. The
achievement mentioned above not only have been provided
to the end users but also published in journal of national and
international repute and bestowed with prestigious awards
like, Tamgha-e- Imtiaz and PAEC Gold Medals.
NIA has scientific collaboration with international
organization (International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
CIMMYT, Mexico, ICARDA, Syria and International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines; National and Provincial
Departments like Pakistan Agriculture Research Council,
(PARC), Islamabad, Agriculture Department, Government of
Sindh, Drainage and Reclamation Centre Tandojam etc).

5
 The Research activities being conducted at NIA are
regularly monitored and evaluated in monthly review
meetings. The achievements of individual scientist during
the year and his future research plan are critically examined
by the house in the annual in house review meetings.
Weekly seminar is conducted to talk on recent agricultural
advances.

INTRODUCTION OF PLANT BREEDING:-

Plant Breeding is the art and the science of changing

and improving the heredity of plants. The art of plant
breeding lies in the ability of the breeder to observe
differences in plants, which may have economic value.
Before breeders possessed the scientific knowledge that is
available today, they relied largely on their skill and
judgment in selecting the superior types. Many breeders
were good observes, quick to recognize between plant of the
same species variation which could be used as the basis for

6
establishing new varieties. As the breeders’ knowledge of
genetics and related plant sciences progressed plant
breeding became less of an art and more of a science.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANT BREEDING:-

The economy of Pakistan is based on agriculture and

the plant breeding has been on e of the most active field of
agricultural sciences. Plant breeding depend on the concepts
of genetic and other related sciences like taxonomy, bio
technology and genetic engineering, and their
implementation for the increased production of food, fiber
and other industrial crops. The release of disease and insect
resistant varieties, improvement in quality with respect to
taste, nutrition, industrial use and keeping quality of fruits,
vegetable and food grains are the main attributes of plant
breeding. The release of short duration varieties suited to
the cropping pattern, stress resistant varieties and fertilizer
responsive varieties also pay an important role to achieve
the goal in this regard. Plant breeders in Pakistan are
utilizing available genetics resource from within and outside
the country. In this regard collections are made from local
and exotic strains of various crops. This germplasm makes
the raw to be utilized for the improvement of various crops

7
in order to meet the needs of ever increasing population of
the country.

OBJECTIVES OF PLANT BREEDING:-

The prime objective of plant breeding is to develop

superior plants over the existing ones in relation to their
economics use. The objectives of plant breeding differ from
crop to crop. However, there are some objectives, which are
common in majority of field crops. A brief account of some
important objectives is given below.

1. Higher Yield
The ultimate aim of plant breeder is to improve the
yield of economic produce. It may be grain yield, fodder
yield, fiber yield, tuber yield, cane yield or oil yield
depending upon the crop species. Improvement in yield
can be achieved either by evolving by high yielding
varieties or hybrid.

2. Improved Quality
Quality of a produce is another important objectives in
plant breeding. The price of produce is determined by its
quality. Again quality differs from crop to crop. It refers to
cooking quality in rice, baking quality in wheat, malting

8
quality in barley, fiber length, strength and fitness in cotton,
nutritive and keeping quality in fruit and vegetables, protein
content in pulses, oil content in oil seed crops and sugar
contents in sugarcane sugar beets etc.

3. Biotic Resistance
Crop plants are attacked by various disease and
insects, resulting in considerable yield losses. Genetic
resistant is the cheapest and the best method of minimizing
such losses. Resistant varieties are developed through the
resistant donor parent available in the gene pool.

4. A biotic Resistance
Crop plants also suffer from abiotic factors such as
drought, soil salinity, heat, wind, cold and frost. Breeder has
to develop resistant varieties for such environmental
conditions.

5. Earliness
Earliness is the most desirable character, which has
several advantages. It requires less crop management
period, less insecticidal sprays, permits double cropping
system and reduce overall production cost. Thus earliness is
an important objective in plant breeding programs.
Determinate growth has close association with earliness.

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6. Photo and Thermo Insensitivity
Development of varieties insensitive to light and
temperature helps in crossing the cultivation boundaries of
crop plants. In maize, rice and potato now varieties are
available which can be grown during summer as well as
winter season. Evolution of photo and thermo insensitivity
varieties permits their cultivation in new areas outside the
boundaries of cultivation of a crop species.

7. Synchronous Maturity
It refers to maturity of crop species at one time. This
character is highly desirable in crops like green gram,
cowpea, and cotton where several pickings are required for
crop harvest.

8. Desirable Agronomic Traits

It includes plant height branching, tillering capacity,
growth habit, etc. usefulness of these traits also differs from
crop to crop. For example tallness, high tillering and profuse
branching are desirable characters in wheat, rice, sorghum
and pearl millet. Dwarf ness confers loading resistance in
these field crops, in addition to better fertilizer response.

9. Removal of Toxic Compounds

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 It is essential to develop varieties free from toxic
compounds in some crops like to make them safe for human
consumption. For example removal of neurotoxin in khesari,
which leads to paralysis of lower limbs, euric acid from
necessary to make them fit for human consumption.

10. Wider Other Characters

Adaptability refers to suitability of a variety for general
cultivation over a wide range of environmental conditions.
Adaptability is an important objective in plant breeding
because it helps is stabilizing the crop production over
regions and season.

11. Some Other Characters

In some crops such as green gram, black gram and pea,
seeds germinate in the standing crop before harvesting if
rains are received. A period democracy has to be introduced
in these crops to check loss due to germination. In arboreum
cotton shedding of seed cotton after boll bursting is a serious
problem. Locule retentive varieties have to be developed in
this species of cotton. The shattering of pods is a serious
problem in green gram. Hence resistance to shattering is an
important objectives in green gram.

SCIENCES ALLIED TO PLANT BREEDING

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 Plant breeding is divided into many branches and
numerous fields of plant science, as well as other closely
related disciplines, embraced in the training of the modern
plant breeder. Important areas of knowledge, in which it is
essential that the modern breeder have training and their
relations to plant breeding, are:

1. Botany: - The plant breeder should be an accomplished

botanist so that he will understand the taxonomy,
morphology, and reproduction of the plants with which he
works.

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2. Genetics and Cytogenetics: - The plant breeder
needs a through understanding of the mechanism of
heredity in plants since modern plant breeding methods are
best on knowledge of genetics principles and chromosome
behavior.

3. Plant Physiology: - Variety adaptation is determined

by the response of plants their environment. This includes
the effect of heat, cold, drought, and soil nutrient response.
4. Plant Pathology: - Varietals resistance is an important
means of combating many plants disease.

5. Entomology: - Breeding for insect resistance is

receiving increasing attention by plant breeders.

6. Plant Biochemistry: - Suitability for industrial

utilization often determines the market demand for a
particular variety of a crop. Examples are the milling and
baking qualities of a wheat variety, the cooking qualities of a
rice variety, or the fiber qualities of a cotton variety. Many
chemical and physical tests are required to test varieties for
these qualities. Knowledge of biochemistry is also
contributing toward a better understanding of nutrition and
gene action.

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7. Statistics: - The plant breeder measures the
comparative performance of many strains. Sound field plot
techniques and methods for statistical analyses of data are
necessary to obtain reliable results and to interpret the
results correctly. The understanding of quantitative
inheritance is also best on knowledge of statistical
procedures.

8. Agronomy: - Above all, the breeder of field crops

should be a good agronomist. He should know crops and
their production. He should understand what the cultivator
wants and needs in the way of new varieties, so that he may
be able to evaluate the breeding materials available to him
and plan a breeding programme in the light of these needs.

14
 INTRODUCTION OF WHEAT

Botanical Name: Triticum aestivum L.

English Name: Bread Wheat
Local Name: Kanak and Gandum
Family: Gramineae
Genus: Triticum
Specie: aestivum
Genome: AABBDD
Chromosome No: 42

Bread wheat is the most widely grown crop in the

world. Approximately one sixth of the total arable lands in
cultivated with wheat. Dew to its importance as a food and
feed source, and to its enormous genetic variability in
phonological response to photoperiod and temperature,
wheat is grown in most regions of the global in location

15
ranging in altitude from a few meters to more than 3000 m
above sea level.

ORIGIN
Its cultivation starts during Neolithic probably as early
as 6,000 to 7,000 year ago. Wheat crop requires a well
pulverized but compact seedbeds for good and uniform
germination, 3 or ploughing in the summer, repeated
harrowing in the rainy season, followed by 3 or 4 cultivation
and planting immediately before sowing produce a good firm
seedbed for the dry crop alluvial soil.

Species
Wheat belong species Triticum, Triticum belong to tribe
Triticeae, sub family poideae. There are three wild species
and 22 species, in closely related genus Aegilops. The four
species namely Triticum aestivum L., T. durum Desf.,
T.diccocum schuble and T.sphaeroccum prevail. T. diccocum
is grown on very restricted scale. The most important
species T. aestivum occupying 85% of total area under
wheat. T. durum the macaroni wheat is second important
crop occupying 14% of wheat area. T. durum is the most
important species under rain fed condition.

AREA AND PRODUCTION IN PAKISTAN

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 Wheat production on Pakistan can be divided in to three
distinct periods: 1947 to 65 prior to the release of semi-
dwarf wheat’s; 1966 to 76, the so called “Green Revolution”
period when high yielding varieties (HYVs) were rapidly
adopted on about to thirds of total wheat area; and 1976 to
date, post green revolution period when HYVs continued to
spread to cover the major wheat area. Wheat production in
the country has increased by 647% during 1948 to 2006
whereas increase in the area was 210% during this period.
During the last seven years (1999-2006), national production
varied from 18.226 to 21.700 million tons with in average
national yield of 2262 to 2614 kg/ha. A bumper crop was
harvested in 2005-06 because of suitable weather during the
growing season and polices of the government (e.g., timely
support price announcement, adequate supply of fertilizers,
grow more wheat campaign through print and electronic
media, etc.).
In Pakistan, wheat being the staple diet is the most
important crop and cultivated on the largest acreages (8.303
million hectors during the growing season 2005-06) in all
most every part of country. It contributes 13.7 % to the
value added in agriculture and 3.0 % to GDp. Over the past
three decades, increased agricultural productivity occurred
largely due to the deployment of high yielding cultivars and
increased fertilizer used. With the introduction of Semi-dwarf

17
wheat cultivars, wheat productivity has been increase in all
the major cropping systems representing the diverse and
varying agro-ecological conditions.

WHEAT AGRONOMY

Morphology -
Species and cultivars of wheat vary greatly in habit of
growth and structure, but all are annual grasses. Principle
plants parts are roots, culms (stems), leave and spike (heads
or ears). The spike is the inflorescence.

Roots
The wheat plant has two sets of roots.
1. Seminal, or seedling roots, and
2. Coronal (adventitious) roots which arise from the
crown of the culm. The seminal roots are produced
by the young plant shortly after germination. The
coronal roots arise later in whorls from the basal
nodes of the plant and the become the permanent
root system. Eventually they form a mass of fibrous
roots which under favorable growing conditions for
spring wheat may spread in all directions from 15 to
23 cm from the plant and penetrate as deep as one

18
 meter in to the soil. Winter wheat plants root deeper.
Roots have been recovered from a depth greater
than 2 meters.

In the very early stages of plant growth nourishment

comes from the endosperm of the seed. After the seminal
roots become functional, water and nutrients come from
surrounding soil. Coronal root start to develop about two
weeks after plant emergence but their development and
elongation are slow until the plant reaches the jointing
stage. By hading time most roots are established. Seminal
roots make up a small part of the total root system, but
usually remain functional for the life of the plant unless
destroyed by disease for mechanical injury.

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Culm
The culm of the wheat plant usually is hollow jointed
cylinder with about six nodes and internodes. The upper
internodes, which bears the spike, is called the peduncle.
Height and strength of the culm are very important in wheat
production. Lodging (leaning or falling to the ground) can be
a serious problem, especially under conditions of high soil
fertility and/or excessive moisture, whether from rainfall or
irrigation. Varieties with tall, weak culms tend to lodge,
which results in harvest losses. Successful cultivation of such
cultivars is limited to arid or semiarid region.

Leaves
Leaves on a wheat plant are composed of the sheath,
blade, ligule, and a pair of auricles at the base of the blade.
Foliage leaves are arranged alternately on the culm each
leaf blade is at 180 degree angle from the one above or
below. Sheaths normally enclosed about the lower to thirds
of the culm, but under adverse condition, such as drought,
the spike often is not fully extracted. Each sheath is split
down as for as the node, the point of attachment, the sheath
encircles the culm with edges overlapping on the side
opposite the blade. Each wheat leaf blade is linear and
parallel veined, typical of the Gramineae.

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Spike
The entire florescence on one culm is the spike, which
is made up of separate groups of florets (flowers) known as
“spikelets”. Spikes of common wheat range in length from 5-
15 cm, and in width or thickness from 1-3 cm. spike lets are
borne singly on alternate sides of a zigzag, flattened, jointed,
central axis the rachis. Within each spike let are two to five
(rarely more) florets are subtended by two empty scale
called glumes. The keel of each glum terminates in a tooth
or beak. Each floret consist of a flowering glum (lemma) and
a thin, two keeled glum (palea). These two glumes enclose
the sexual three stamens and the single ovary with its style
and stigma. On awned plants the lemma terminates in the
long awn.

The Mature Grain

The grain is called a caryopsis a small, dry indehiscent,
one seeded fruit with a thin, tight pericarp. The grains
consist of an embryo (germ) and in endosperm, both
surrounded by the seed and fruit coats (testa and pericarp).
The endosperm consists mainly of stored material for the
young plant upon germination. The embryo makes up only 2
to 3 percent of the entire grain (by weight) and consists of
two parts: the embryonic axis, which includes the primordial

21
root and shoot, and the scutellum, which functions as a
storage, digestive and absorbing organ.

When a wheat grain is a milled the outer layers and

embryo are separated from the endosperm. The pulverized
endosperm becomes wheat flour the other parts from the
bran.

Preparation of Land
Land preparation is the basic factor which affects the
yield of this crop. For getting better yield it is important to
prepare land thoroughly so that the weeds and destroyed.
Completely and water absorption capacity of the soil is
increased.
For getting fine condition of the soil it is advisable to
plough the land for at least 5 to 6 times with soil turning
plough, and their after breaking the clods completely. After
ploughing and cold crushing, land should be leveled
thoroughly so as to ensure an equal distribution of fertilizer
and irrigation water. Farm yard manure should be mixed
thoroughly in the soil, one month before planting.

A. Good pulverized soil is necessary to increased water

holding capacity for germination and good root
development.

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 B. Proper leveling to ensure uniform distribution of
irrigation water and reduction of salt accumulations.
C. Dwarf varieties will have better stand then planted
shallow i.e. 1.5 to 2.0 inches depth and this only
possible on well prepared and leveled seed bed sown
by drilling.

Time of Sowing
Proper time of sowing is one of the important factors
which affect the yield of crop. Time of sowing varies with
climatic conditions and variety used. Wheat crop should be
sown before 10th November in order to get maximum
production. The crops grown afterwards reduce the yield 12
to 16 kg per acre per day.

Seed Rate
For obtaining optimum yields the uniform population is
very important. For getting uniform stand is in advisable to
used recommended seed red which varies from 38 to 45 Kgs
per acre depending upon the sowing time, soil and variety.
In case of early planting 38 Kgs per acre seed is
recommended and for let planting 45 Kgs per acre seed is
recommended.

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Method of Sowing
Sowing of crops in lines i.e. drilling is better but
unfortunately over cultivars is still practicing broadcast
method of sowing. They are suggested to use the Rabi
Automatic Drill because in this way crop can be sown at
proper spacing and uniform that. With automatic drill one
man can complete four to five acres of sowing in a day.

The depth of sowing varies from 1.5 to 2.5 inches. The

distance between to lines should be of nine inches only. In
case of late sowing and heavy soils broadcasting gives
better yield then drilling.

Irrigation
Assured supply of water is also in importance factor
affecting the yield. In every crop there are certain stages
called critical stages of growth. In those stages, if water is
not applied, the yields are decreased considerably. The
same applies to wheat, particularly the Mexican wheats and
other recommended varieties. From irrigation point of view,
there are three critical stages in wheat during which if the
water is delayed the yield will considerably decrease. Critical
stages in wheat are:

24
i. First critical stage comes after 20 to 25 days sowing
when root development of the crop take place. It is
as such, very important to apply first irrigation with
in 20 to 25 days after sowing. If irrigation is delayed
this schedule the yields are decrease considerably.
More ever, irrigation also helps in germination of
remaining seeds.
ii. Second critical stage from yield point of view is the
booting stage i.e. emergence of ear heads. If
irrigation delayed in that stage the uniform and quick
emergency of ear head will not take place and yields
will be adversely affected.
iii. Third and final stage is the milky stage or denting
stage i.e. initial stage of seed formation. If irrigation
water is delayed at that stage the yields of wheat will
decrease considerably.

In all five to six irrigations are recommended.

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Cultural Practices
Moisture should be conserved during moon soon by
using deep tillage technology. Resistant improved wheat
verities should be planted after treating the seed with
recommended fungicides to control seed born disease.
Irrigation at the time of tillering and grain formation is
critical. Nitrogenous and prophetic fertilizers should be used
in a ratio of 1:1 or 1: 1-1/2. Potassium fertilizer must be used
if wheat is planted after rice and sugar cane and in sandy
soils which had continuously been irrigated by tube well
water. Wheats must be destroyed by using appropriate
chemical weedicides depending on type of wheat.
Harvesting should be done few days earlier in case of semi
dwarf improved varieties to avoid shattering damages.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES
The breeding objectives vary according to the usage as
well as location.

1. Higher Grain Yield

The maximum photosynthetic in to the grain.

2. Lodging Resistance

26
A variety has potential to tolerant to the wind and
hold the weight of ear head.

27
3. Disease Resistance
The variety has resistance to disease especially rust
and smut.

4. Higher Protein Quality

The grain should be rich or improved with the protein
quality in the wheat especially gluten.

5. Photo Insensitivity
The crop can successfully grow at the different day
length.

6. Wider Adaptability
The variety can successfully grow in different region
as well as latitudes.

7. Resistance to Stress Environment

Change from the recommended the variety can
successfully grow in stress as well as adverse
environment.

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 MAJOR DISEASE IN WHEAT
Wheat is a subject attack by numerous diseases, the
symptoms of which are stunted leaf or stem spots, galls,
shriveled or discolored grain and various root or crown root.
Most of the disease caused by fungus parasites, but a few
caused by bacteria or viruses.

Disease of Wheat
Rusts
Rusts are among the most serious disease of wheat.
The rusts that attack wheat are stem rust (Puccinia graminis
tritici), leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) and strip rust (Puccinia
glumarum).

Stem Rust
Stem rust caused by the
fungus Puccinia graminis
tritici, probably is the most
serious disease and may
cause heavy yield losses. It is

29
formed wherever wheat is grown but, particularly in humid
and sub humid regions. It may cause local or widespread
epidemics in years when conditions are favorable to its
spread.
Yield losses range up to 85 to 90 percent at which point
the crop is not worth harvesting. Yield reduction from 6.7 to
7.2 percent.

Leaf Rust
The leaf rust disease
caused by a fungus (Puccinia
recondita) is found over the
world, particularly in humid
and sub humid regions.

Leaf rust of wheat

occurs more frequently and usually affects larger acreages
than those does stem rust. The leaf of rusted plants died
early, the weight of straw was decreased, and fewer and
lighter kernels were produced. When wheat in plants is
rusted in an early growth stage, the yield of a susceptible
variety may be as much as 94 percent. Kernels are seldom
shriveled, wheat plant severally damaged. Protein
percentage in the grains of susceptible varieties of both hard

30
and soft winter wheats has been significantly reduced by
severe infection.

The leaf rust fungus enters the wheat plant throw the
stomata. It manifests it self on the green plant as orange to
orange brown pustules which represent the red (uredial) or
summer stage. Leaf rust usually attacks the leaf blades and
sheaths, but it some times occurs on the stem, glumes, and
awns.

31
Stripe Rust
Stripe rust of wheat
(Puccinia glumarum), some
time called yellow rust. It also
attacks barley, ray and more
than 60 species of grasses.

Stripe rust may damage

wheat when infection occurs during the milk stage or earlier.
Infection in early growth stages reduces root and top growth
as well as grain yield. There is a decrease in both size and
number of fats. The results are similar to those of except
that stripe rust also shrivels the kernels. Badly rusted kernels
may germination poorly, but infection is not transmitted to
plants grown from such seed.

Stripe rust develop most abundantly on the glumes,

leaf blades, and leaf sheaths but it also may attack the
stems and kernels of the wheat. Some of these pustules
that through the epidermis, in the spring the rust develop
until the wheat crop in mature unless check by hot weather.
The black pustules (telia) also are produced more or less in
rows that appear as long, narrow, dark brown or black
stripes.

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Smut
Loose smut is a serious disease which can cause heavy
damage. The spikelets of disease plants are transformed in
to black spore masses which are carried away by wind. After
a few days only the rachis and remains of floral branches are
left. It is a seed brown disease it no control measure are
taken the proportion of infection seed can increase
dramatically.

33
INTRODUCTION OF HETEROSIS

Hybrid vigour is defined as the increase in size or vigour

of a hybrid over its parents or over the average of its
parents. Another term, Heterosis is also proposed to denote
the increase of size and vigour after crossing. The two terms
like hybrid vigour and Heterosis has been used
interchangeably ever since.

Heterosis for more yield were largely attributed to cross

pollinated crops. Evidence is now available to confirm to
presence of heterotic effects in self pollinated crops like
wheat (Freeman, 1919). The increase or decrease in the
productivity and vigour of hybrids compare to those of their
parents is generally attributed to heterotic effects expressed
in F1 and following generations. The hybrids with high
heterotic effects may offer better chances for identification
of desirable pure lines in the following advanced generations
as compared to hybrids with low Heterosis. This
phenomenon could be commercially exploited in this crop
which could increase per acre yield.

The most widely accepted explanation is best on the

assumption that hybrid vigour results from bringing together

34
favorable dominant genes. According to this theory, genes
that are favorable for vigour and growth are dominant, and
genes that are harmful to the individual are recessive. The
dominant genes contributed by one parent may compliment
the dominant genes contributed by the other parent, so that
the F1 will have a more favorable combination of dominant
genes than either parent.

Self-pollinated crops like wheat to cross pollinators and

exploit hybrid vigour provided satisfactory fertility restoring
genes and adequate open pollination is obtained. In a-
sexually propagated plants, the F1 plants may be used to
establish a clone.

35
36
MATERIALS AND METHOD
This study was conducted at experimental farm of
Nuclear Institute of Agriculture (NIA), Tandojam during Rabi
2010-11. The different F1 crosses with their parents planted
with dibbler at 10 cm plant to plant and 4 feet row to row
distance. The experiment was planted on November 10,
2010 as per below given sequence of crosses with their
parents.
# Parents F1
1. No: 08(25) No:(25)x8019x377 No:03 A/L
2. 8019 x 377 No: 03 A/L

1. F4 CIMMIT 06-07 No: 6007 x T.D-1 6077 x T.D-1 x CIMMIT 07-08 No: 6087
2. CIMMIT 07-08 No: 6087

1. F4 CIMMIT 06-07 No: 6008 x T.D-1 6008 x T.D-1 x CIMMIT 07-08 No: 6097
2. CIMMIT 07-08 No: 6097

1. No:28 No:28x 377x8109 No:13 A/L

2. F7 377x 8109 No:13 A/L

1. Tufan Tufan x T.D-1

2. T.D-1

1. F7 Ravi Singh 620x 8017-13 No: 2 F1 Ravi Singh 620x 8017-13xT.D-1

2. T.D-1

1. Ravi Singh 633x T.J-83 No:1 Ravi Singh 633 x T.J-83x T.D-1
2. T.D-1

1. F8 T.J-83x4085/3x Inqilab 91 No:03 T.J-83 x 4085/3 x Inqilab 91 No:03 x

2. F10 377x8109 No: 05A/L 377x 8109 No: 05 A/L

1. SD-4085/3 (Sunder) 4085/3xD-153

2. D-153

1. No:08(25) No: 25x No: 08 (25)

2. No: 25

37
 Data was recorded on the following parameters, for
sake of convenience the parent were designated as per
alphabets.

Numbers of Tillers:
Counting the number of tillers per plant. Figure (a).

Plant Height (cm):

Height was taken from the base of plant to tip of the
tallest spike in centimeters. Figure (b).

Spike Length (cm):

Spike length was recorded from the base of the spike to
its tip in centimeters.

Spikelets:
Counting the number of spikelets per spike. Figure (c)

Number of Nodes:
Counting the number of nodes per tiller.

1st Internode (cm):

Recorded the length of 1st Internode.

38
2nd Internode (cm): -
Recorded the length of 2nd Internode.
3rd Internode (cm):
Recorded the length of 3rd Internode.

4th Internode (cm):

Recorded the length of 4th Internode.

Flag Leaf Length (cm):

Flag leaf length was taken from the base of flag leaf to
its tip. Figure (d).

Flag Leaf Width (cm):

Flag leaf width would be taken in the centre of the leaf.

For all parameters the data was recorded on five plants

per row and the mean was recorded for each parent and
their cross (Table-1).

39
Figure (a): Counting the number of tillers Figure (b): Recording of plant height (cm)

Figure (c): Counting the number of spikelets Figure (d): Measurement of flag leaf (cm)

40
Result and Discussion

Number of Tillers
The results given in Table 1 indicated that F1 cross M x
N produced maximum mean (28 cm) in number of tillers,
while F1 cross G x H gave minimum mean (9.0 cm) in
number of tillers. The results depicted in Table 2 showed
that F1 cross Q x R exhibited maximum mid parent heterosis
in number of tillers having value of 222.7, while F1 cross (K x
L) showed negative mid parent heterosis of – 45.9.

Plant Height (cm)

Results indicated (Table 1) that mean for maximum
height (109 cm) in plant was recorded for the cross (G x H),
while F1 cross (E x F) showed minimum mean of 82.0 cm in
plant height. Results in Table 2 indicated that cross Q x R
exhibited maximum mid parent heterosis having the value of
50.0 for plant height, whereas the cross S x T showed
negative mid parent heterosis of -13.6 cm in plant height.

Spike Length (cm)

The results mentioned in Table 1 indicated cross of G x
H exhibited maximum mean (21.4 cm) in spike length, while
the minimum mean (9.2 cm) for spike length was recorded

41
for the cross A x B. The results mentioned in Table 2
indicated that cross of G x H exhibited maximum mid parent
heterosis of 21.4 in spike length. However, the cross A x B
showed negative mid parent heterosis of -43.0 for same
character.

No. of Spikelets
Results (Table 1) showed that F1 cross of A x B, I x J and
Q x R showed maximum mean in spikelets with same value
of 25.0. Whereas, the cross C x D and M x N showed
minimum mean in spikelets having same value of 19.0.
Maximum mid parent heterosis (13.6) was shown by cross of
A x B, whereas the cross of C x D showed negative mid
parent heterosis of -20.8 for spikelets (Table 2).

Number of Nodes
The results recorded in Table 1 indicated that most of
the crosses showed maximum mean of 4.0 for number of
nodes except crosses C x D and E x F, which showed
minimum mean of 3.0 for same character. Table 2 indicated
that the cross of G x H exhibited maximum mid parent
heterosis (33.3), while cross of C x D showed negative
heterosis of -45.4 for number of nodes.

1st Internode (cm)

42
 Results showed F1 cross of E x F exhibited maximum
mean in first internode having mean value of 9.0 (Table1),
while the cross I x J showed minimum mean in 1st Internode
length having value of 6.0. It was also observed (Table 2)
that the cross of Q x R showed maximum mid parent
heterosis of 29.1 for 1st Internode, where as F1 cross of O x P
exhibited negative mid parent heterosis of -58.8 in 1st
Internode length.

2nd Internode (cm)

Results regarding 2nd Internode length are mentioned in
Table 1, which indicated that F1 cross of C x D exhibited
maximum mean in second internode of 22.7, while the cross
of I x J showed minimum mean (9.0) for second node. The
results also showed (Table 2) that the F1 cross of C x D
exhibited maximum mid parent heterosis of 81.6 for 2nd
Internode length, where as F1 cross of G x H showed
negative mid parent heterosis of -20.2 for 2nd Internode
length.

3rd Internode (cm)

It was observed (Table 1) that F1 cross of E x F exhibited
maximum mean of 37.7 in 3rd Internode, while the cross of Q
x R showed minimum mean of 15.5 for third internode
length. The results mentioned in Table 2 indicated that

43
F1cross of I x J showed maximum mid parent heterosis of
56.9 for 3rd Internode length, however, negative mid parent
heterosis (-49.1) was exhibited by F1 cross of G x H.

4th Internode (cm)

Results given in Table 1 indicated that F1 cross of G x H
exhibited maximum mean of 44.5 in fourth Internode, while
the cross I x J shoed minimum mean of 32.0 for fourth
internode. The result mentioned in (Table-2) indicated that
F1 cross of (K x L) showed maximum mid parent heterosis
35.6 for fourth internode however, negative mid parent
heterosis (-4.6) was exhibited by F1 of (S x T).

Flag Leaf Length (cm)

Results noted in Table 1 indicated that F1 cross of O x P

exhibited maximum mean of 39.4 cm in flag leaf length ,
while the cross of I x J exhibited minimum mean of 20.0 for
flag leaf length. It was observed (Table 2) that F1 cross of A x
B showed maximum mid parent heterosis of 42.7 for flag leaf
length, while F1 cross of S x T exhibited negative mid parent
heterosis of -4.6 in character of flag leaf length.

Flag Leaf Width (cm)

44
 The results regarding heterosis in flag leaf width
depicted in Table 1 shoed that the F1 cross of I x J exhibited
maximum mean of 2.5 in flag leaf width, whereas, cross of C
x D and E x F showed equally minimum mean of 1.0 in flag
leaf width. It was noted that (Table 2) maximum mid parent
heterosis (46.6) in flag leaf width was exhibited by of F1
cross of M x N parents, whereas F1 cross of E X F showed
negative mid parent heterosis of -28.5 for said character.

TABLE -1 MEAN PERFORMANCE OF PARENTS AND THEIR F1 FOR

DIFFERENT TRAITS.

45
F1 No. of Plant Spike No. of No. of 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Leaf Leaf
Crosses Tillers Height Length Spikelets Nodes Inter Inter Inter Inter Length Width
cm cm node node node node cm cm
cm cm cm cm
A 23.2 77.0 12.5 23.0 4.0 6.2 8.1 11.4 21.6 22.2 1.9
B 7.0 84.0 20.2 21.0 3.4 6.9 17.5 21.1 38.9 26.6 1.9
(AxB) 16.0 99.0 9.2 25.0 4.0 8.0 10.7 18.0 43.1 31.4 1.9
C 18.0 86.0 12.4 23.0 4.0 8.2 13.1 23.5 34.5 30.9 1.2
D 34.0 94.0 14.0 25.0 4.0 10.0 12.0 20.0 36.0 24.0 1.2
(CxD) 19.0 82.0 15.2 19.0 3.0 6.4 22.7 28.8 40.0 26.3 1.0
E 23.0 90.0 12.5 19.0 3.0 9.2 12.0 32.8 37.2 30.7 1.3
F 17.0 91.0 14.4 23.0 4.0 8.8 13.2 21.5 32.0 31.2 1.5
(ExF) 15.0 82.0 14.5 22.0 3.0 9.0 16.7 37.7 - 27.0 1.0
G 9.0 85.0 20.0 23.0 3.0 7.3 12.6 29.1 40.5 27.0 2.0
H 4.0 75.2 15.5 27.0 3.0 8.0 15.0 28.8 31.5 30.3 1.7
(GxH) 9.0 109 21.5 22.0 4.0 7.0 11.0 14.7 44.5 29.0 1.4
I 39.0 59.0 12.5 19.0 3.0 6.0 11.5 26.0 - 30.0 1.7
J 14.0 101.8 21.4 31.0 5.0 8.6 10.6 34.4 20.4 40.6 2.2
(IxJ) 17.0 84.0 18.0 25.0 4.0 6.0 9.0 13.0 32.0 20.0 2.5
K 9.0 116.4 19.0 25.4 4.0 8.9 14.5 19.3 32.6 30.5 2.2
L 28.0 73.0 13.2 20 4.0 5.5 9.5 12.0 28.7 26.4 1.4
(KxL) 10.0 96.8 18.8 23.0 4.0 7.2 11.8 23.3 41.5 34.6 2.3
M 21.0 108.2 17.8 24.0 4.0 9.5 16.4 32.0 32.2 33.4 1.7
N 28.0 73.0 13.2 20.0 4.0 5.5 9.5 12.0 28.7 26.4 1.4
(MxN) 28.0 83.5 15.1 19.0 4.0 6.2 10.8 16.4 35.5 35.4 2.2
O 21.0 97.8 13.6 22.0 4.0 9.6 13.5 20.8 39.9 41.8 1.3
P 6.0 89.6 20.0 28.4 3.2 26.5 13.2 33.0 37.0 33.5 1.3
(OxP) 16.0 82.2 16.0 24.0 4.0 7.4 11.9 27.1 36.7 39.4 1.6
Q 13.2 76.4 10.5 21.0 4.0 6.6 6.5 16.6 24.8 21.8 0.1
R 2.6 68.3 20.0 24.0 3.6 3.1 7.0 16.0 32.2 31.8 1.6
(QxR) 25.5 108.5 16.0 25.0 4.0 6.2 11.0 15.5 33.2 33.0 1.7
S 21.0 108.2 17.0 22.0 4.0 8.7 13.4 24.2 40.1 30.4 1.9
T 9.4 100.2 18.7 27.4 4.6 6.8 8.0 14.3 28.5 32.2 1.4
(SxT) 22.0 90.0 18.4 23.0 4.0 6.6 9.1 15.6 32.7 31.1 2.1

Mid Parent Heterosis was done according to the following formula

(Table 2).

Mid Parent Heterosis: - F1- MP x 100

MP

46
 (TABLE 2) PERCENT (%) MID PARENT HETEROSIS OF F1 FOR DIFFERENT TRAITS.

F1 No. of Plant Spike No. of No. of 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Leaf Leaf
Crosses Tillers Height Length Spikelets Nodes Inter Inter Inter Inter Inter Length Width
cm Cm node node node node node cm cm
cm cm cm cm cm
(AxB) 6.6 22.9 -43 13.6 14.2 23.0 -16.4 11.1 42.7 31.8 28.6 1.9
(CxD) -26.9 -8.8 15.1 -20.8 -45.4 -29.6 81.6 32.7 13.6 - -4.0 -16.6
(ExF) -25 -9.3 8.2 4.7 -14.2 9.0 32.5 4.01 - 32.2 -12.6 -28.5
(GxH) 38.4 36.2 21.4 -12.0 33.3 -7.8 -20.2 -49.1 23.6 - 1.3 -22.2
(IxJ) -35.8 5.0 6.5 0 0 -17.8 -18.1 56.9 0 33.2 -43.9 31.5
(KxL) -45.9 2.21 16.7 1.3 0 0 -1.6 49.3 35.6 36.7 21.8 27.7
(MxN) 14.2 -7.7 -2.5 -13.6 0 -17.3 -16.2 -25.4 16.7 44.2 18.3 46.6
(OxP) 18.5 -12.2 8.1 -4.7 11.1 -58.8 -10.5 0.7 -4.4 - 4.7 23.0
(QxR) 222.7 50.0 5.2 11.1 5.2 29.1 64.1 -4.9 14.1 0 23.1 30.7
(SxT) 44.7 -13.6 3.3 -6.8 -6.9 -14.2 -14.9 -18.7 -4.6 -27.8 0.6 31.2

47
 Other Research Activities in NIA,
Tandojam

1. Practice for selfing and crossing technique like:

1. Emasculation
2. Pollination

1) Emasculation techniques

 Select mature and healthy spikes, which emerge out next

day from the flag leaf.
 Remove the central florets with the help of fine forcep
only laterals are kept.
 Cut the florets 2/3 to expose the essential whorls with the
help of fine scissor or sharp scissor.
 Remove all three anthers with the help of fine forcep
without damaging the gynoecium.
 Cover the emasculated spike with butter paper bag.
 Label it with name of parent, emasculation date.

2) Pollination (Crossing): -
 On the next day select the mature and healthy pollen
parent.
 Cut the 2/3 of the flowering glumes to expose the
anthers.

48
  Keep the selected spike in sunlight so that anthers may
burst.
 Pick the spike in sunlight and dust pollens on the
emasculated spike.
 Again bag the crossed spike and complete the entries on
the label date of pollination.
Crosses made during internship period

# Female parents Male parents

1. T-D.1 No: 08 A/L
2. SD-8012 (8019x377 No: 2 AL) x T-D.1
3. Dwarf x 504, 128, No: 365 T-D.1
4. T-D.1 SD-8134
5. F1 (8019 x 377 No: 2 A/L x T- F6 Cimmyt 6007 x T-D.1 No:
D.1 19
6. T-D.1 Marvi – 2000
7. F1 4085/3 x D-153 F1 T-D.1 x 6079 06-07
8. F1 No: 12 (65) x 377 x 8019 No: T-D.1 x 6043 06 -07
06
9. F1 (377 x 8109 No: 05 AL) x (TJ- F1 Sunco x T-D.1
83 x 4085/3) x Inqilab
10 F1 SD-888 x (377 x 8109 No: 05 F1 T-D.1 x Vasco
. A/L)
11 F1 No: 89 (94) x T-D.1 T-D.1 x 6077 06-07
.
12 F1 No: 25 No: 10 (65) A/L F1 Sunco x T-D.1 No: 06
.
13 Tufan F1 T-D.1 x Sunco
.
14 No: 15 (65) T-D.1
.
15 F9 8019 x 377 No: 77 A/L F1 12 (25) 377 x 8019 # 06
.
16 F9 8019 x 377 No: 85 A/L F1 T-D.1 x 08 (25)
.
17 F9 8019 x 377 No: 85 AL F1 T-D.1 x 12 (65)
.
18 T-D.1 F5 As – 2002 x D - 153
.

49
19 No: 15 (65) F1 T-D.1 x 08 (25)
.
20 No: 15 (65) F1 Vasco x T-D.1
.

The above mentioned crosses were done in to enhance or

improve different yield and yield related traits along with the
transfer for disease resistance genes.
2. Selection of Parent for crossing.

3. Visited and observed all commercially grown wheat

varieties in Pakistan at experimental farm of NIA, Tandojam

4. Recorded observation on wheat germ plasm including old

and wild races.

5. Observed growth and development of different exotic

material including nurseries from International Centre for
Agriculture Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) and
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre
(Mexico) (CIMMYT) and indigenous materials.

6. Observed National Uniform Wheat Yield Trail, Faisalabad

Nursery, And National Wheat Disease Screening Nursery.

7. Learned about variety development procedure like:

Hybridization, Selection, PYT (Primary Yield Trail), MYT

(Major Yield Trail), ZYT (Zonal Yield Trail), NYT (National
Yield Trail). Multiplication.

8. Learned the process of producing Breeder Nucleus Seed,

Pre-basic Seed, Basic Seed and Certified Seed.

9. Learned artificial inoculation, collecting rust spores,

screening of rust resistant / tolerant entries.

50
10. Attended weekly seminar at NIA Tandojam on different
research oriented topics.

11. Prepared and submitted two assignments given by

internship supervisor at NIA, Tandojam during the program.

51
Emasculation and Crossing of Wheat Plant

52
REFERENCE
 John Milton Poehlman and Dhirendranath Borthakur
“Breeding Asian Field Crops” INDIAN Council of Agriculture
Research New Delhi.

 PARC (Pakistan Agricultural Research Council) http:

www.parc.gov.pak/wheat.html.

 A.w Khoso “Crops of Sindh” Department of Agronomy Sindh

Agriculture University of Tandojam (Sedition).

 Farzana Panhwar “Wheat Cultivation in Sindh Pakistan”.

 G.M Abdullah Abdus Salam Khan and Zulfiqar Ali

“International Journal of Agriculture and Biology” (heterosis
Study of Certain Important Traits in Wheat) Department of
Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad – 38040 Pakistan.

 A.P Roelfs, R.P Singh “Rusts Disease of Wheat”.

 Some material taken by our pervious notes.

53