ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY I & II

Relaxation and Brain Rhythms: Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Theta rhythms

Alpha Rhythms in the Occipital Lobe

Lessons 3&4

Surya Agrawal

Edgar Bustamante

Chelsea Charlsen

Mingmo Lee

Computer #17 – Tuesday Lab

3 November, 2009
HYPOTHESIS

The EEG recorded with eyes open and subject relaxing will have lower amplitude and frequency

than the EEG recorded with the eyes closed and subject relaxing. In the second experiment, the

EEG alpha wave amplitude will be higher while performing mental arithmetic than the control of

eyes closed and relaxed. The alpha wave amplitude will also be higher than the control after

hyperventilation. The amplitude of the alpha waves of the EEG will decrease from the control

when the eyes are opened.

SPECIFIC AIMS

In the first experiment, our aim was to record an EEG from a resting subject with their eyes open

and then closed. The subject was to remain awake for the duration of the experiment. After

recording, the alpha, beta, delta, and theta components of the EEG were identified and examined.

In the second experiment, the subject was to again remain awake and resting, and EEG was

monitored during: relaxation with eyes closed, performing mental math with eyes closed,

hyperventilation with eyes closed, and relaxed with eyes open. These recordings were then

examined to observe differences in the level of alpha rhythm activity for each of the

aforementioned conditions.

BACKGROUND

The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a record of the electrical potential difference

between points on the surface of the scalp. The EEG potential difference arises from graded

postsynaptic potentials summed from hundreds of thousands of neurons below the electrodes,

and not action potentials. Any sensory information entering the central nervous system is relayed

through the lower centers of the brain and then sent to various regions of the central cortex. Most

of the electrical signal that makes up the EEG comes from pyramidal cells in the cortex.
Pyramidal cells are one of two types of cortical neurons, and they are the major output cells of

the cortex by sending their axons to other parts of the cortex and CNS. These pyramidal cells are

rather large with processes that lie perpendicular to the brain’s surface, and the EEG records

postsynaptic potentials in their dendrites.

The EEG produces a complex waveform with great variability in both frequency and

amplitude. The amplitude, measured in microvolts (μV), is an indicator of how much electrical

activity is going on beneath the electrodes at a given time. Higher amplitudes indicate that more

electrical activity that is taking place, because amplitude indicates the degree of synchronous

firing of the neurons that are generating the synaptic activity. Lower amplitudes mean that the

cortical neurons are less activated or firing at different times. Amplitudes can range from 0.5 to

100μV. The wave’s frequency is a measure of how often it cycles from its maximal to minimal

amplitude and then back, and it is measured in hertz (Hz, or cycles/second). There are four

distinct frequency ranges that are characteristic of EEG patterns, and a general rule is that lower

EEG frequencies indicate a less responsive state. So, the EEG of a sleeping individual should

have a lower frequency than that of an awake individual. The one exception to this is the REM

stage of sleep, during which the frequency resembles that of an awake individual but sleep

continues. There are currently many conflicting theories on the exact cause of the wavelike

nature, or rhythmicity, of the EEG, and it is not yet agreed upon where in the brain it originates.

The EEG is valuable clinical tool because wave patterns over areas of the brain that are

diseased or damaged are abnormal. The EEG can be used as a preliminary detection of tumors,

blood clots, hemorrhage, regions of dead tissue, and variations in blood sugar levels. Also, a

shift from low amplitude to high amplitude EEG often preludes an epileptic seizure.
METHODS

The study was done on two subjects: 21- year old healthy female, weighing 141 pounds

and standing 5 feet 6 inches, and 22-year old healthy male, weighing 180 pounds and standing 5

feet 11 inches. Three electrodes were placed on each subject, who was in a supine position, as

follow: one electrode on the top part behind the ear (red lead), another on the middle part behind

the ear (white lead), and one electrode on the earlobe (black lead). This alternative electrode

placement was used caused by the subjects’ abundant amount of hair which did not allow a

correct electrode attach. The electrodes were placed on the right side of the subject’s scalp five

minutes before calibration of BIOPAC Student Lab Program. Tape was needed to attach

electrodes to the skin and a Lycra swim cap was placed on the subjects’ head to press the

electrodes against the scalp with a constant pressure.

Recording of data was taken in two parts for the two subjects. For the first part, a cycle

of Eyes open- eyes closed- eyes open was recorded. Each eye condition (open or closed) lasted

ten seconds. The subjects remained relax and in supine position the entire procedure; they did not

blink (while eyes open) or made facial muscle Due to the novelty of this methodology for the

recorders and the difficulty attaching electrodes on the scalp, calibration and recording were

taken several times. The second part it is just a continuation of the first part and it is the similar

to it except for the cycle composition. The subjects were recorded in four conditions (cycle

segments): (a) relax with eyes closed for ten seconds; (b) performing mental math with eyes

closed; this step lasted 20 seconds and consisted in arithmetical problems. For the first subject:

. For the second subject:

(c) recovering from hyperventilation

with eyes closed for ten seconds; before this segment was recorded, the subject breathed quickly
and deeply for two minutes, however, during the recording the subject did not hyperventilated;

and (d) relax with eyes open for ten seconds.

After recording, we analyzed the data of each subject for each part. The measurements

analyzed for the first part included the amplitude (converted to standard deviation) and frequency

of EEG rhythms at each eye condition. For the second part, the measurements analyzed included

the amplitude and frequency of alpha rhythm.

RESULTS

The results obtained via the experiment matched what was expected. Each subject was

within the typical frequency range for alpha, beta, delta and theta as observed from the EEG

complex.

The frequencies determined for the alpha rhythm from Segment 1 data was 10 Hz

(Subject 1) and 7.69 Hz (Subject 2). Subject 2 has a frequency of 7.69 Hz which does not fall

within the range of the typical frequency range, which is 8 – 13 Hz. Also, In each experimental

condition, it was found that the experimental mean was larger than the control.

Subject 1 - Chelsea

Table 1 - Standard Deviation [stddev]

Rhyth Chann Eyes Eyes Eyes Re-
m el Closed Open closed
Alpha CH 2 1.87 1.55 1.48
Beta CH 3 2.66 2.56 2.83
Delta CH 4 3.73 4.11 7.56
Theta CH 5 1.00 1.05 0.99
 Table 2- Frequency (Hz)
Rhythm Channel Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Mean
Alpha CH 2 11.11 10.52 10.00 10.54
Beta CH 3 25.00 25.00 22.22 24.07
Delta CH 4 2.59 2.27 2.27 2.38
Theta CH 5 5.26 5.55 4.34 5.05

Table 3 - Amplitudes
Alpha
EEG Alpha
Segme rms
Condition [1- [40-
nt [41-
Stddev] Stddev]
Mean]
Eyes Closed
1 4.36 1.509 0.292
(control)

Eyes Closed,
2 performing 4.73 1.589 0.316
mental math

Eyes Closed,
recovering from
3 6.302 1.819 0.358
hyperventilatio
n
4 Eyes Open 6.57 1.767 0.338

Table 4
Calculate
Contro
the
l Mean
Segme Experimental Experimen Differenc Summa
nt Condition tal Mean e ry
(Seg
(Exp - (+ ,- ,
1)
Control) =)
Performing
2 0.316 0.292 0.024 +
Mental Math
Recovering
From
0.358 0.292 0.066 +
Hyperventilati
3 on
4 Eyes Open 0.338 0.292 0.046 +
Subject 2 – Surya

Table 5 - Standard Deviation [stddev]

Rhyth Chann Eyes Eyes Eyes Re-
m el Closed Open closed
Alpha CH 2 1.48 1.09 1.42
Beta CH 3 1.61 1.46 1,49
Delta CH 4 2.49 2.45 2.72
Theta CH 5 0.78 0.78 0.90

Table 6- Frequency (Hz)

Rhythm Channel Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3 Mean
Alpha CH 2 9.52 8.69 9.52 9.24
Beta CH 3 22.22 20.00 22.22 21.48
Delta CH 4 2.15 2.27 2.27 2.23
Theta CH 5 5.71 6.06 5.88 5.88

Table 7 -Amplitudes
Alpha
EEG Alpha
Segme rms
Condition [1- [40-
nt [41-
Stddev] Stddev]
Mean]
Eyes Closed
1 5.17 1.513 0.282
(control)
Eyes Closed,
2 performing 15.85 1.63 0.312
mental math
Eyes Closed,
recovering from
3 5.046 1.807 0.351
hyperventilatio
n
4 Eyes Open 4.42 1.455 0.283
 Table 8
Calculate
Contro
the
l Mean
Segme Experimental Experimen Differenc Summa
nt Condition tal Mean e ry
(Seg
(Exp - (+,- ,
1)
Control) =)
Performing
2 0.312 0.282 0.03 +
Mental Math
Recovering
From
0.351 0.282 0.069 +
Hyperventilati
3 on
4 Eyes Open 0.283 0.282 0.001 +

DISCUSSION

A regular periodic waveform is a waveform that repeats itself at regular intervals and is

characterized because they have frequency and amplitude. Frequency is the number of cycles (or

peaks) per second, or the wavelength divided by the velocity. Amplitude is the magnitude of the

displacement of a wave from a mean value (from the lowest to the highest value) and is

designated as mV.

The four periodic rhythms in a EEG are alpha, beta, delta and theta. These basic rhythms

are associated with various states. The alpha rhythm is a pattern of smooth, regular electrical

oscillations that occur in the human brain when a person is awake and relaxed with eyes closed.

It has a frequency of 8-13 Hz and prominent amplitude (20-200μV) especially in the occipital

and parietal region of the cerebral cortex. The beta rhythm is associated with normal waking

consciousness in a person with eyes open (though, also occur during deep sleep) and it has a

frequency of 13-30 Hz and amplitude of 5-10 μV. The pattern of these waves is desynchronized

as a result of the sum of the electrical activity. The delta and theta rhythms are associated with

deeper stages of sleep. They have low frequency: delta (1-5Hz) and theta (4-8Hz) that increase
during sleep. These rhythms also occur on awake individuals during emotional responses and

difficult mental activities.

Desynchronization of the alpha rhythms occurred when the subjects’ eyes were open.

Since these waves are prominent when the subjects are relaxed and eyes closed, when the

subjects opened their eyes, stimuli affected their level of attention and alpha rhythms became

desynchronizated and diminished. On the other hand, beta rhythm became more pronounced in

the eyes open state because when the subjects opened their eyes, external stimuli made them to

be more attentive. This is caused by the higher level of alertness the subjects were exposed to

which is related to beta waves. An important point to mention is the difference between

synchrony and alpha block. As discussed previously, synchrony is proper of alpha waves in

relaxing conditions and is characterized by smooth and constant oscillation with amplitudes

generally large and medium frequency. In contrast alpha block or desynchronize is the relation

that exists when things occur at unrelated times such as in beta rhythms. This phenomenon

occurs when the subjects are awake with their eyes open and the positive and negative activities

in the brain counterbalance. These waves are distinguishes by low amplitude with multiple and

varying frequencies.

The standard deviation of our data represents the amount of alpha activity occurring in

the subject. However, it does not hold true for the beta wave. The beta wave occurs when the

subject is attentive to his/her environment. The standard deviation does not represent the amount

of activity in the beta wave because the positive and negative activities are counter balancing one

another. Instead of getting a synchronized pattern like the alpha waves, the beta waves are in a

desynchronization or alpha block wave pattern.

 The delta and theta rhythm decreased in the male subject and increased in the female

subject when their eyes opened. However, when the female subject reclosed her eyes, the delta

wave standard deviation significantly increased, while the theta wave standard deviation slightly

decreased. In the male subject, his delta and theta waves slightly decreased when he opened his

eyes and increased when he re-closed his eyes. The delta and theta waves decreases because the

two waves are representations of the activity in the brain while the subject has their eyes closed.

When the subjects have their eyes closed, they are not affected by the outside stimuli and are

able to focus on their thoughts. Other studies have suggested that the delta and theta waves are

strongest during sleep in normal adults.

In our results, the female subject has the highest EEG amplitude, 6.57 stddev, for having

her eyes open. In the male, the highest EEG amplitude was during the mental math segment,

15.85 stddev. This occurred because female subject must have been mentally distracted while

trying to perform the math functions with her eyes closed. We can make this assumption because

the amplitude for the control (eyes closed) is 4.36 stddev, while the amplitude during mental

math is 4.73 stddev. The amplitude during the mental math is higher, suggesting that there were

more activity in the brain that normal.

Mental math does require concentration. Without concentration, the numbers easily get

mixed up and the total math sequence will be disturbed. The level of concentration can be seen

by its affect on the EEG waves. The higher the level of concentration, the higher the amplitude

of the wave is. The brain activity ignites when more than one part of the brain is required to do a

mathematical function. It has to recall the numbers from the memory and use the given

mathematical function to obtain the correct answer. Since it was a given sequence of
mathematical functions, the subjects had to do mental math quickly in order to keep up. Without

concentration, the subject will have easily given up and the brain activity would have decreased.

The alpha levels were the highest for both subjects during the recovering from

hyperventilation. This occurs because hyperventilation decreases CO2 concentrations and

increases O2 concentration in the blood. The pH levels are also increased. All of these factors

contributes to increased brain activity, thus the alpha levels are higher during the recovering

process of hyperventilation.

The lowest alpha waves were seen when the subjects had their eyes open. Alpha waves

increases when the subjects have their eyes closed because alpha waves are the measurements of

the brain activity during eyes closed. The greatest amplitudes of the waves are measured from

the occipital and parietal regions of the brain. It is greatly affected if the brain is or is not

receiving signals from the eyes.

If the subjects were recorded in a darkened room, the wave activities will have been

different compared to a subject tested in a lab full of students. The darkened room will have

prevented any extraneous external stimuli which would have caused the more activity in the

brain. For example, the sounds of other lab groups causes noises in which the brain responds to,

the conversations from nearby people causes emotional responses, etc. With a darkened room,

the subject will be by him/herself and will be able to obtain better results to compare with.

CONCLUSION

Our experimental findings agree with our hypotheses, with one exception in experiment

two. In the first experiment, the EEG decreased when the subject opened their eyes after they had

been recording with eyes closed. In the second experiment, we found that the EEG was greater

than the control for all three conditions: eyes closed and performing mental math, eyes closed
and recovering from hyperventilation, and eyes open. We expected the value to be greater for

mental math and recovering from hyperventilation but expected the amplitude for eyes open to

be less than the control. We believe the reason that this was not the case is that the eyes open

recording was taken too soon after hyperventilation, and the subjects were still recovering, so

their blood pH had not yet returned to normal.

REFERENCES

Pflanzer, Richard, J.C. Uyehara, and William McMullen. (2009) “Lesson

3: EEG I & Lesson 4: EEG 2” Biopac Student Lab Manual. BIOPAC Systems,

Inc., Santa Barbara, CA. p. 1-16, p.1-18.

Widmaier, E.P., & Raff, H., & Strang, K.T. (2008). Vander's Human

Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function. New York: McGraw-Hill. P.

233-253.