Lithium-ion Batteries

An Introduction

May 2009

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 CONTENTS

1. OVERVIEW OF CELLS AND BATTERIES.………………..……………...3

2. BRIEF GUIDE TO LITHIUM-ION CHEMISTRY…………………………...5

3. MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS………..……………………..………..…7

4. FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES….……………………………..…………….…10

5. TERMINOLOGY…………………………………………………………….…11

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1. OVERVIEW OF CELLS AND BATTERIES

o An electrochemical cell is a device which can supply electricity

conveniently by direct conversion from chemical energy. The
voltage of an individual cell is determined by its chemistry.

o A battery consists of an assembly of cells connected end to end

(in series), or side by side (in parallel). If the cells are connected
in series, the battery voltage is the sum of the cell voltages. If
they are connected in parallel, then the battery has the same
voltage as a single cell, but longer discharge life. Batteries often
contain cells in combinations of series and parallel as
determined by the needs of the equipment they are powering.

o However, in common usage, a single cell supplied for use

directly (usually labelled) is often referred to as a battery. For
example, the Duracell Mn1500 or AA battery used in TV remote
control units, is technically a cell with a label.

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o A primary cell or battery is used once then discarded. A
secondary cell or battery can be recharged and used many
times. As a general rule, primary batteries last longer than
secondary batteries for a single use, but the secondary battery
is more economical despite the inconvenience of recharging.

o The first useful secondary battery used lead-acid chemistry

some 150 years ago, and was first used in the armed forces in
1910.

o Although the modern version is still widely in use today, it was

overtaken in performance terms 50 years ago by the nickel-
cadmium (NiCad) battery, which was is turn superseded by
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) system.

o The latest and highest performance secondary system is

lithium-ion (Li-ion) which was developed in the late 1970’s and
is now the fastest growing battery system in the world.

o The lithium-ion battery has 3 to 4 times the energy of lead-acid

or NiCad for the same size and weight and twice that of NiMH.
Alternatively, it is half the size and weight of a NiMH battery for
the same energy.

Smaller 

Lighter 

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 o These characteristics have made the Li-ion battery an important
facilitator of the electronics revolution, making today’s
multifunctional mobile phones, and powerful portable computers
feasible.

o In addition to this, Li-ion batteries can operate over a wide

temperature range, typically from -20oC to +50oC, and can last
for many hundreds or even thousands of charge/discharge
cycles.

o It is perhaps not surprising that the use of Li-ion batteries is

expanding faster than any other portable energy source in the
world, and that more research and development is focused on
the Li-ion system than on any other.

2. A BRIEF GUIDE TO LITHIUM-ION CHEMISTRY

o An electrochemical cell comprises two electrodes – the positive

cathode and the negative anode – a liquid electrolyte, and
constructional components such as a container, terminals etc. A
variety of materials can be used as electrodes including lead,
nickel, zinc, manganese dioxide, sulphur dioxide and many
others.

o These processed materials have higher energy than in their

natural state, and the cell provides electrical energy when the
electrode materials are allowed to revert to their lower energy
condition.

o Lithium, element number 3 in the periodic table, is the lightest of

all metals and its ore is found in granite deposits mainly in
Bolivia, Chile and China. Lithium is an ideal material for use in
cells because of its light weight, high voltage and high energy
content.

o Rechargeable cells using lithium metal as an anode are not

practical because of limited cycle life, but in the early 1980’s
Professor John Goodenough, now of the University of Texas,
patented the use of lithiated metal oxide as a cathode with
graphite as an anode to overcome this problem. This system
became known as the Lithium-ion cell.

o The lithiated metal oxide used in Li-ion cells is a highly refined,

ultra pure powder which, along with high purity graphite has
been obtainable largely from Japanese material processors until

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 now. Recently, other nations such as China have begun to
develop their capability and the US Government is now offering
substantial funding to encourage domestic production.

o The mechanism of discharge in a lithium-ion cell can be

represented:

o In a charged cell, the graphite anode on the left contains lithium

ions – an ion is an atom with an electrical charge. During discharge
these ions travel through the liquid electrolyte to the cathode on the
right. At the same time, electric current flows through the external
circuit – the radio, or motor or computer being powered by the cell
or battery.

o When the cell is recharged, electric current is forced in the opposite

direction, and the lithium ions return from the cathode to the anode,
ready for the next discharge.

o The usefulness of a cell is due to the fact that the lithium only
travels from one electrode to the other when the external electrical
circuit is completed by the user – in other words, energy on
demand.

o Cells with lead-acid, NiCad or NiMH chemistry have electrolytes

based on water. However, the electrolyte through which the lithium
travels in the Li-ion cell is based on organic solvents with very low

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 freezing points. This means that the Li-ion cell can be effective at
temperatures as low as -40oC

o Cell design can be optimised for long discharge life, or long cycle
life, or high power or wide temperature range. However, no one cell
type can provide top performance in all these categories.

3. MARKETS AND APPLICATIONS

o The current total world battery market is estimated to be worth

$85Bn, with the Li-ion share at some $9-10Bn. Of this, the non-
consumer battery market is valued at $2.6Bn and is growing at the
rate of 15% to 20% per year

o Lithium-ion batteries are now used in a wide variety of markets and

applications. Examples include:

• Consumer
- Portable computers
- Camcorders
- Cell phones
- I-Pods
- Power tools

• Medical
- Portable monitoring equipment
- Peristaltic pumps
- Heart assist devices

• Industrial
- Portable meters
- Oil & gas pipeline robots
- Seismic survey sensors

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• Military

- Tactical communications – radios etc.

- Thermal imaging equipment

- Battlefield robots such as the IED (roadside bomb

disposal) robot below

• Aerospace

- Satellite power sources

- Orbiting survey equipment
- Aircraft auxiliary power units

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 • Automotive

- Electric vehicles (EV’s)

- Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV’s)

- “Plug-in” hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV’s)

o Consumer and medical applications are well established and

served by batteries using cells from high volume manufacturers
such as Panasonic, Sony, LG and E-Moli for example. These cells,
known as “18650” cells, are optimised for long discharge life and
low cost.

o Industrial, military, aerospace and automotive applications usually

demand specially designed cells and batteries. Although there has
been a recent trend to use consumer cells in batteries for these
applications, that is increasingly regarded as inappropriate –
particularly with regard to safety liability by the consumer cell
manufacturers.

o For example, Panasonic, one of the biggest manufacturers of

consumer Li-ion cells, do not allow assemblers to use more than 12
18650 cells (4 series, 3 parallel) in a battery as this compromises
cell safety systems.

o Safety for high energy and power batteries is vital in most

applications, and protective devices at both cell and battery level
are now mandatory in transport regulations and most performance
specifications.

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 o For example, Li-ion cells with more than 20 watt hours, and
batteries with more than 100 watt hours of energy must comply with
stringent UN transport regulations and remain safe during and after
these tests:

- low pressure (high altitude)

- thermal cycling (-40oC to +75oC)
- mechanical vibration
- mechanical shock
- short circuit
- mechanical impact
- over charging
- forced discharge

o Specific performance regulations for military or oil industry use, for

example, are even more stringent and also include safety
requirements in the event of bullet penetration or fire.

o With the increasing interest in electric vehicles, recent Li-ion

developments have focused on “high rate” – that is cells and
batteries that can be charged and discharged rapidly. This
application has further highlighted the need for safety in hazardous
conditions.

4. FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES

o Although research continues on radically different

electrochemistries, it is difficult to see these replacing Li-ion
technology in the foreseeable future. It is more likely that further
development and improvement of Li-ion will continue for many
years.

o For example, the increasing importance of EV technology has

led to development of new electrode materials for Li-ion cells
such as lithiated iron phosphate for the cathode and titanium
oxide for the anode.

o The new range of “nano-structured” electrode materials is

currently being actively investigated and this will help in the
quest for higher power cells and batteries for motorised
applications where very large electric currents are required.

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 o The combination of the internal combustion engine with Li-ion
technology will be important for HEV’s – current systems
utilising NiCad will be overtaken by lighter Li-ion systems.

o The continuing development of the fuel cell is seen in many

cases as complementary to Li-ion rather than in competition to
it. The ever increasing demand for longer life as well as higher
power will drive this hybrid system. This is already being
developed for battlefield applications for “Future Soldier”
equipment.

o Last but not least, an important area of development is the

“Battery Management System” which can dramatically extend
the life and safety of a Li-ion battery by electronic monitoring
and control of charge and discharge.

5. TERMINOLOGY

o Anode The negative electrode of a cell - where chemical

oxidation takes place during discharge

o Battery An assembly of connected cells OR a single labelled

cell for use by the consumer

o Battery Management System The electronics contained in

modern Li-ion batteries which maintains the
“balance” of cells and prevents overcharge,
overdischarge and short circuit for example.

o Capacity The useful discharge life of a cell or battery –

often expressed as ampere-hours (Ah) or
watt-hours (Wh)

o Cathode The positive electrode of a cell - where chemical

reduction takes place during discharge

o Cell A device which converts chemical energy directly

into electrical energy

o Charging (or Recharging) The process of regenerating a cell

or battery by passing current through it from an
external source

o Cycle Life The number of times a cell or battery can be

discharged/charged while retaining useful capacity

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o Current The rate of flow of electricity through a circuit
- amperes (A)

o Discharge Life The length of time a cell or battery can

operate at a useful voltage without recharging

o Electron The individual negatively charged unit of

electricity

o Electrolyte The medium –usually liquid - through which ions

travel during charging and discharge

o Graphite A form of carbon used as the anode in a lithium-ion

cell – it can accommodate a relatively large amount
of lithium when fully charged

o IonA charged atom – in a Lithium-ion cell, a positively

charged lithium atom

o Lithiated Metal Oxide A powdered material used as the

cathode in a lithium-ion cell – usually cobalt, nickel
or manganese oxides modified to contain lithium

o Lithium Element number 3 in the Periodic Table – the

lightest metal

o Power The rate at which energy is delivered – often

expressed as watts (W) (or voltage times current)

o Rate Alternative term for power in battery technology

o Separator A porous barrier to prevent electrodes touching

(or “shorting”) – usually a thin plastic membrane

o Shelf Life The length of time a cell or battery can be

stored without losing its charge

o State of Charge The percentage of the total capacity of a

cell or battery remaining at any particular moment

o Terminals The external points of contact – positive and

negative - of a cell or battery

o Voltage The “pressure” or potential for flow of electricity

in a circuit – volts (V)

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