Andragogy   Pedagogy  

 
Demands of learning   Learner must balance life responsibilities with the  Learner can devote more time to the demands of learning 
demands of learning.   because responsibilities are minimal.  

Role of instructor   Learners are autonomous and self directed. Teachers  Learners rely on the instructor to direct the learning. Fact 

guide the learners to their own knowledge rather than  based lecturing is often the mode of knowledge 
supplying them with facts.   transmission.  

Life experiences   Learners have a tremendous amount of life experiences.  Learners are building a knowledge base and must be shown 

They need to connect the learning to their knowledge  how their life experiences connect with the present learning. 
base. They must recognize the value of the learning.  

Purpose for learning   Learners are goal oriented and know for what purpose  Learners often see no reason for taking a particular course. 

they are learning new information   They just know they have to learn the information.  

Permanence of learning   Learning is self‐initiated and tends to last a long time.   Learning is compulsory and tends to disappear shortly after 

instruction.  

 
 LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES
Richard M. Felder
Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering
North Carolina State University

Barbara A. Soloman
Coordinator of Advising, First Year College
North Carolina State University

ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS

• Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something active with it--
discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think about it quietly
first.
• "Let's try it out and see how it works" is an active learner's phrase; "Let's think it through first" is the
reflective learner's response.
• Active learners tend to like group work more than reflective learners, who prefer working alone.
• Sitting through lectures without getting to do anything physical but take notes is hard for both learning
types, but particularly hard for active learners.

Everybody is active sometimes and reflective sometimes. Your preference for one category or the other may be
strong, moderate, or mild. A balance of the two is desirable. If you always act before reflecting you can jump
into things prematurely and get into trouble, while if you spend too much time reflecting you may never get
anything done.

How can active learners help themselves?

If you are an active learner in a class that allows little or no class time for discussion or problem-solving
activities, you should try to compensate for these lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the members
take turns explaining different topics to each other. Work with others to guess what you will be asked on the
next test and figure out how you will answer. You will always retain information better if you find ways to do
something with it.

How can reflective learners help themselves?

If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows little or no class time for thinking about new information,
you should try to compensate for this lack when you study. Don't simply read or memorize the material; stop
periodically to review what you have read and to think of possible questions or applications. You might find it
helpful to write short summaries of readings or class notes in your own words. Doing so may take extra time but
will enable you to retain the material more effectively.

SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS

• Sensing learners tend to like learning facts, intuitive learners often prefer discovering possibilities and
relationships.
• Sensors often like solving problems by well-established methods and dislike complications and
surprises; intuitors like innovation and dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than intuitors to resent
being tested on material that has not been explicitly covered in class.
• Sensors tend to be patient with details and good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on (laboratory)
work; intuitors may be better at grasping new concepts and are often more comfortable than sensors with
abstractions and mathematical formulations.
 • Sensors tend to be more practical and careful than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and to be more
innovative than sensors.
• Sensors don't like courses that have no apparent connection to the real world; intuitors don't like "plug-
and-chug" courses that involve a lot of memorization and routine calculations.

Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive sometimes. Your preference for one or the other may be strong,
moderate, or mild. To be effective as a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to function both ways. If
you overemphasize intuition, you may miss important details or make careless mistakes in calculations or
hands-on work; if you overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on memorization and familiar methods
and not concentrate enough on understanding and innovative thinking.

How can sensing learners help themselves?

Sensors remember and understand information best if they can see how it connects to the real world. If you are
in a class where most of the material is abstract and theoretical, you may have difficulty. Ask your instructor for
specific examples of concepts and procedures, and find out how the concepts apply in practice. If the teacher
does not provide enough specifics, try to find some in your course text or other references or by brainstorming
with friends or classmates.

How can intuitive learners help themselves?

Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to be in a
class that deals primarily with memorization and rote substitution in formulas, you may have trouble with
boredom. Ask your instructor for interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try to find the connections
yourself. You may also be prone to careless mistakes on test because you are impatient with details and don't
like repetition (as in checking your completed solutions). Take time to read the entire question before you start
answering and be sure to check your results

VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS

Visual learners remember best what they see--pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and
demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of words--written and spoken explanations. Everyone learns more
when information is presented both visually and verbally.

In most college classes very little visual information is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and read
material written on chalkboards and in textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most people are visual learners,
which means that most students do not get nearly as much as they would if more visual presentation were used
in class. Good learners are capable of processing information presented either visually or verbally.

How can visual learners help themselves?

If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams, sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or any other
visual representation of course material that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor, consult reference
books, and see if any videotapes or CD-ROM displays of the course material are available. Prepare a concept
map by listing key points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and drawing lines with arrows between concepts
to show connections. Color-code your notes with a highlighter so that everything relating to one topic is the
same color.

How can verbal learners help themselves?

Write summaries or outlines of course material in your own words. Working in groups can be particularly
effective: you gain understanding of material by hearing classmates' explanations and you learn even more
when you do the explaining.

SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS

• Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following logically from
the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly
without seeing connections, and then suddenly "getting it."
• Sequential learners tend to follow logical stepwise paths in finding solutions; global learners may be
able to solve complex problems quickly or put things together in novel ways once they have grasped the
big picture, but they may have difficulty explaining how they did it.

Many people who read this description may conclude incorrectly that they are global, since everyone has
experienced bewilderment followed by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes you global or not is what
happens before the light bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully understand the material but they can
nevertheless do something with it (like solve the homework problems or pass the test) since the pieces they have
absorbed are logically connected. Strongly global learners who lack good sequential thinking abilities, on the
other hand, may have serious difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after they have it, they may be
fuzzy about the details of the subject, while sequential learners may know a lot about specific aspects of a
subject but may have trouble relating them to different aspects of the same subject or to different subjects.

How can sequential learners help themselves?

Most college courses are taught in a sequential manner. However, if you are a sequential learner and you have
an instructor who jumps around from topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty following and
remembering. Ask the instructor to fill in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by consulting references.
When you are studying, take the time to outline the lecture material for yourself in logical order. In the long run
doing so will save you time. You might also try to strengthen your global thinking skills by relating each new
topic you study to things you already know. The more you can do so, the deeper your understanding of the topic
is likely to be.

How can global learners help themselves?

If you are a global learner, it can be helpful for you to realize that you need the big picture of a subject before
you can master details. If your instructor plunges directly into new topics without bothering to explain how they
relate to what you already know, it can cause problems for you. Fortunately, there are steps you can take that
may help you get the big picture more rapidly. Before you begin to study the first section of a chapter in a text,
skim through the entire chapter to get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming initially but it may save
you from going over and over individual parts later. Instead of spending a short time on every subject every
night, you might find it more productive to immerse yourself in individual subjects for large blocks. Try to
relate the subject to things you already know, either by asking the instructor to help you see connections or by
consulting references. Above all, don't lose faith in yourself; you will eventually understand the new material,
and once you do your understanding of how it connects to other topics and disciplines may enable you to apply
it in ways that most sequential thinkers would never dream of.

 
 Performance Objective Verbs in the Cognitive Domain
Levels of learning range from the lowest, “knowledge” to the highest,
“evaluation.”

Evaluation – Assessing the value of ideas and things. Involves acts of decision
-making, judging, or selecting based on criteria and rationale. Requires
synthesis in order to evaluate.

Appraise Discriminate Rank/Rate

Assess Estimate Research
Check Evaluate Review
Choose Grade Revise
Compare Inspect Score
Critique Judge Select
Decide on/to Measure Value
Determine value of Monitor

Synthesis – Assembling a whole into parts. Combines elements to form new

entity from original one, the creative process. Requires analysis in order to
synthesize.

Arrange Design Manage

Assemble Determine Organize
Collect Relationship of parts Plan
Combine Diagnose Prepare
Compose Differentiate Propose
Conclude Dissect Refute
Construct Examine Set up
Create Formulate

Analysis – Disassembling a whole into parts until relationship among parts is

clear. Requires ability to apply information in order to analyze.

Analyze Debate Inventory

Appraise Diagram Question
Calculate Differentiate Relate
Categorize Distinguish Solve
Compare Examine Test
Contract Experiment
Criticize Inspect
Application – Using what has been previously learned. Requires comprehension
of information in order to apply in new situation.

Apply Illustrate Shop

Assign Interpret Sketch
Demonstrate Operate Use
Dramatize Practice
Employ Schedule

Comprehension – Interprets, translates, summarizes or paraphrases given

information. Requires knowledge in order to demonstrate comprehension.

Describe Identify Restate

Discuss Locate Review
Explain Recognize Tell
Express Report Translate

Knowledge – Remembering/recalling facts and specifics

Cite Name Select from a list

Define Recall State
Give Record Tell how to
Label Relate Underline
List Repast Write directions for
Match
 Performance Objective Verbs in the Psychomotor Domain
The list of verbs below is not a comprehensive list. It is presented as a list of
examples to stimulate thinking. The particular verb to use is dependent on the
terminology associated with the particular equipment or process in which
learners are being trained. Performance in each of the verbs can be required at
the five levels immediately below; “imitation” the lowest level, “naturalization”, the
highest.

Naturalization – Completes one or more skills with ease and becomes

automatic
Articulation – Combines more than one skill in sequence with harmony and
consistency
Precision – Reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion and exactness. Usually
performed independent of original source
Manipulation – Performs skill according to instructor rather than observation
Imitation – Observes skill and attempts to repeat it.

Add Collate Dye

Adjust Collect Edit
Advertise Conduct Endorse
Alter Conserve Enhance
Answer Construct Enter
Apply Control Examine
Apportion Cook Execute
Arrange Cool Exhibit
Assemble Coordinate File
Assist Copy Finish
Attach Correct Fix
Balance Count Fold
Bill Create Form
Build Cut Format
Bundle Deliver Gather
Buy Demonstrate Gouge
Calibrate Design Grade
Cancel Diagram Grid
Care for Dictate Grow
Carry out Direct Guide
Center Dismantle Handle
Change Display Harvest
Check Distribute Help
Clean Do Highlight
Clear Document Hold
Clip Draw Implement
Close Dry Insert
Code Duplicate Inspect
Instruct Prepare Secure
Interview Present Seed
Keep Preserve Select
Key Preside Sell
Keyboard Press Separate
Layer Price Serve
Lay out Print Service
Lead Print out Set, set up
Lengthen Process Sew
Letter Produce Shear
Lift Program Sharpen
Line Promote Shorten
Load/reload Proof Show
Locate Proofread Simplify
Log Propagate Simulate
Lower Prove Sit
Maintain Provide Size
Make Prune Sketch
Manage Punch Sort
Mark Purchase Splice
Match Put in Spread
Measure Raise Start/restart
Meet Read Stratify
Mix Receive Sterilize
Mount Recheck Stitch
Move Record Stock
Number Recycle Store
Obtain Refill Tape
Open Regulate Terminate
Operate Remove Thank
Organize Renovate Transfer
Package Repair Transplant
Perceive Replace Transport
Perform Replenish Treat
Pick up Reproduce Trim
Pin Respond Troubleshoot
Place Retrieve Type
Plant Root Use, utilize
Plate Route Verify
Portion Run Wash
Position Save Water
Post Scarify Wear
Pot Screen Weed
Power down Search Wire
Power up Season Work with
Practice Seat Write
 Performance Objective Verbs in the Affective Domain
Levels of learning in the affective domain range from the lowest, “receiving” to the
highest, “characterizing.”

Characterizing – Consistently behaves in a manner that predictably reflects the value

system.

Believe
Practice
Continue to
Carry out

Organizing – Development of a values system.

Organize
Select
Judge
Decide
Identify with

Valuing – Sensing worth in a value.

Attain
Assume
Support
Participate

Responding – Minimal participation

Reply
Answer
Follow along
Approve
Continue

Receiving – Willingly hears or reads.

Listen to
Perceive
Be alert to
Show tolerance of
Obey
Task Analysis for Changing a Tire 

 
1. Find a stable and safe place to work. You need a solid, level surface. Avoid soft ground and hills. If you 
are near a road, park as far from traffic as possible and turn on your emergency flashers (hazard lights).  
2. Make sure that the car cannot roll. Apply the parking brake and put car in "Park" position or in first or 
reverse if using a standard transmission. If possible, it is a good idea to place a heavy object (such as a 
brick) in front of the front tire (if changing a rear tire), and vice‐versa.  
3. Take out the spare tire and the jack. Place the jack under the frame near the tire that you are going to 
change. Make sure that you place it where it will meet the metal portion of the frame. 
4. Raise the jack until it is supporting, but not lifting the car. The jack should be firmly in place against the 
underside of the vehicle. Make sure that it is lifting straight up and down.  
5. Remove the hub cap and loosen the nuts by turning counterclockwise. Don't take them all the way off. 
Just break the resistance. Having the wheel on the ground means that you're turning the nuts instead of 
the wheel.  Use the wrench that came with your car or a standard cross wrench. Your wrench may have 
different sizes of openings on different ends. Place the right size of the wrench on the lug nut. The right 
size is the one that slips easily over the nut but does not rattle.   
6. Pump or crank the jack to lift the tire off the ground. You need to lift it high enough to remove the flat 
tire and to put the spare on it. As you lift, make sure that the car is stable. If you notice any instability, 
lower the jack and fix the problem before full lifting the car.  If you notice the jack lifting at an angle or 
leaning, lower and reposition it so that it can lift straight up.  Chock the tires if you notice the car starting 
to roll. You can use logs, large stones or other heavy, solid objects to help keep the car in place.  
7. Remove the nuts the rest of the way. Turn them counter clockwise until they are loose. Repeat with all 
lug nuts, then remove the nuts completely.  
8. Remove the tire. Place the flat tire under the vehicle so in event of jack failure the vehicle will fall on the 
old wheel, hopefully preventing injury. If the jack is placed on a flat, solid base, you shouldn't have any 
problems.  
9. Place the spare tire on the hub. Take care to align the rim of the spare tire with the wheel bolts, then 
put on the lug nuts.  Tighten the nuts by hand until they are all snug. They should turn easily at first.   
Using the wrench, tighten the nuts as much as possible. To ensure the tire is balanced, don't completely 
tighten the nuts one at a time. Going in a star pattern around the tire, one nut across from another, give 
each one a full turn until they are equally tight.  Avoid using so much force that you risk upsetting the 
jack. You will tighten the lug nuts again once the car is down and there is no risk of it falling.  
10. Lower the car to the ground. Do not put full weight on it yet. Finish tightening the nuts as much as 
possible.  
11. Lower the car to the ground fully and remove the jack. Tighten the nuts again. Replace the hubcap.  
12. Put the old tire in your trunk and take it to a mechanic. Small punctures can usually be repaired for less 
than $10. If the tire is not repairable, they can dispose of it properly and sell you a replacement.  

Objectives 

1.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

2.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

3.  _________________________________________________________________________________________ 

     _________________________________________________________________________________________ 
 1

Alternative Methods of Assessment 
 
 
… Observation  
… http://www.aaia.org.uk/pdf/asst_learning_practice.pdf  
… Performance Tasks 
… http://www.plsweb.com/resources/newsletters/enews_archives/43/20
05/04/01/  
… Checklists, Rating Scales, Rubrics 
… http://www.flaguide.org/cat/rubrics/rubrics1.php    
… Portfolios / ePortfolios  
… http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/resources/trns/portfolios/index.html  
… Journals and Learning Logs  
… http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/FEB02_Issue/article04.html  
… Informal and Formal Writing  
… http://www.you‐can‐teach‐writing.com/formative‐assessment.html  
… Projects 
… http://www.gsn.org/Web/pbl/pblintro.htm  
… Graphic Organizers 
… http://www.enchantedlearning.com/graphicorganizers/  
… Seminar Presentations 
… http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor38217  
… Posters 
… http://insights.engr.wisc.edu/article‐assessment‐posters.shtml 
… Interviews 
… http://www.flaguide.org/cat/interviews/interviews1.php  
… Questionnaires 
… http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/t
eachtip/knowlsurvey.htm  
… Peer Assessment  
… http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor36458  
… Learning Contract  
… http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/assess1.html#anchor35423  
  
 
 1

Resource List for Adult Learning, Learning Styles, and Instructional Design 
 
1. The Learning Style Inventory.  A self‐scoring questionnaire you can take to discover your learning style.   
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSpage.html 
 
2. This is a nice article about Malcolm Knowles that goes through the development and components of 
his theory.  It is quite interesting and a quick read. It makes a good introduction to the idea of adult 
learning and education and links it to other theories that he draws from.   
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et‐knowl.htm 
 
3. This is a good comprehensive website with clickable links so you can skip down to a particular part. It is 
broad and covers a lot but is not overwhelming to read. 
http://www.fsu.edu/~adult‐ed/jenny/learning.html 
 
4. An excellent article by Richard Felder and Rebecca Brent entitled “Understanding Student Differences”:   
http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/Understanding_Differences.pdf 
 
5. A Dozen Teaching Tips for the Diverse Classroom:  Article focuses on diverse student populations found 
in community colleges. 
http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/12tips.htm  
 
6. This website leads to a synopsis of Dr. Oullette’s research on styles of learning in adults.  There is a link 
to the presentation.  
http://polaris.umuc.edu/~rouellet/learnstyle/learnstyle.htm 
 
7. This “About” website offers a very general overview of experiential adult learning based on Malcolm 
Knowles’ theory and has links to more resources for assessing and instructing adults.  
http://adulted.about.com/od/teachers/a/teachingadults.htm 
 
8. This website is also a brief overview of learning styles and Kolb’s theory, specifically looking at Adults.  
Its very general but would be good to use in combination with the learning styles questionnaires, it 
references the inventory designed here at NCSU.  
http://www.educationforadults.com/Help‐Center/learningstyle.html 
 
9. This website on the 7 habits of highly effective Adult Learning Programs has some good overall 
information and has a link to tips for teaching and learning. 
http://www.newhorizons.org/lifelong/workplace/billington.htm 
 
10. The strategies link leads to more links that give articles on the various types of learning and 
intelligence.  Each link leads to more and this group has a lot of information that can be searched as 
needed and based on what you’ re looking for at a particular time.  
http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/front_strategies.html 
 
 2

11. This website provides a good broad overview of the concepts of adult learning in a paper by Stephen 
Brookfield of National Louis University.  It covers: 
Research, Self Directed learning, Critical reflection, Experiential and learning how to Learn, Trends, 
Cross cultural Adult learning, Practical Theorizing, Distance Learning, and goes extensively into further 
research areas. There is also a long solid reference list and links to other papers by this author, and 
other faculty on the topic.  
http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/facultypapers/StephenBrookfield_AdultLearning.cfm 
 
12. This is an extensive site about the history of instructional design from the University of Houston 
http://www.coe.uh.edu/courses/cuin6373/idhistory/index.html  
 
13. A hugely popular site with instructional designers, Big Dog and Little Dog’s Juxtaposition is extensive in 
its materials about instructional systems design, with a focus on performance.  
http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/sat.html 
 
14. This is a list of the skills and knowledges that are essential for competency in instructional design.  
 http://www.coedu.usf.edu/it/resources/files/competen.html   
 
15. On this website you will find a review of many of the theories and models that form the framework for 
the practice of instructional design.   http://www.spsu.edu/htc/hughes/papers/interface.htm  
 
16. This site provides an in‐depth introduction to instructional design and provides historical perspectives 
on the development of instructional systems design.    http://www.whidbey.com/frodo/isd.htm  
 
17. This is an article about instructional design where the designer is working with subject matter experts 
(SMEs).  http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/coffs00/papers/mike_keppell.pdf  
 
18. This is a link to a paper by Brent Wilson that suggests that instructional design should be performed 
based on the context of the learning.  http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/sitid.html  
 
19. This site explains how to design instruction based on competencies.  
http://home.att.net/~jnimmer/Competency.htm  
 
20. This site is an in‐depth resource about all facets of instructional design from models to evaluations. 
http://www.gdrc.org/info‐design/instruct/instruct.html  
 
21. This site provides a tutorial on how to develop objectives using a Mager approach with a twist. 
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/courses/edtec540/objectives/objectiveshome.html  
 
22. This site provides a tutorial focused on how to apply theory to instructional design. 
http://www.patsula.com/usefo/webbasedlearning/   
 
23. This website is full of great resources that are aimed at faculty at a community college. 
http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/adults‐2.htm