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9.2

Comparison Between Insulator, Semiconductor and Conductor

Metals Insulators
o Good conductors of electricity because they o Poor conductors of electricity because they
have free electrons that can move easily have too few free electrons to move about.
between atoms o The resistance of insulators is very high.
o The resistance of metals is generally very
low.
Semiconductors
A material that has an electrical conductivity that is between that of a conductor and an insulator.

 The resistance of semiconductors is between that of conductors and insulators.

 Semiconductors can be pure element such as silicon or germanium.
 At 0 Kelvin it behaves as an insulator. When the temperature increases, the conductivity of the
electricity will increase because its resistance will be lowered.

Electricity conductivity in semiconductors occurs because there is two type of charge carriers:
 Electron which is negatively charge
 Hole which is positively charge

Characteristics of a silicon atom

 There are four electrons in the outermost shell of a silicon atom and
they are shared between four other neighbouring atoms to form four
covalent bonds.
 At very low temperature, pure silicon crystal is an insulator and has a
high resistance to current flow.
 As the temperature of pure silicon crystal increases, the energy of the
vibrating atoms in the silicon crystal causes some electrons to break
free.
 Each free electron leaves behind a hole in the bonding structure.
 The hole behaves as if it has a positive charge.
 Free electrons and holes are known as charge carriers.
 Conduction in a semiconductor is by means of a movement of free
electrons and holes in opposite direction.

Conductivity of semiconductors can be increased by:-

(a) increasing the ……………… of the semiconductors. The heat energy
supplied by the temperature increase is converted to the kinetic
energy of the electrons.
(b) adding …………….. to the semiconductors (doping)

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What is Doping is a process of adding a certain amount of specific impurities called

doping dopants to a pure semiconductor to increase its electricity conductivity.
process?
o Atoms of the impurities added should have almost the same size as the
atoms of the semiconductors.

o By adding different kinds of impurities, two types of semiconductors can

be obtained; the n-type semiconductor and the p-type semiconductor.

 A n-type semiconductor is produced when

Describe pentavalent atoms are added to intrinsic
n-type semiconductor atoms.
semi-  Each pentavalent atom donate a free electron
conductor ,because there will be one extra electron.
 The electrons are now the majority charge
carriers in the n-type semiconductor since
there are more free electrons than holes.
 Examples of pentavalent atoms are
Arsenic,Phosporus and Antimony and called
donor atoms.

 A p-type semiconductor is produced when

Describe trivalent atoms are added to pure
p-type semiconductor atoms.
semi-  Only three of the four bonds formed by the
conductor trivalent atoms are complete. The vacancy is a
hole with positive charge.
 The holes are now the majority charge carriers
in the p-type semiconductor since there are
more holes than free electrons.
 Examples of trivalent atoms are Indium, Boron
and Gallium and called acceptor atoms.

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Comparison between the n-type and p-type semiconductor

Aspect n-type p-type

Semiconductor Semiconductor
Pure semiconductor

Dopants material

Function of the dopants

material
Valens electrons of the
dopant material
Majority charge carriers

Minority charge carriers

Describe semiconductor diodes  The simplest semiconductor device is a diode.

 A diode is made by joining a p-type and n-type
semiconductors
 A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one
direction only but blocks it in the opposite directions.

 A p-n junction is formed when a n-type and p-type

What is the p-n junction? semiconductors are joined together.
 The boundary between the p-type and n-type regions is
called the junction. A layer called the depletion layer is
formed in the middle.
 At the p-n junction, electrons from the n-side move to the p-
side and recombine with the holes.
 Holes from the p-side similarly move into the n-side, where
they recombine with electrons.
 As a result a depletion layer is a very narrow region which
has lost all its available free electrons and holes and thus
behaves almost like pure silicon,i.e with high resistivity.
 Any further movement of charges across the boundry in the
depletion layer will be repelled by the charges in the layer.

 The region around the junction is left with neither holes nor
What is the depletion layer? free electrons.
 This neutral region which has no charge carriers is called
the depletion layer.
 This layer which has no charge carrier is a poor conductor
of electricity.

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Extra Notes :
What is junction voltages?
 The layer of the negative charge in the p-type region will prevent the majority charge carriers
from the n-type region(the electrons) from crossing the boundary.
 Similarly , the positive charge layer in the n-type region will prevent the majority charge
carriers from the p-type region(the holes) from crossing the boundry in the opposite direction.
 Thus, a potential difference ,known as the junction voltage is produced. In its normal state a
p-n junction delivers no current since the charges are in equilibrium.
 The effect of this junction voltage is to prevent charge carriers from drifting across the
junction.
 The junction voltages for germanium and silicon are approximately 0.1 V and 0.6 V
respectively.

In order for electric current to flow through the diode, the voltage applied across the diode must
exceed the junction voltage.

Describe the function of diodes

What is forward bias? What is reversed bias?

 The n-type is connected to the positive

 The p-type of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal and the n-type is
connected to the negative terminal of a
battery.
 the cell voltage greater than the junction
voltage. The depletion layer is narrow , and
the resistance of diode decreases. Hence a
large current flows through the diode.
 The diode conducts current because the
holes from the p-type material and
electrons from the n-type material are able
to cross over the junction.
 A light bulb will light up.
terminal and the p-type is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
 The cell voltage is lower than the junction
voltage. The depletion layer is wide , and
the resistance of diode increases. Hence
only a very small current (leakage current)
flows through the diode.
 The reversed polarity causes a very small
current to flow as both electrons and holes
are pulled away from the junction.
 When the potential difference due to the
widen depletion region equals the voltage
of the battery, the current will cease.
Therefore the bulb does not light up.

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Activity 1: To observe current flow through a semiconductor diode in forward bias or reverse bias

Electrical circuit Draw a circuit diagram Brightness of the

bulb
The cathode of the diode is connected to
the –ve terminal of the d.c. power supply

The cathode of the diode is connected to

the positive terminal of the d.c. power
supply

Connected the diode in a forward biased

circuit to an ac voltage supply

1. The current ________ in a forward biased circuit and _________ flow in a reverse biased
circuit.
2. Diodes have a ______ resistance when they are forward-biased and a very _______ resistance
when they are reverse-biased.
3. The function of a diode is to allow ________to pass through in one ___________ only.
4. The brightness of the bulb will __________when the DC current in a forward biased circuit is
replaced with AC current of the same voltage.

 A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current to

Describe direct current.
the use of  Rectification is a process to convert an alternating current into a direct
diodes as current by using a diode.
rectifiers  Two type of rectification:
(a) Half-wave rectification
(b) Full-wave rectification

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Half-wave  A process where only half of every cycle of an alternating current is made to
rectification flow in one direction only.

No
rectification

Half-wave
rectification
by using
one diode

 When a diode is connected in series with the resistor, any current that passes
through the resistor must also pass through the diode.
 Since diode can only allow current to flow in one direction, therefore the
current will only flow in the first half-cycle when the diode in forward bias.
 The current is blocked in the second half-cycle when the diode is in reverse
bias.
 A process where both halves of every cycle of an alternating current is made to
Full-wave flow in the same direction.
rectification  In the first half, the current flows from A to P to TU to R to B
 In the second half, the current flows from B to S to TU to Q to A.
 The direction of the ac current passing through the resistor for each half cycle
is the same ie T to U.

Full-wave
rectification
by using
four diodes

Input
ac current

Describe  When the current pass through

the use of a the resistor and capacitor, the
capacitor to capacitor is charged and
smooth out stores energy.
output  When there is no current pass
current and through the resistor and
output capacitor, the capacitor
voltage in a discharge and the energy from
rectifier it is used to produce voltage
circuit across the resistor. As a result
it produces a smooth dc output.

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Activity 2:
The figure shows a half-wave rectifier circuit that is connected to CRO. Sketch waveform of the
voltages observed on the CRO screen when the time-base is on.
1.

2. The figure shows a full-wave rectifier circuit that is connected to CRO.

(i) Draw arrows to show the current flow in the first half cycle and to show the
current flow in second half cycle in the diagram.
(ii) Sketch the waveform of the voltages observed on the CRO screen when the time-base is
on.

a
To CRO

To CRO

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TUTORIAL 9.2 5. Which of the following resistance, R,

versus temperature, T, graphs is correct
1. The adding of impurity into pure for a pure semiconductor?
semiconductor material is known as ____
(2006)
A. doping
B. rectification
C. amplification
D. thermionic emission

2. Which of the following is correct about n-

type semiconductor and p-type
semiconductor?
n-type p-type
semicon- semicon-
ductor ductor 6. Which circuit will light up only one light
A Dopant Antimoni Gallium bulb?

B Fuction of Acceptance Donor

dopant atom atom
C Valentce of Trivalents Penta-
dopant valents
D Majority
charge holes electron
carrier

3. Which of the following diagrams is an n-

type semiconductor? (2006)

7. A CRO is connected to a circuit as shown

in diagram 1. The input terminal, PQ, is
connected to an ac power supply.

Diagram 1

Which of the following is the output wave

form displayed on the screen?

4. What is the function of a diode? (2007)

A. Acts as a current amplifier
B. Acts as an automatic switch
C. Stores electric charge
D. Allows the current to pass in one
direction only

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8. Which of the following traces displayed

on a CRO is the rectification of an ac
current?

11. Diagram 4 shows a full-wave rectifier.

9. Diagram 2 shows a rectification circuit

for an ac current.
.
Diagram 4

Which of the following is the correct path

of the current through diodes K, L, M and
N and resistor R?
Diagram 2 A. L  R  N
B. M  R  N
When an output resistor is connected to C. K  R  M
a CRO, the shape of the wave form on the D. N  R  L
screen is __
12. Diagram 5 shows a circuit of four diodes
which are connected to batteries and a
resistor.

10. Two diodes are connected in a circuit as Diagram 5

shown in Diagram 3.
Which of the following is the correct path
for the current?
A. L  M  T  S  U  L  M
 N O
B. L  M  T  R  Q  O  N
ML
C. L  M  T  R  Q  O  N
SU
Diagram 3 D. U  S  T  R  Q  O  N
ML
Which of the following is the output wave
form from resistor P?

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13. Diagram 6 shows a circuit which has Which bulb in the circuit will light up
three identical resistors P, Q and R, four when the switch is on? (2003)
diodes and an ac power supply. A. Z only
B. X and Y only
C. Y and Z only
D. X, Y and Z only

17. Which of the following pairs of atoms can

act as an impurity to produce an n-type
semiconductor when doped into a pure
semiconductor? (2004)
Diagram 6 A. Boron and phosphorus
B. Arsenic and antimony
Which resistor permitted only direct C. Indium and gallium
current through it? D. Antimony and gallium
A. P C. Q
B. R D. P ,Q dan R 18. The diagram shows a circuit consisting
of a diode and a bulb. When the switch
14. The function of capacitor in diagram is on, the bulb does not light up.
below is ____

What needs to be done to light up the

bulb? (2005)
A. Rectifier A. Replace with a new bulb
B. Flows alternating current B. Increase the number of dry cells
C. AC and DC filter C. Reverse the diode connection
D. Voltage smoother D. Connect a resistor parallel to the bulb

15. In which circuit the bulb does not light 19. Diagram below shows a circuit
up? connected to the cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO).

Which of the following traces is the

correct one shown on the CRO? (2007)
16. The diagram shows a circuit containing
bulbs X, Y and Z.

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20. The diagram shows the structure of a (i) Name the line X.
semiconductor material.
__________________________

(ii) Give the name and the function

of voltage at X .

___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
(a) Based on the diagram above, ___________________________
(i) name the type of the
semiconductor material.
(d) What happens to the bulb when the
battery connection is reversed.
_________________________
Explain why?
(ii) what is the function of the
_______________________________
Boron atom?
_______________________________
_________________________
_______________________________
(iii) name the majority charge _______________________________
carrier in the semiconductor
material.

___________________________
21. Figure (a) shows an arrangement of
apparatus to study the conductivity of
(b) At 0 K , a pure semiconductor
semiconductor diode by a student.
material has very high resistance.
When the switch is closed by the student
Explain why?
the bulb does not light up.
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
(c) The diagram shows a p-type
semiconductor is joined to an n-
type semiconductor. Later the
combination of the semiconductor Figure (a)
materials are connected to a bulb
and a battery. (i) In the space below draw a circuit
diagram for Figure (a)

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(ii) State the characteristic of the diode SPM 2007

causes the bulb does not light up? 22. Diagram 7 shows a simple transformer.

_______________________________ (a) (i) Name the type of the transformer.

(iii) State the correction should be _____________________________

done to the connection of the
circuit in Figure (a) to make the (ii)
bulb is lighted up. (b) The number of turns on
the primary coil in
_______________________________ Diagram 7 is 1000.
Calculate the number of
(b) Figure (b) shows circuit X is turns on the secondary
connected to a transformer, resistor coil.
R and a cathode-ray oscilloscope. (c) The transformer in
When the switch is opened the Diagram 7 is used to
waveform as shown in Figure (b) is switch on an electrical
formed on the CRO screen. appliances. The current
in the primary coil is 0.1 A
and the efficiency is 75 %.
(d) A student connects a
television which uses
direct current to the
output of the transformer
in Diagram 7. When the
television is switched on,
it does not function.

SPM 2004 Section C

Figure (b) 23. Figure (a) shows circuits J, K, L, M and N
each containing an ideal transformer.
(i) In the space below draw a circuit Diodes in the circuits are used for the
diagram for circuit X. purpose of rectification.

(ii) In the space below draw a waveform

is produced in the CRO screen when
a capacitor is connected parallel to
resistor R.

(iii) Give the reason for your answer in

b(ii).
_______________________________
_______________________________

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Figure (a)
Key :
Np = Number of turns in primary coil
Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil (e) What is meant by semiconductor?
(i) What is meant by rectification ? (f) Using Diagram 10.1 and Diagram 10.2,
(ii) Explain the working principle of a relate the lighting of the bulbs, the
transformer. current and the way the diode is
(iii) You are asked to make a 12 V battery connected to the terminals of the
charger . Study the circuits, J, K ,L, M battery to deduce a relevant physics
and N in Figure (a) and consider the concept.
following aspects:
- type of transformer
- ratio of the number of
turns in primary coil to
secondary coil
- type of rectification
- characteristic of output
current

(g) Diagram 10.3 shows a full wave rectifier

SPM 2007 Section B circuit.
24. Diagram10.1 and Diagram 10.2 show two
electrical circuits containing
semiconductor diodes.

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(i) Draw the wave form of a full wave

rectification.

(ii) A capacitor is placed across the

output to smooth the current. Draw
the wave form produced. Explain
how a capacitor is used to smooth
the current.

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