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Resistance is given in units of ohms. (Ohms are named after Mho Ohms who
played with electricity as a young boy in Germany.) Common resistor values
are from 100 ohms to 100,000 ohms. Each resistor is marked with colored
stripes to indicate its resistance.
Variable resistors are also common components. They have a dial or a knob
that allows you to change the resistance. This is very useful for many
situations. Volume controls are variable resistors. When you change the
volume you are changing the resistance which changes the current. Making
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the resistance higher will let less current flow so the volume goes down.
Making the resistance lower will let more current flow so the volume goes up.
The value of a variable resistor is given as its highest resistance value. For
example, a 500 ohm variable resistor can have a resistance of anywhere
between 0 ohms and 500 ohms. A variable resistor may also be called a
potentiometer (pot for short).
Now suppose you want to control how the current in your circuit changes (or
not changes) over time. Now why would you? Well radio signals require very
fast current changes. Robot motors cause current fluctuations in your circuit
which you need to control. What do you do when batteries cannot supply
current as fast as you circuit drains them? How do you prevent sudden
current spikes that could fry your robot circuitry? The solution to this is
capacitors.
Capacitors are like electron storage banks. If y our circuit is running low, it
will deliver electrons to your circuit.
In our water analogy, think of this as a water tank with water always flowing
in, but with drainage valves opening and closing. Since capacitors take time
to charge, and time to dischar ge, they can also be used for timing circuits.
Timing circuits can be used to generate signals such as £ or be used to
turn on/off motors in solar powered BEAM robots.
Quick note, some capacitors are
, meaning current can only flow
one direction through them. If a capacitor has a lead that is longer than the
other, assume the
.
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The problem with using robot components that drain a large amount of power
is sometimes your battery cannot handle the high drain rate , Motors and
servos being perfect examples. This would cause a system wide voltage drop,
often resetting your microcontroller, or at least causing it to not work
properly. Just a side note, it is bad to use the same power source for both
your circuit and your motors. So don't do it.
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Or suppose your robot motors are not operating at its full potential because
the battery cannot supply enough current, the capacitor will make up for it.
The solution is to place a large
capacitor between the source
and ground of your power source. Get a capacitor that is rated at least twice
the voltage you expect to go through it. Have it rated at
. For example, if your 20V motors will use 3 am ps, use
a 3mF-30mF 50V rated capacitor. Exactly how much will depend on how often
you expect your motor to change speed and direction, as well as
of what you are actuating. Just note that if your capacitor is too
large, it may take a long time to charge up when you first turn your robot on.
If it is too small, it will drain of electrons and your circuit will be left with a
deficit. It is also bad to allow a large capacitor to remain fully charged when
you turn off your robot. Some things could accidentally short and fry. So use
a simple power on LED in your motor circuit to drain the capacitor after your
robot is turned off. If your capacitor is not rated properly for voltage, then
can explode with smoke. Fortunately they do not overheat if given e xcessive
amounts of current. So just make sure your capacitor is rated higher than
your highest expected.
!
Diodes are components that allow current to flow in only one direction. They
have a positive side (leg) and a negative side. When the voltage on the
positive leg is higher than on the negative leg then current flows through the
diode (the resistance is very low). When the voltage is lower on the positive
leg than on the negative leg then the current does not flow (the resistance is
very high). The negative leg of a diode is the one with the line closest to it. It
is called the cathode. The positive end is c alled the anode.
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Usually when current is flowing through a diode, the voltage on the positive
leg is 0.65 volts higher than on the negative leg.
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Switches are devices that create a short circuit or an open circuit depending
on the position of the switch. For a light switch, ON means short circuit
(current flows through the switch, and lights light up.) When the switch is
OFF, that means there is an open circuit (no current flows, lights go out.
When the switch is ON it looks and acts like a wire. When the switch is OFF
there is no connection.
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An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be yellow,
green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode. The important
thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that current can only flow
in one direction.
Transistors are basic components in all of today's electronics. They are just
simple switches that we can use to turn things on and off. Even though they
are simple, they are the most important electrical component. For example,
transistors are almost the only components used to build a Pentium
processor. A single Pentium chip has about 3.5 million transistors. The ones in
the Pentium are smaller than the ones we will use but they work the same
way.
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size and cost of the product. Embedded systems are often mass -produced, so
the cost savings may be multiplied by millions of items.
The first recognizably modern embedded system was the Apollo Guidance
Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory. Each flight to the moon had two. They ran the inertial guidance
systems of both the command module and LEM.
At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the
riskiest item in the Apollo project. The use of the then new monolithic
integrated circuits, to reduce the size and weight, increased this risk.
The first mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D -17 guidance
computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from
discrete transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the
Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D -17 was replaced with a
new computer that was the first high -volume use of integrated circuits. This
program alone reduced prices on quad nand gate ICs from
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For high volume systems such as portable music players or mobile phones,
minimizing cost is usually the primary design consideration. Engineers
typically select hardware that is just Ơgood enoughơ to implement the
necessary functions. For example, a digital set-top box for satellite television
has to process large amounts of data every second, but most of the
processing is done by custom integrated circuits. The embedded CPU "sets
up" this process, and displays menu graphics, etc. for the set -top's look and
feel.
The software written for embedded systems is often called firmware, and is
stored in ROM or Flash memory chips rather than a disk drive. It often runs
with limited hardware resources: small or no keyboard, screen, and little RAM
memory.
Embedded systems range from no user interface at all - dedicated only to one
task - to full user Interfaces similar to desktop operating systems in devices
such as PDAs. In between are devices with small character - or digit-only
displays and a few buttons. Therefore usability considerations vary widely.
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DTMF
WHAT IS DTMF?
The frequencies are chosen such that they are not the harmonics of
each other. The frequencies associated with various k eys on the keypad
are shown in figure (A).
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Fig (A)
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Figure (B)
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Figure (C)
Due to its accuracy and uniqueness, these DTMF signals are used in
controlling systems using telephones. By using some DTMF generating
IC¶s (UM91214, UM91214, etc) we can generate DTMF tones without
depending on the telephone set.
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
REMOTE SECTION:
Figure (E). Circuit diagram of the DTMF encoder
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produced at pin no.7 of the IC . This signal is sent to the loca l control
system through telephone line via exchange.
Ôorking of IC MT8870:
The low and high group tones are separated by applying the dual -tone
signal to the inputs of two 6 th order switched capacitor band pass filters
with bandwidths that correspond to the bands enclosing the low and high
group tones.
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Figure (F).Block diagram of IC MT8870
The filter also incorporates notches at 350 and 440 Hz, providing
excellent dial tone rejection. Each filter output is followed by a single -
order switched capacitor section that smoothes the signals prior to
limiting. Signal limiting is performed by high gain comparators provided
with hysteresis to prevent detection of unwanted low-level signals and
noise.YThe MT-8870 decoder uses a digital counting technique to
determine the frequencies of the limited tones and to verify that they
correspond to standard DTMF frequencies. When the detector recognizes
the simultaneous presence of two valid tones (known as signal
condition), it raises the Early Steering flag (ESt). Any subsequent loss of
signal condition will cause ESt to fall. Before a decoded tone pair is
registered, the receiver checks for valid signal duration (referred to as
character- recognition-condition). This check is performed by an external
RC time constant driven by ESt. A short delay to allow the output latch to
settle, the delayed steering output flag (StD) goes high, signaling that a
received tone pair has been registered. The contents of the output latch
are made available on the 4 -bit output bus by raising the three state
control input (OE) to logic high. Inhibit mode is enabled by a logic high
input to pin 5 (INH). It inhibits the detection of 1633 Hz.
The output code will remain the same as the previous detected
code. On the M- 8870 models, this pin is tied to ground (logic low).
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The 8051 family of micro controllers is based on an architecture which is
highly optimized for embedded control systems. It is used in a wide variety of
applications from military equipment to automobiles to the keyboard on your
PC. Second only to the Motorola 68HC11 in eight bit processors sales, the
8051 family of microcontrollers is available in a wide array of variations from
manufacturers such as Intel, Philips, and Siemens. These manufactu rers have
added numerous features and peripherals to the 8051 such as I2C interfaces,
analog to digital converters, watchdog timers, and pulse width modulated
outputs. Variations of the 8051 with clock speeds up to 40MHz and voltage
requirements down to 1.5 volts are available. This wide range of parts based
on one core makes the 8051 family an excellent choice as the base
architecture for a company's entire line of products since it can perform many
functions and developers will only have to learn this one platform.
One 8051 processor cycle consists of twelve oscillator periods. Each of the
twelve oscillator periods is used for a special function by the 8051 core such
as op code fetches and sample s of the interrupt daisy chain for pending
interrupts. The time required for any 8051 instruction can be computed by
dividing the clock frequency by 12, inverting that result and multiplying it by
the number of processor cycles required by the instruction in question.
Therefore, if you have a system which is using an 11.059MHz clock, you can
compute the number of instructions per second by dividing this value by 12.
This gives an instruction frequency of 921583 instructions per second.
Inverting this will provide the amount of time taken by each instruction cycle
(1.085 microseconds).
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The 8051 architecture provides the user with three physically distinct memory
spaces which can be seen in Figure A - 1. Each memory space consists of
contiguous addresses from 0 to the maximum size, in bytes, of the memory
space. Address overlaps are resolved by utilizing instructions which refer
specifically to a given address space. The three memory spaces function as
described below.
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The first memory space is the CODE segment in which the executable
program resides. This segment can be up to 64K (since it is addressed by 16
address lines). The processor treats this segment as read only and will
generate signals appropriate to access a memory device such as an EPROM.
However, this does not mean that the CODE segment must be implemented
using an EPROM. Many embedded systems these days are using EEPROM
which allows the memory to be overwritten either by the 8051 itself or by an
external device. This makes upgrades to the product easy to do since new
software can be downloaded into the EEPROM rather than having to
disassemble it and install a new EPROM.
Additionally, battery backed SRAM s can be used in place of an EPROM. This
method offers the same capability to upload new software to the unit as does
an EEPROM, and does not have any sort of read/write cycle limitations such
as an EEPROM has. However, when the battery supplying the RAM e ventually
dies, so does the software in it. Using an SRAM in place of an EPROM in
development systems allows for rapid downloading of new code into the
target system. When this can be done, it helps avoid the cycle of
programming/testing/erasing with EPROMƞs, and can also help avoid hassles
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int passpnt;
int i;
int dtmf;
char txt[5];
char password[30];
char recharge_100[10]={'1','2','3','4','5','4','3','2'};
char recharge_50[10]={'1','2','3','4','5','6','7','8'};
char recharge_10[10]={'1','2','3','4','8','7','6','5'};
char cmp;
void main()
,0
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dtmf = 0;
passpnt=0;
i=0;
count1=0;
count2=0;
count3=0;
do
if(PORTC==27)
while(PORTC.f4==1)
Lcd_Cmd(Lcd_CURSOR_OFF);
,5
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while(i!=8)
if(PORTC.f4)
while(PORTC.f4)
Delay_ms(1);
dtmf=PORTC;
if(dtmf==12)
goto votecount;
i++;
if(dtmf == 1)
,6
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password[passpnt]='1';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 2)
password[passpnt]='2';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 3)
password[passpnt]='3';
passpnt++;
,7
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if(dtmf == 4)
password[passpnt]='4';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 5)
password[passpnt]='5';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 6)
password[passpnt]='6';
passpnt++;
,8
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if(dtmf == 7)
password[passpnt]='7';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 8)
password[passpnt]='8';
passpnt++;
if(dtmf == 9)
.9
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password[passpnt]='9';
passpnt++;
cmp=strncmp(password,recharge_100,8);
if(cmp==0)
count1=count1+1;
cmp=strncmp(password,recharge_50,8);
if(cmp==0)
count2=count2+1;
cmp=strncmp(password,recharge_10,8);
if(cmp==0)
.+
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count3=count3+1;
passpnt=0;
i=0;
votecount:
Lcd_Cmd(Lcd_CLEAR);
shorttostr(count1,txt);
Lcd_Out(2, 1, txt);
shorttostr(count2,txt);
Lcd_Out(2, 6, txt);
shorttostr(count3,txt);
while(PORTC.f4==0)
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Delay_ms(100);
..
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÷Ê÷#%Ê&£
1. www.zarlink.com
2. www.ieee.com
4. www.fairchildsemi.com
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Ê VY
+#Basic Electronic Components
2.DTMF
3.Circuit Description
4.Microcontrollers
6. Relays
7.Power Supply
8.Coding
9.Bibliography
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