CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION AND CONCEPT FRAMEWORK

INTRODUCTION:-

Education means the modification of behaviour. Education is an activity or a process, which

transforms the behaviour of a person form, ”instinctive behavior” to human behaviour.

Education is the deliberate and systematic influence, exerted by the mature person, upon the
immature through instruction, discipline and harmonious and social needs and directed towards
the union of the educand with this creator as the final end (Redden,1956,P-21).

Mahatma Gandhi speaks of education as “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of
the best in the child and man body, mind and sprit,(Taneja,2001,P-4)

According to Radhakrishnan “Education must include not only the training of the intellect but
also the refinement of heart and discipline of the spirit”(Aggarwal,1996,P-5).

According to John Dewey, ”Education is the process of living through a continuous

reconstruction of experience. It is the development of all those capacities in the individual which
will enable him to control his environment and fulfill his possibilities”.(Bhatia and
Bhatia,1986,P-4).

Education may help the individuals in bringing out and realizing all latent potentialities of the
child development of a well balanced personality, cultivation in him, flexibility and adaptability,
growth of social virtues, his preparation for a complete living etc.

The Aim of Education:-

The search for aims uneducation is a perennial one. The historical perspective of Brahmanic,
Budhistic and Islamic system of education is a well balanced personality. This should be the
result of good education system.

According to secondary education commision (1952-53). The secret of giid education consists
in enabling the students to realize what are his talents and aptitudes and in what manner and to
what extant they can best develop than so as to achieve proper social adjustment and seek right
types of employment .

Education should therefore produce a well balanced personality rather than a lopsided
individual.

Regunath sataya B.D shaida (1994) have quoted in their book on ’Development of
educational theory and practise’ -that ultimate aim of all education and all training according to
swami vivekananda is man-man kind. Every child as it comes to the world is not man, in the real
sense of term. It is only through education and training in to the personality of man fit for his
civilized life of the times.

Higher Secondary Education:-

The central board of secondary education has introduced the new pattern of education,
commonly known as 10, +2 in all schools beginning with 1X class, with effect from May 1975.
The first course leading to the examination at the end of X class will include three language,
mathematics, Physical sciences, life sciences and social science, also work experience and health
and physical education, a general undiversified education for all.

The second stage to end with the 12 th year is an improved higher secondary course with
more accent on vocationalization involving diversification and specification in subjects best
suited to the genious of the pupil. For most students, this will be the terminal stage of education
and stepping-stone to careers in life. After that academically disposed scholars could go in for
three-year degree course.

Class X1 and X11 under the new pattern will provide diversified courses, both acadamic and
vocational. The first batch of students jointed on X1 under the new pattern, in July 1977 and the
first batch of students took up the higher secondary examination at the end of class X11 in March
1979.

While drawing up curricula, it was ensured that they relevant to the current needs of the
society. The syllabi were prepared in units with provision for bridge course to enable the students
to change over from academic to vocational courses and viceversa.
Significance of Higher Secondary Education:-

The following important features have been pointed out in the booklet entitled, “10+2+3-A
major change in school education” published by ministry of education, Government of India
(1975).

i) The goals of national integration, training for democratic living, co operativeness,

cultural and religious tolerance have been duly emphasized in the course of
languages and social science.

ii) For the intellectual development of student provision has been made by way of teaching
subjects like languages, science, mathematics, and social studies for further
development of the physical emotional and other aspects of the students personality
provision has been made for work, experiences, community, service, health and
physical education and other activities.

iii) The contents which have been given in the syllabi of these subjects are forward
looking; important developments in the respective areas have been incorporated.

iv) With the introduction of work experience, a step in the direction of inculcating right
attitude towards work has been taken up.

v) The important areas which work experiences related are, Engineering, Agriculture,
Domestic science, Commerce, fine arts and others which have great utility in
domestic and other areas of work.

vi) The schools may undertake suitable activities of community service such as village
uplift, slum-clearance, removal of illiteracy in addition to work experience.

vii) Mathematics group having subjects like mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and
biology.

viii) Computer science group having subjects like computer science, Physics, Chemistry
and mathematics.

ix) Science group having subjects like physics, Chemistry, Botany, and Zoology.
 x) Commerce group having subjects like commerce, accounting business communication
and business management.

xi) Humanities group having subjects like history, politics, economics and statistics.

Objectives of Higher Secondary Education:-

Higher secondary education is intended to serve the following objectives.

i) Higher secondary stage of education is an integral part of school education and the stage
is characterized by diversification in to academic and vocational streams.

ii) It promotes values such as common cultural heritage, inculcation of scientific temper,
democracy and secularism.

iii) It promotes equality and international co-operation.

iv) If facilitates inter-regional mobility by providing equal access to every one.

v) If contributes to national development by impacting specialized knowledge and skills.

vi)If reflects in the critical socio-economic cultural, moral and spiritual issues facing
humanity.

vii) It promotes more learning, high maturity and helps in the development of better
equipped citizens.

viii) It helps students to develop a realistic concept.

ix)It orients pupils to the world of work and helps them in making educational and
vocational choices.

x) It helps the students for personal adjustment.

Psychology of the Higher Secondary students:-

The topic for the study is about higher secondary students who are at adolescent age.
Hence the meaning and definition of adolescence and characteristics of adolescence are
discussed below.
Adolescence:-

Adolescence is the most important period of human life. Poets have described it as the spring
of life of human described it as the spring of life of human being and an important era in the total
life span. Some psychologists defines it is the transitional period of life. The child experiences a
number of changes in this transitional period. The period runs between childhood and adulthood
and is sometimes called the period of teenage. According to stanely Hall, (1904) Adolescence is
the period of storm and stress.

According to Jersild, (1957) Adolescence is that span of years during which boys and girls
move from childhood to aduthood, mentally, socially and physically.

Dorthy Rogers defines adolescence as a process rather than a period a process of achieving
the attitudes and beliefs needed for effective participation in the society.

According to Jean piaget (1962) defines adolescence as, the age of great ideals and the
beginning of theories as well as the begining of theories as well as the time of simple adaptation
to reality.

During adolescence, roughly from 13 years to 19 years, young people acquire greater social
comprehension and believe that they have a right to behave like adults in speech, dress in
relations between the sexes in attitudes towards government, social affairs of religion.

The period of adolescence is an unknown and mysterious territory not only to adolescents
themselves but also to parents, teachers and even doctors. During this period their attention shifts
from parents to peers and unique personality grows from within search of identity and
recognition.

Risk-Taking Behaviour of Adolescents:-

Epistemology-meaning:-

When there is a risk, there must me something that is unknown or that has an unknown out
come. Therefore, knowledge about rise is knowledge about lack of knowledge. This combination
of knowledge and lack there of contributes to making issues of risk complicated from an
epistemological point of view.
 Definitions of socially accountable behaviours are usually based on adult norms.
Behaviours defined by adult as “risky” are not necessarily interpreted by adolescents in the same
way (Alexander et as, 1990; Tonkins, 1987). For example, driving behaviours labeled risky by
adults (driving fast, close to the vehicle in front of them, running, yellow lights) are often labeled
“good” by young drivers. Differences in interpretation may not, however explain why
adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviours. In their study, Alexander et al, (1990) found that
adolescents described both physically daring activities and rule breaking as risky behaviours as
did adults. These findings suggest that although their perceptions may adolescents can
discriminate risky behaviours.

Risk-taking behaviour:-

Many studies have tried to determine why adolescents engage in risk-taking behaviours. If as
wilde and Murdock (1982) have suggested, adolescents are aware of the risks, they must be
either purposely seeking them out or prevented from perceiving their severity by what Elkind
(1967) and Elkind and Bowen (1979) describe as a “Personal fable” (belief in one’s immunity
from negative consequences).

According to Jessor and Jessor (1977), adolescents purposely see out risks. They suggest
that such behaviours permit adolescents to:

1) Take control of their lives

2) Express opposition to adult authority and conventional society

3) Deal with anxiety, frustration, inadequacy, and failure

4) Gain admission to peer groups and demonstrate identification with a youth subculture;

5) Confirm personal identity, and

6) Affirm maturity and mark a developmental transition in to young adulthood. Based on

Farley (1971) and Zuckerman’s (1964) theory of stimulus adjustment, labeled
“sensation seeking”, Jessor and Jessor (1977) also explain the need for risk taking as a
function of pleasure-or-fun-seeking behaviour. The need for change, variety, and
intensity of stimulation manifests itself insensory, social, and thrill-seeking behaviours.
 The assumption that adolescents seek out new and exciting experiences has generated
considerable research. In general, results indicated that adolescents who likely to engage
in other such behaviours (Donovan & Jessor, 1985; Ingersoll & Orr, 1989; Lipsift &
Mitnick, 1991). In a series of longitudinal studies, Jessor and Jessor (1977)
demonstrated that substance, abuse, precocious sexual intercourse, minordelinquency,
aggressiveness, and a trait which they labeled unconventionality were consistently
interrelated.

Highly risk-taking behaviour:-

1) All teenagers take risks as a normal part of growing up. Risk-taking is the tool an
adolescent uses to define and develop his or her identity, and healthy risk-taking is a
valuable experience.

2) Healthy adolescent risk-taking behaviours which tend to have a positive impact on an

adolescent’s development can include participation is sports, the development of artistic
and creative abilities, volunteer activities, travel, running for school office, making new
friends. Constructive contributions to the family or community, and others. Inherent in
all of these activities is the possibility of failure. Parents must recognize and support
their children with this.

3) Negative risk-taking behaviours which can be dangerous for adolescents include

drinking, smoking, drug use, reckless driving, unsafe sexual activity, disordered eating,
self-multilation, running away, stealing, gang activity, and others.

4) Unhealthy, adolescent risk-taking may appear to be “rebellion” – an angry gesture

specifically directed at parents. However, risk-taking, whether healthy or unhealthy, is
simply part of a teen’s struggle to test out an identity by providing self-definition and
separation from others, including parents.

5) Some adolescent behaviours are deceptive- a teen may genuinely try to take a healthy risk
that evolves in to more dangerous behavior. For example, many adolescent girls fail to
recognize the trap of dieting and fall in to a pattern of disorderd eating, sometimes even
 developing a full eating disorder. Parents need to be well informed in order to help their
adolescents with such struggles.

6) Red flags which help identify dangerous adolescent risk-taking can include psychological
problems such as persistent depression or anxiety which goes beyond more typical
adolescent “moodiness” problems at school, engaging in risk-taking behaviours (eg.
Smoking, drinking and driving recklessly might be happening at the same time, as might
disorderd eating and self- mutilation, or running away and stealing).

7) Since adolescents need to take risks, parents need to help them healthy opportunities to
do so. Healthy risk-taking, not only important in itself, can help prevent unhealthy risk-
taking.

8) Adolescents often offer subtle clues about their negative risk-taking behaviours of friends
and family, including parents. Parents often stay silent about their own histories of risk-
taking and experimenting, but it can be important to find ways to share this information
with adolescents in order to serve as role models, to let teens know that mistakes are not
fatal, and to encourage making healthier choices than those the parent may have made
during his or her own adolescence.

9) Adolescents looks to their parents for advice and modeling about how to assess positive
and negative risks. Parents need to help their teen learn how to evaluate risks and
anticipate the consequences of their choices, and develop strategies for diverting their
energy into healthier activities when necessary.

10) Parents need to pay attention to their own current patterns of risk-taking as well.
Teenagers are watching, and imitating, whether they knowledge this or not.

Risk-taking in teens:-

Adolescents in a time when young people experiment with many aspects of life-testing
how things fit together and using this process to define and shape how they think and how
they fit into the world. This is a time when tends are learning how to become their “own
person”. Teens are involved in risk-taking that is not always harmful. Frequently, risk-
taking in teens is normal, healthy, development behaviour for adolescences.
1) Unhealthy risk-taking is what most parents and camp professionals are more familiar
with, but there are many healthy risks that teens can and do take, especially at camp.
Unhealthy, negative risk-taking involves activities that are. Dangerous to the health and
safety of teens such as drinking, taking drugs, unsafe and sexual activity, body
multilation, and restrictive eating, healthy risk-taking can include participation in
activities like camp, sports, volunteer activities, or running for school office.

2) Adolescent risk-taking behaviour can be analyzed from several different perspectives.

Risk-taking theories based on dispositional traits examine individual differences
between persons that might account for a propensity to take risks ( Kaplan,1980; Botvin,
1986; Mccord,1990; Petersen, campas, Brooks-Gunn, stemmler, EY & Grant, 1993).

However, most of the research in this area is not conclusive enough to state that
dispositional traits are causal factors in adolescent risk-taking (Milistein & Igra, 1995).

3) Biological models of adolescent risk-taking examine genetic factors, neuroendocrine

influences, and pubertal events ( Irwin & Millstein, 1986; cloninger, 1987, udry,1988,
1990). Another approach entails using the developmental perspective to explain risk-
taking in light of the biopsychosocial changes that occur during adolescence. Risk-
taking is seen as a way of coping with normal developmental tasks such as expiration
and achieving autonomy.

( Lavery, Siegel, Cousins, & Rubiovits, 1993; Millstein & Igra, 1995) and difficulties
(Furby & Beyth-marom 1992).

4) Another perspective is to examine stable differences such as sensation seeking or locus of

control (Zucker man, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978; milistein & Igra, 1995).
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory describes the social world of adolescents in
several microcosms of contact. Parental monitoring of adolescent behaviour has also
been associated with adolescent risk-taking (Millstein & Igra, 1995).

In reviewing the theories, if appears that none offer conclusive insight in to the risk-
taking behaviour of adolescents.
 In general, involvement in high-risk activities has been positively associated with
personality factors, such as social maladjustment, and with perceived benefit of risk
(Lavery, siegel, cousins & Ruborits, 1993). Researches reported that persons who
engaged in high-risk behaviours had higher scores on affiliation, desirability,
dominance, exhibition, and self-esteem variables and they exhibited significantly higher
sexual risk, smoking risk, driver and passenger risk, venture some more &
Rosenthal,1993).

Adolescents may not see the same types of behaviours as risky as do adults.
Alexander, kin, ensminger, Johnson, smith and Dolan (1990) conducted a study in
which they asked 8th and 9th grades what teenager their age do for fun. Males response
focused more on rule breaking. Results also showed a significance decline from 8th
grader to 9th grade for involvement in physical foats.

In examining risk-taking studies in general, must use self-report measures without

giving participants and actual task that might represent risk-taking. This raises the
concern that these self-report measures do not validly measure risk-taking or related
constructs. In addition, many studies do not take in to account the differences in
cognitive maturity between younger and older adolescents.

Concept of Academic Achievement:-

The performance of the students in their academic career acts as a stimulates for
further learning. Thus the students who score high marks in their examination are highly
motivated to do better. Further in their learning when the students find their inability to
achieve remarkably, even after through preparation, they feel different. Certain times
these hope lessons may lead them to develop inferiority complex generally who suffer
from inferiority complex may not be competent in their learning process.

Conditions influencing academic achievement.

i) Socio economic status of the student

ii) Home climate

iii) School climate

iv) Climate in the surrounding

v) The classroom atmosphere

vi) The peer group relationship

Factors Affecting the Academic Achievement:-

All the students in a class cannot achieve the same level of mastery. There are
individual differences in the achievement of the students. The performance of the
students in various achievement tests in school is influenced by variable such as

i) Intelligence

ii) Attitude towards studies

iii) Aptitude

iv) Study habits of the students

v) Teaching methodology

vi) Teaching behaviour

vii) Proper motivation

viii) Retention power of the students

ix) Health of the learners

x) Mental health and hygiene

Significance of the study:-

Students are the future pillars of the world. They are expected to perform
multidimensional roles. They should possess the qualities needed for the effective
performance of the roles. Education should spell out the kinds of desirable changes
needed by the society and now these changes are to be brought among the students. For
 this education should try to study and understand various problems of the society in
specific areas from time to time and should become the integral part of social
development.

In order to achieve the goal the students have to meet many challenges in their
life. For meeting the challenges, the adolescents will have joint hands with each other.
To face social problems students should have risk-taking behaviour. So the investigator
wants to study the risk-taking behaviour and academic achievement in mathematics of
X1 standard students

Statement of the problems:-

Risk-taking behaviour and achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students.

Definitions of the terms:-

Risk-taking behaviour:

When there is a risk, there must be something that is unknown or that has an unknown
out come. Therefore, knowledge about risk is knowledge about lack of knowledge and
lack there of contributes to making issues of risk complicated from an epistemological
point of view.

General objectives:-

i) To find out the level of rise taking behaviour of X1 standard students.

ii) To find out the achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students.

iii) To find out the risk-taking behaviour and achievement in mathematics of X1

standard students.

Specific objectives:-

I. Risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students:

I.1. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to gender.

I.2. To find out the level of rise-taking behaviour of X1 students with regard to
age.

I.3. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to language.

I.4. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to nature of school.

I.5. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to social status.

I.6. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to type of school.

I.7. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to location of school.

I.8. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to residence.

I.9. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to birth order.

I.10. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to religion

I.11. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to father’s education.

I.12. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to mother’s education.
 I.13. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to father’s education.

I.14. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to mother’s occupation.

I.15. To find out the level of risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students with
regard to family income.

II. Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students:-

II.1. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to gender.

II.2. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to age.

II.3. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to language.

II.4. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to nature of school.

II.5. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to social status.

II.6. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to type of school.

II.7. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to location of school.

II.8. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to residence.

II.9. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to birth order.
 II.10. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students
with regard to religion.

II.11. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to father’s education.

II.12. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to mother’s education.

II.13. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to father’s occupation.

II.14. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to mother’s occupation.

II.15. To find out the level Achievement in mathematics of X1 standard students

with regard to family income.

Hypothesis

I. Risk-taking behaviour of X1 standard students:-

I.1. There is no significant difference between male and female X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.2. There is no significant difference between age of X1 standard students in their

risk-taking behaviour.

I.3. There is no significant difference between language of X1 standard students in

their risk-taking behaviour.

I.4. There is no significant difference among boys, girls and co-education school
of X1 standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.5. There is no significant difference among social status of X1 standard students

in their risk-taking behaviour.
 I.6. There is no significant difference between Government, aided and self
finanace school of X1 standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.7. There is no significant difference between rural and urban school of X1

standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.8. There is no significant difference between dayscholar and hosteller X1

standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.9. There is no significant difference between order of birth of X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.10. There is no significant difference among Hindu, Christian and Muslim X1

standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.11. There is no significant difference among father’s education of X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.12. There is no significant difference among mother’s education of X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.13. There is no significant difference between father’s occupation of X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.14. There is no significant difference between mother’s occupation of X1 standard

students in their risk-taking behaviour.

I.15. There is no significant difference between family monthly income of X1

standard students in their risk-taking behaviour.

II. Achievement in Mathematics of X1 standard students:-

II.1. There is no significant difference between male and female X1 standard

students and their achievement in mathematics.
II.2. There is no significant difference between age of X1 standard students and
their achievement in mathematics.

II.3. There is no significant difference between language of X1 standard students

and their achievement in mathematics.

II.4. There is no significant difference among boys, girls and co-education school
of X1 standard students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.5. There is no significant difference among social status X1 standard students

and their achievement in mathematics.

II.6. There is no significant difference between government, aided and self finance
school of X1 standard students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.7. There is no significant difference between rural and urban school X1 standard
students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.8. There is no significant difference between dayscholar and hosteller school X1

standard students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.9. There is no significant difference between order of birth of X1 standard

students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.10. There is no significant difference among Hindu, Christian and Muslim school
X1 standard students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.11. There is no significant difference among father’s education of X1 standard

students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.12. There is no significant difference among mother’s education of X1 standard

students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.13. There is no significant difference between father’s occupation of X1 standard

students and their achievement in mathematics.
 II.14. There is no significant difference between mother’s occupation of X1 standard
students and their achievement in mathematics.

II.15. There is no significant difference between monthly family income of X1

standard students and their achievement in mathematics.

LIMITATIONS:-

The present study is made keeping in mind with the following limitations.

1) The study is limited to X1 standard students studying in higher secondary schools.

2) The study deals with X1 standard students studying in higher secondary schools in
srivilliputtur educational district.

3) Sample for the study is limited to randomly selected 300X1 standard students only in
srivilliputtur educational district.

4) For academic achievement the investigator has conducted an achievement test only.