EXPERIMENT #1, FOURIER’S LAW

PART A – CONDUCTION ALONG A SIMPLE BAR

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of this experiment is to investigate and verify Fourier’s Law for linear heat conduction
along a simple bar.

INTRODUCTION:

Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less energetic
particles as a result of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the combined result of
molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free electron mobility, which
explains why they are good heat conductors.

Conduction can be easily understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold. If we put
these blocks in contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be
transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase in temperature of the cold block.
This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is termed ‘conduction’.

THEORY:

In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the one in
Figure 1. We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end,
and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar is insulated in
the peripheral direction, that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed temperature
differential along the bar.

Figure 1: Schematic of a Long Cylindrical Insulated Bar

The equation that governs the heat flow is known as Fourier's Law, and in the axial direction it is written
as

dT
q x = − kAx (1)
dx

where q x is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the
 dT
material, A x is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and is the temperature gradient in
dx
the x-direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship which includes all directions of heat
transfer:
r r r r  dT r dT r dT r 
q = q x i + q y j + q z k = − k  A x i + Ay j + Az k  (2)
 dx dy dz 

The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of temperature, but it
can be treated as a constant over small temperature ranges. Because of the enhancement of heat transfer
by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical conductivity and as a result, metals that
are good conductors of electricity are also good conductors of heat.

In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal conductivity k for brass and
comparing this value to the actual value from one or more references. To do so we will calculate the cross
sectional area A x of the bar and the slope dT/ dx from a plot of measured temperatures vs. length. We can
then use these values in a rearranged version of Fourier's Law to find the thermal conductivity, k:

q x dx
k=− (3)
A x dT

APPARATUS:

The apparatus we will be using in this experiment is the P.A. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit, which
consists of three items. The first item is a transformer equipped with a circuit breaker. The transformer
has two cords which connect it to an AC outlet and to the second item, the calibration unit.

Figure 2: Front View of Calibration Unit and Transformer

The calibration unit has two basic functions. It delivers power to the heater element within the test unit
and it calibrates and displays the temperatures at nine locations along the test unit. The amount of power
delivered to the test unit is controlled by the power control knob on the right side of the calibration unit;
to its left is the temperature selector knob which is used to select one of the nine thermocouple
temperatures for display on the digital readout, as shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 3: Rear View of Calibration Unit

Insulated
Insulated disk
bar

Figure 4: Front View of the Test Unit

The third item is the test unit, which consists of two test geometries: an insulated brass bar which allows a
sample to be placed between the two ends, and an insulated disk. Both geometries are equipped with a
power supply, but we will only use the insulated bar for this experiment. The test unit is also equipped
with a cooling water hose. The purpose of the cooling water running through the unit at the cold end of
the bar is to remove heat that is produced at the hot end and transferred by conduction to the cold end,
keeping the cold end at a constant temperature. Once the rate at which heat is generated is equal to the
rate at which heat is removed, steady state conditions (temperatures will be fairly constant and readings
can be taken) will exist. The test unit has two heater cords: one from the test bar and the other from the
test disk. Be sure to use only the heater cord for the bar, which connects to the heater plug located in the
lower right hand corner of the calibration unit. Figure 4 shows the front view of the test unit.

In addition to this equipment, you will also find a box that contains the samples, thermocouples, and
conducting paste in a small syringe. The samples can be placed in the bar test unit by releasing the
clamps and sliding the cold end of the bar out. The thermocouples must be placed in order from 1 to 9 as
shown in Figures 3 and 4. The conducting paste is designed only to decrease contact resistance when
applied to the ends of the connecting bars; it is not intended to enhance heat conduction.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipment as shown in Figures 3 and 4, making sure that the calibration unit is switched
off before connecting the transformer to the AC outlet.
2. Apply a very small amount (a drop) of thermal conducting paste to make a thin layer on each side
of the test unit surface and spread it uniformly.
3. Insert the test brass sample (30 mm length and 25 mm diameter) into the unit and allow cooling water
to flow through the test unit.
4. Connect the nine thermocouples in the appropriate order.
5. Switch the calibration unit on and adjust the power control knob to deliver 10 W of power to the test
unit; allow the system to reach steady state (approximately 20 minutes).
6. Record the temperatures at each of the nine thermocouples and the power input.

RESULTS:

1. Plot the temperature profile along the entire length of the bar and determine the slope, dT/ dx.
2. Calculate the thermal conductivity k of the brass and determine the specific type / composition of
brass by comparison with a reference value.
3. Discuss the characteristics of your plots and compare them to what you would expect based on the
theory. Is Fourier’s Law satisfied? Also discuss the validity of the assumptions made and sources of
error within the equipment or through measurements, etc.
 EXPERIMENT #1, FOURIER’S LAW
PART B - THE EFFECTS OF VARYING CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA

OBJECTIVE:

The objective of this experiment is to understand how variable cross-sectional area affects heat transfer by
conduction.

INTRODUCTION:

In Part A of this experiment we have seen how to calculate the thermal conductivity of bar made of the
same material and uniform cross-section. Now we would like to see how changes in cross-sectional area
affect heat transfer. In this experiment we will use the same brass test bar, but instead of using the 25 mm
diameter brass sample, we will use the brass sample with a diameter of 13 mm.

THEORY:

Fourier’s Law states that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the cross-sectional area normal to the
direction of heat flow. Since the outer surface is insulated, the heat flow rate q x is the same for each
section of the bar and since it is the same material, the thermal conductivity k is assumed to be constant.
Then
 dT   dT   dT 
Ah   = As   = Ac   (1)
 dx  h  dx  s  dx  c

where the subscripts h, s, and c denote the hot, sample, and cold segments of the bar, respectively. In
other words, the temperature gradient is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. In this
experiment, the hot and cold segments will have the same cross-sectional area, which will differ from that
of the sample inserted in between the two segments.

Solving for the temperature gradient ratio in Eq. (1), we get

(dT / dx ) s A
= h/ c (2)
(dT / dx ) h / c As

In this experiment you will compare the gradient ratio obtained from the plot of measured temperatures
vs. length (which is the experimental result) with the inverse ratio of the two different areas (theoretical
result).

APPARATUS:

The apparatus for this experiment is the P.A. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit, described in Part A.
PROCEDURE:

1. Apply a very small amount (a drop) of thermal conducting paste to make a thin layer on each side of
the brass sample of 30 mm length and 13 mm diameter and spread it uniformly.
2. Insert the sample into the test unit and allow cooling water to flow through the test unit.
3. Connect the nine thermocouples in the appropriate order.
4. Adjust the power control knob to deliver 10 W to the test unit and allow the unit to reach steady state
(approximately 20 minutes).
5. Record the temperatures at each of the six thermocouples and the power input.

RESULTS:
6. Plot the temperature profile along the length of the bar and determine the slopes dT / dx of the best-fit
lines for each distinct segment of the bar. Use these slopes to compute the experimental value of the
temperature gradient ratio and compare that value to the theoretical value obtained from the cross-
sectional areas.
7. Are the area and temperature gradient inversely proportional? Discuss possible sources of error within
the equipment or the assumptions made in the theory.

SAFETY GUIDELINES:

1. To avoid burns, do not touch any metal or plastic surfaces on the hot end of the sample or test unit.
2. Avoid using a high cooling water flow to prevent disconnection of the hose from the test unit.
3. Do not exceed 20 W power delivery under any circumstances, and do not allow the temperature to go
above 100 °C at any of the thermocouple locations.
4. Avoid using too much conducting paste as this may ‘fry’ the unit.

ASSIGNED READING:

Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer; Incropera and DeWitt; pp. 3-6, pp. 58-67, App. A.
 EXPERIMENT #1
RAW DATA TABLES

Table 1: Raw Data for Experiment #1, Part A – Simple Bar

q (W) T 1 (°C) T 2 (°C) T 3 (°C) T 4 (°C) T 5 (°C) T 6 (°C) T 7 (°C) T 8 (°C) T 9 (°C)

Table 2: Raw Data for Experiment #1, Part B – Cross-Sectional Area

q (W) T 1 (°C) T 2 (°C) T 3 (°C) T 4 (°C) T 5 (°C) T 6 (°C) T 7 (°C) T 8 (°C) T 9 (°C)