APPLIED

Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

ENERGY
www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy

Thermodynamic-behaviour model for air-cooled

screw chillers with a variable set-point
condensing temperature
K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu *

Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,

Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

Received 1 September 2004; revised 18 October 2004; accepted 16 January 2005

Available online 14 June 2005

Abstract

This paper presents a thermodynamic model to evaluate the coefficient of performance

(COP) of an air-cooled screw chiller under various operating conditions. The model accounts
for the real process phenomena, including the capacity control of screw compressors and vari-
ations in the heat-transfer coefficients of an evaporator and a condenser at part load. It also
contains an algorithm to determine how the condenser fans are staged in response to a set-
point condensing temperature. The model parameters are identified, based on the performance
data of chiller specifications. The chiller model is validated using a wide range of operating
data of an air-cooled screw chiller. The difference between the measured and modelled COPs
is within ±10% for 86% of the data points. The chillerÕs COP can increase by up to 115% when
the set-point condensing temperature is adjusted, based on any given outdoor temperature.
Having identified the variation in the chillerÕs COP, a suitable strategy is proposed for air-
cooled screw chillers to operate at maximum efficiency as much as possible when they have
to satisfy a buildingÕs cooling-load.
Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Air-cooled chillers; Coefficient of performance; Condensing temperature; Screw compressors

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 276 64374; fax: +852 276 57198.
E-mail address: befwyu@polyu.edu.hk (F.W. Yu).

0306-2619/$ - see front matter Ó 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2005.01.009
266 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

Nomenclature

Symbols
AU overall heat-transfer coefficient (kW °C
1)
COP coefficient of performance of chiller
CR compression ratio
Cpa specific heat-capacity of air (1.02 kJ kg
1 °C
1)
Cpw specific heat-capacity of water (4.19 kJ kg
1 °C
1)
Cprg specific heat-capacity of vapour refrigerant in evaporator
(kJ kg
1 °C
1)
Cprl specific heat–capacity of liquid refrigerant in condenser (kJ kg
1 °C
1)
E power input (kW)
Ecf, ea rated power of one condenser fan (kW)
hi specific enthalpy of refrigerant at state i
LMTD log mean temperature-difference (°C)
mr refrigerant mass-flow per compressor (kg s
1)
mw mass-flow rate of chilled water (kg s
1)
Ncc number of staged compressors
Ncf number of staged condenser fans
Nch number of staged chillers
ni index of reversible polytropic expansion
P saturated refrigerant pressure of the refrigeration circuit (absolute kPa)
PLR chillerÕs part-load ratio (given by Qcl/Qcr)
Qcd heat rejection (kW)
Qcl cooling-capacity (kW)
Qcr nominal cooling-capacity (kW)
qrf refrigeration effect (kJ kg
1)
T temperature of saturated refrigerant within the refrigeration circuit (°C)
Tcdae temperature of air entering the condenser or outdoor temperature (°C)
Tcdal temperature of air leaving the condenser (°C)
Tcdsc degree of subcooling (°C)
Tcdsp set-point condensing temperature (°C)
Tchwr temperature of returned chilled water (°C)
Tchws temperature of supplied chilled water (°C)
Tevsh degree of superheat (°C)
Va airflow provided by staged condenser-fans (m3 s
1)
Vvd volumetric displacement of each compressor (m3 s
1)
vr specific volume of refrigerant at compressor suction (m3 kg
1)
v1 0 specific volume of saturated-vapour refrigerant at evaporator (m3 kg
1)
win isentropic work input to compressor (kJ kg
1)
gcc combined motor and transmission efficiency
gisen isentropic efficiency
gv volumetric efficiency
qa air density (1.2 kg m
3)
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 267

Subscripts
c compressor
cd condenser
cf condenser fan
ch chiller
ev evaporator
max maximum
op optimum
tot total

1. Introduction

Air-cooled chillers have long been used to provide cooling energy (in the form
of chilled water) year-round for air-conditioned buildings in subtropical regions
[1–3]. Such chillers could consume over half of the electricity taken up by air-
conditioning in a building [4]. It is worth investigating how air-cooled chillers
can operate more efficiently, in view of a situation where the use of these chillers
remains dominant compared with water-cooled chillers for air-conditioning
purposes.
Computer simulation is increasingly used to understand the operating character-
istics of chillers and to investigate how their coefficient of performance (COP) can be
optimized. Many models for chillers have been developed using various principles
and approaches [5–11]. However, very few of these apply specifically to air-cooled
chillers, and even fewer pertain to air-cooled screw chillers, which have become more
popular than air-cooled reciprocating chillers in new installations or retrofit pro-
grammes for chiller plants [12].
Considering that the time constant of the variation in a buildingÕs cooling-load is
great compared with that of the dynamic response of a chiller system, steady-state
models are sufficient to evaluate the operating variables of chillers when the build-
ingÕs cooling-load and outdoor temperature change on an hourly basis. To identify
the operating variables of chillers with some realism, mechanistic relations between
chiller components should be taken into account. The mass balance of refrigerant
and energy balance at the evaporator, compressors and condenser have to be satis-
fied. With regard to the simulation of air-cooled chillers, it is necessary to consider
how condenser fans are staged to control the condensing temperature while meeting
the required airflow for any given heat rejection. Taking all these factors into ac-
count, Chan and Yu [13] developed a thermodynamic model for an air-cooled recip-
rocating chiller, which considers the real process phenomena, including the capacity
control of compressors and variations in the overall heat-transfer coefficients of an
evaporator and a condenser at part load. They have also introduced an algorithm
to compute the number of staged condenser fans having a set-point condensing-
temperature.
268 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

Drawing on Chan and YuÕs model [13], a thermodynamic model for air-cooled
screw chillers is presented here to identify a chillerÕs COP under various conditions.
Since none of previous research has studied the influence of varying the set-point
condensing-temperature on the COP of these chillers, an analysis is carried out for
this purpose here. The model parameters are based on the performance data in chil-
ler specifications. The chiller model is validated using a wide range of operating data
of an air-cooled screw chiller. The difference between the measured and modelled
COP is found to be within ±10% for 86% of the data points. The chiller COP can
increase by up to 115% when the set-point condensing-temperature is adjusted based
on any given outdoor temperature. Having identified the variation in the chillerÕs
COP, a suitable strategy is proposed for air-cooled screw chillers to operate at
maximum efficiency as much as possible when they have to satisfy a buildingÕs
cooling-load.

2. Development of the chiller model

2.1. Configuration and basic assumptions

The configuration of the model chiller was the same as for a field chiller, which
was one of the five chillers in a plant serving an institutional complex for two years.
With a building-management system, the operating data of the chillers were moni-
tored and the buildingÕs cooling load was computed to implement the sequential
staging of the chillers. Based on the uncertainty in the measurement of variables,
the root sum square error for the chillerÕs COP was calculated to be 7.9–14.6% when
the chiller operated above half load. The COP of the chillers at full load complied
with the performance data in the chillerÕs specifications.
The model chiller used R134a (tetrafluoroethane) as the working refrigerant and
had a nominal cooling capacity of 1000 kW. For the shell-and-tube liquid evapora-
tor, the evaporating temperature was designed to be 3 °C. The temperature of the
supply chilled-water was set at 7 °C with a temperature rise of 5.5 °C at full load.
The flow of chilled-water was maintained at 43.0 kg s
1 in all operating conditions.
The model chiller comprised four refrigeration circuits in parallel and each circuit
included one electronic expansion-valve and one twin-screw compressor. Each com-
pressor provided three steps of capacity control by adjusting the position of the slid-
ing valve. The air-cooled condenser was designed to control the condensing
temperature at 50 °C, when the outdoor temperature was 35 °C. Heat rejection
was regulated by staging five groups of condenser fans and each group consisted
of four constant-speed fans to provide a constant-flow of 18.9 m3 s
1.
Fig. 1 shows the vapour-compression cycle for the model chiller. There was no
heat exchange between the chiller and its surroundings. This meant that the heat
rejection (Qcd) was the sum of cooling capacity (Qcl) and compressor power (Ecc).
Pressure losses in the refrigerant pipelines were disregarded. The throttling of refrig-
erant at the expansion valve was assumed to be isenthalpic (i.e., h3 = h4). The degree
of subcooling (Tcdsc) and that of superheat (Tevsh) were assumed to be 8 and 3 °C,
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 269

Degree of Isentropic
subcooling (Tcdsc) Heat rejection (Qcd) compression

Pcd 2’ 2
3
Pressure (kPa)

Tcd Polytropic
Adiabatic
compression
throttling
(h3 = h4) Compressor
Tev power (Ecc)

Pev 4 1
1’
Cooling capacity (Qcl) Degree of
superheat (Tevsh)

Refrigerant specific enthalpy, h (kJ/kg)

Fig. 1. Vapour-compression cycle of the model chiller.

respectively, in all operating conditions, given their possible variations (Tcdsc: 1–6 °C;
Tevsh: 4–8 °C) caused up to 0.16% of uncertainty of chillerÕs COP [13].

2.2. Methods of simulation

The chiller was modelled by using the simulation program TRNSYS [14].
TRNSYS is based on a modular approach to model chiller components coded
in the form of FORTRAN subroutines. By creating an input file, component sub-
routines were linked up to form the chiller. The model included a subroutine gi-
ven by Bourdouxhe et al. [15] to evaluate the thermodynamic properties of the
refrigerant R134a. Each operation condition comprised seven inputs: outdoor
temperature (Tcdae), the part-load ratio of the chiller (PLR), chilled-water flow
(mw), the temperature of supply chilled water (Tchws), the degree of subcooling
(Tcdsc), the degree of superheat (Tevsh) and the set-point condensing-temperature
(Tcdsp). Tcdsp was used to determine when one more group of condenser fans
needed to be staged to control the condensing temperature at slightly below its
set point. The outputs were operating variables within the components of com-
pressors, the evaporator and condenser. They were solved by the following sets
of algebraic equations through an iterative procedure.
The cooling capacity (Qcl) of an evaporator is expressed by the following
equations:
Qcl ¼PLRQcr ; ð1Þ
¼mw C pw ðT chwr
T chws Þ; ð2Þ
¼mr; tot qrf ; ð3Þ
¼AUev LMTDev ; ð4Þ
270 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

where
qrf ¼ h1
h4 ; ð5Þ

1
AUev ¼ .8 .745 þ c ; ð6Þ
c1 m
0
w þ c2 Q
0
cl 3

ðT chwr
T ev Þ
ðT chws
T ev Þ
LMTDev ¼
T ev . ð7Þ
lnðTT chwr
chws
T ev
Þ

Eq. (4) illustrates that the method of log mean temperature-difference (LMTD)
was used to model the evaporator and, in turn, to determine the evaporating temper-
ature (Tev). The overall heat-transfer coefficient of the evaporator (AUev) was de-
scribed by a simplified mechanistic relation in Eq. (6) [13], where c1, c2 and c3
were characteristic parameters to be evaluated based on the performance data of
the chiller. For a constant mw, AUev could vary from 65.2 to 173.4 kW °C
1,
depending on the load condition.
The actual power input (Ecc) of the staged compressors is given by the following
equation:
win
Ecc ¼ mr; tot ; ð8Þ
gisen gcc

where
V vd gv
mr; tot ¼ N cc ; ð9Þ
vr
ni  ni
1 
win ¼ P ev vr CR ni
1 ; ð10Þ
ni
1
P cd
CR ¼ ; ð11Þ
P ev

1 1
¼
ð
0.0007 þ 0.0002P ev ÞT evsh ; ð12Þ
vr v1 0

gv ¼ 0.925
0.009CR; ð13Þ

gisen ¼ 0.01ða1 T 2cd þ a2 T cd þ a3 T 2ev þ a4 T ev þ a5 T 2cd T ev þ a6 T cd T ev þ a7 Qcr þ a8 Þ;

ð14Þ

gcc ¼ 0.3 þ 0.567PLR þ 0.133PLR2 . ð15Þ

The volumetric displacement (Vvd) of each constant-speed screw compressor was a
constant and identified to be 0.12 m3 s
1 based on the performance data of the chiller
at full load. The specific volume (vr) of superheated refrigerant at the compressorÕs
suction was calculated by Eq. (12) which was determined by plotting and fitting the
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 271

thermodynamic properties of R134a. Volumetric efficiency (gv) was ascertained by

plotting and fitting the compressorsÕ performance data. Using the regression analysis,
Solati [16] established the isentropic efficiency (gisen) and the combined motor and
transmission efficiency (gcc) of the screw compressors studied. The constant coefficients
a1 to a8 of gisen were
0.0316958, 2.90112,
0.0296849,
1.45279, 0.000321176,
0.00683086, 0.0170575 and
16.5018, respectively. With Eqs. (8)–(15), it was possible
to assess how the compressor power changes in response to different capacity control
steps in terms of the chillerÕs part-load ratio (PLR) and variations in the evaporating
temperature (Tev) and condensing temperature (Tcd).
The specific enthalpy of the superheated refrigerant at the compressorÕs discharge
(h2) was solved by using Eq. (16). The specific enthalpy of the superheated refrigerant
at the compressorÕs suction (h1) was given by Eq. (17). The determination of the
refrigerant enthalpy at the condenser discharge (h3) was similar to that of h1
win
h2 ¼ h1 þ ; ð16Þ
gisen gcc

h1 ¼ h10 þ C prg T evsh ; ð17Þ

h3 ¼ h30
C prl T cdsc . ð18Þ

Heat rejection (Qcd) involves the energy and mass balances in the condenser and is
described by Eqs. (19)–(24). It is the sum of cooling capacity (Qcl) and compressor
power (Ecc). For the overall heat-transfer coefficient of the condenser (AUcd) shown
in Eq. (23), the terms with c4 and c5 accounted for the local heat-transfer coefficients
of the air side and refrigerant side [13]. The characteristic parameters c4 to c6 were
identified based on the performance data of the chiller. AUcd could be used to de-
scribe how a variation in the heat-rejection airflow (Va) influenced the control of
the condensing temperature (Tcd) for any given chiller load. Tcd was correlated with
the temperature of the air entering the condenser (Tcdae) and that leaving the con-
denser (Tcdal) by the log mean temperature-difference (LMTDcd) defined in Eq. (24)
Qcd ¼Qcl þ Ecc ; ð19Þ
¼mr; tot ðh2
h3 Þ; ð20Þ
¼V a qa C pa ðT cdal
T cdae Þ; ð21Þ
¼AUcd LMTDcd ; ð22Þ
where
1
AUcd ¼
0.5 .8 ; ð23Þ
c4 V a þ c5 m
0
r; tot þ c6

ðT cd
T cdae Þ
ðT cd
T cdal Þ
LMTDcd ¼ . ð24Þ
lnðTT cdcd
T cdae

T cdal
Þ

The power input of condenser fans (Ecf) meant the total power of the condenser
fans staged at a given operating condition. It was calculated by Eq. (25), where Ecf, ea
272 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

was the rated power of a condenser fan and Ncf was the number of staged condenser
fans (see Section 2.3 for the calculation of Ncf). As shown in Eq. (27), the COP of the
chiller was expressed as the cooling capacity (Qcl) over the chiller power (Ech), and a
higher chiller performance meant a higher COP. It had to be noted in Eq. (26) that
Ech was the sum of the compressor power (Ecc) and condenser fan power (Ecf)
Ecf ¼ N cf Ecf; ea ; ð25Þ

Ech ¼ Ecc þ Ecf ; ð26Þ

Qcl
COP ¼ . ð27Þ
Ech

2.3. Algorithm of the staging condenser fans

For any given cooling-capacity (Qcl), either the heat-rejection airflow (Va) or con-
densing temperature (Tcd) can be adjusted to trade off an increase in condenser
fan power against a decrease in the compressor power for minimum chiller power.
When transposing Eq. (21), inequality (28) is obtained to control Tcd. Based on
head-pressure control, there is a set point (Tcdsp) to prevent the condensing temper-
ature from rising above a maximum level of 52 °C. The lower boundary of Va shown
in inequality (29) results from transposing inequality (28). After substituting from
Eq. (30) into inequality (29), inequality (31) is established to determine the number
of staged condenser fans (Ncf) for a given Tcdsp
Qcd
T cdal ¼ þ T cdae < T cd 6 T cdsp ; ð28Þ
V a qa C pa

Qcd
< V a; ð29Þ
qa C pa ðT cdsp
T cdae Þ

V a; tot
Va ¼ N cf ; ð30Þ
N cf; tot

N cf; tot Qcd

. < N cf . ð31Þ
V a; tot qa C pa ðT cdsp
T cdae Þ

3. Evaluation of operating variables

The flow charts in Fig. 2 show the procedure for evaluating the operating variables
of the chillerÕs components. The evaporator parameters needed to compute the vari-
ables (Tchwr, AUev, LMTDev) are based on the inputs: the part-load ratio of the chiller
(PLR), chilled-water flow (mw), the temperature (Tchws) of the chilled-water supply
and the degree of superheat (Tevsh). Then the outputs were calculated, namely: evap-
orating temperature (Tev) and pressure (Pev), and refrigerant properties at compressor
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 273

START

INPUTS PLR Tcdae Tchws mw Tevsh Tcdsc Tcdsp

Start of Start of
evaporator Calculate Qcl ITER=0, Tcdo=50 compressor
model model

Tcdo
Calculate Tchwr, AUev, LMTDev

Calculate Pcd, h3
Calculate Tev, Pev

Calculate CR, win, v, isen

Calculate h1, vr, h1’, v1’

Calculate mr, Ncc, cc, Ecc, h2

Calculate qrf, mr,tot
Start of
condenser
model Algorithm of
INPUTS Tcdae Tcdsp staging
condenser fans
Calculate Qcd

Ncf,tot Qcd
Calculate Tcdal Ncf Integer .
Va,tot C
a pa (Tcdsp Tcdae)

Y Y
Tcd,max < Tcdal ? Ncf <= 4i?
(i = 1) Ncf = 4i
N
N
Calculate AUcd , LMTDcd
i = i+1
Va = (Va,tot/Ncf,tot)Ncf
Max (i) = 5
Calculate Tcd Ncf = Ncf +1

N
Tcd < Tcdo ?
Y
N Tcdo = Tcd
|Tcdo - Tcd| < 0.005?
ITER=ITER+1
Y
Calculate Ecf

Calculate Ech, COP

END

Fig. 2. Procedure for determining the operating variables of the model chiller.
274 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

suction (h10 ; v10 ; h1 and vr ). Given that the condensing temperature (Tcd) linked the
compressor and condenser components, the operating variables of the two compo-
nents had to be determined to a specific accuracy through an iterative procedure.
The iterative procedure started with an initial condensing temperature (Tcdo) of
52 °C in the compressor component (the case: ITER = 0). Using Eqs. (8)–(18), the
variables within the compressor component were determined directly. The inputs to
the condenser component consisted of the outdoor temperature (Tcdae), compressor
power (Ecc) and outputs of the evaporator component (Qcl and mr, tot). Heat rejection
(Qcd) and all other variables could then be solved by the equations of the condenser
component.
Based on the algorithm of staging condenser fans, the number (Ncf) of staged con-
denser fans and the corresponding airflow (Va) were computed according to a set-
point condensing temperature (Tcdsp). There were three logical arguments in the flow
chart of the condenser model to evaluate all variables. In the first argument, if the
temperature of air leaving the condenser (Tcdal), solved by Eq. (21), exceeded a max-
imum condensing-temperature (Tcd, max) of 52 °C, one more group of condenser fans
would be added to raise the airflow and to reduce the condensing temperature, sub-
sequently calculated, to below 52 °C. In the second argument, if the condensing tem-
perature calculated for the condenser component was greater than that calculated
previously for the compressor component, one more fan group would be staged to
bring it to its set point. In the third argument, if the difference between the condens-
ing temperature and its previous value lay within ±0.005 °C, all variables would be in
equilibrium; otherwise the next value of the condensing temperature would substi-
tute for its previous one to proceed to the next iteration until this accuracy was met.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Validation of the chiller model

The measured data used for validating the chiller model came from a field chiller
operating under head-pressure control. These data pertained to the COP of the field
chiller at various outdoor temperatures (Tcdae: 15–34 °C) and part-load ratios (PLR:
0.25–1). Each set of inputs of the chiller model contained a certain combination of
Tcdae and PLR, and around 50 discrete combinations were selected for the valida-
tion. For head-pressure control, the set-point condensing temperature (Tcdsp) was
fixed at 45 °C, irrespective of how the chiller load and outdoor temperature varied.
For all combinations of Tcdae and PLR, the inputs (mw, Tchws, Tcdsc and Tevsh) were
regarded as constants as specified in Section 2.1. Fig. 3 illustrates that the modelled
results of the chillerÕs COP agreed well with the corresponding measured data. In-
deed, for 86% of data points, the uncertainty of the chillerÕs COP was less than
10%, and, for half of these, the uncertainty was within ±5%. With this good agree-
ment, it is justifiable to use the chiller model to investigate how the set-point con-
densing temperature should be adjusted to enhance the chillerÕs performance
under various operating conditions.
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 275

4.0
+5%

3.5
Modelled chiller COP

-5%
3.0

2.5

2.0
2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Measured chiller COP

Fig. 3. Comparison between the modelled and measured data for chillerÕs coefficient-of-performance
(COP).

4.2. Chiller performance at varying set-points condensing temperature

The set-point condensing temperature was adjusted in the range of 20–45 °C

at 5 °C intervals, given the chiller could operate at an outdoor temperature of
10–35 °C and given the condensing capacity was designed with a 10–14 °C difference
between the outdoor temperature and condensing temperature. To implement head-
pressure control, the set-point condensing temperature was fixed at 45 °C. Fig. 4
shows how the chillerÕs COP could be improved by lowering the set-point condensing
temperature by various combinations of outdoor temperatures and part-load ratios.
If the difference between the outdoor temperature and set-point condensing temper-
ature was above 25 °C, the chillerÕs COP would remain the same for each part-load
ratio. This was because there was no increase in the number of staged condenser-
fans. When the set-point condensing temperature exceeded the outdoor temperature
by less than 5 °C, the maximum chillerÕs COP was achieved throughout the entire
range of part-load ratios.
According to the algorithm of staging condensing-fans, when the set-point con-
densing temperature was maintained at a high level of 45 °C, most of the condenser
fans were switched off in many operating conditions. The condenser capacity was not
effectively used to lower the condensing temperature to save compressor power. With
the discontinuous modulation of heat-rejection airflow, the chillerÕs COP tended to
fluctuate across the entire range of part-load ratios, especially when the outdoor tem-
perature was low. On the other hand, when the set-point condensing temperature
dropped, more condenser fans were staged, thereby consuming more fan power. De-
spite this, the condenser effectiveness could be enhanced to lower the condensing
temperature. With the reduced condensing temperature, the extent to which the com-
pressor power could decrease always exceeded the increased fan power, so enabling
276 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

Fig. 4. Chiller coefficient of performance (COP) at different set points of condensing temperature in
various operating conditions.

the chiller power to be reduced. The chillerÕs COP rose steadily with increased part-
load ratios.
For maximum chillerÕs COP, the optimum set-point condensing temperature
(Tcdsp, op) could be expressed by Eq. (32). Tcdsp, op, indeed, was consistent with the
lower boundary of the condensing temperature, which is the sum of outdoor temper-
ature and the log mean temperature-difference at the condenser side (i.e.,
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 277

Tcdae + LMTDcd) [13]. This adjustment of the set point would be considered as a
floating condensing-temperature control (CTC), which was totally different from
head-pressure control (HPC) under which the number of staged condenser fans
was minimized by a high level of Tcdsp. Table 1 summarizes the percentage increase
in the chillerÕs COP under CTC in relation to that under HPC. Under CTC, the chil-
ler COP could increase by 2.3–115.4%, depending on the operating conditions and
the extent to which the number of staged condenser fans increased at a lower Tcdsp

T cdae þ 5 for 15 6 T cdae ;
T cdsp; op ¼ ð32Þ
20 otherwise.

4.3. Strategy for staging chillers at maximum efficiency

Having found that the chillerÕs COP can be improved by resetting the set-point
condensing temperature, it is worth considering how this can complement the stag-
ing of the chillers. Given that the reset strategy is independent of chiller load, it is
applicable to air-cooled chillers handling any given building-load profile with various
combinations of the buildingÕs cooling-loads and outdoor temperatures. The reset
strategy should be applied to all air-cooled chillers to reduce their annual energy con-
sumption when they have to operate year-round. This is because according to Table
1, the chillers can operate with an improved COP whenever their part-load ratio falls
or the outdoor temperature is lower than the design level of 35 °C.
According to the part-load performance curves shown in Fig. 4, the maximum
chillerÕs COP occurred when the chiller operated at full load. When a chiller plant
contains air-cooled screw chillers, it is desirable to switch one chiller on as long as
each staged chiller operates at above full load to meet the changing building-cooling
load, and to switch one of the staged chillers off when the part-load ratio of the
staged chillers drops to below (Nch
1)/Nch, where Nch is the number of staged chill-
ers in the chiller plant. If, for example, four chillers are operating, when their part-
load ratio falls to below 0.75, one of the chillers can be switched off. To properly
stage chillers, it is essential to monitor the part load ratio of each chiller, and this
monitoring involves measuring the flow and temperature of the chilled water across

Table 1
Percentage increase in chillerÕs coefficient-of-performance under floating condensing-temperature control
in relation to head pressure control
Outdoor Chiller part-load ratio
temperature 0.083 0.167 0.25 0.333 0.417 0.5 0.583 0.667 0.75 0.833 0.917 1
(°C)
10 0.0 26.9 71.5 22.2 31.2 50.1 75.5 115.4 44.0 56.1 68.6 87.2
15 8.4 37.3 100.0 29.6 46.4 70.0 33.6 43.5 55.3 69.9 89.3 44.4
20 8.8 43.3 19.0 34.5 56.8 29.4 40.1 53.1 69.7 37.7 45.6 54.9
25 10.2 54.2 22.9 42.8 24.8 36.4 50.7 30.3 38.1 24.7 29.4 34.7
30 12.3 10.9 28.8 19.6 32.0 22.0 16.1 20.6 14.5 17.4 11.7 13.6
35 15.5 15.2 12.7 11.7 10.9 8.9 6.8 4.6 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
278 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279

the evaporator. On the other hand, if identical chillers in a two-loop pumping system
are balanced to carry equal flows of chilled water, they will operate at the same part-
load ratio and can be staged based simply on the systemÕs mixed temperature of the
return chilled-water and supply chilled-water.
Considering that chiller’s the COP can drop when the part-load ratio of chillers
decreases (see Fig. 4), it is necessary to operate all the staged chillers at an equal
part-load ratio to achieve maximum overall performance. With regard to a chiller
plant containing equally-sized chillers, this operating strategy can be achieved by
providing all the chillers with equal flows of chilled water in all conditions of the
buildingÕs cooling load. If unequally sized chillers are used, they should carry their
own nominal flows of chilled water and these flows should be based on the same tem-
perature of the supplied chilled-water together with its temperature rise at full load.
Under the arrangement of identically-sized chillers, the proper staging of chillers
is straightforward and is based entirely on the load conditions of the individual chill-
ers. However, when a chiller plant contains chillers of different sizes, it is critical to
determine the buildingÕs cooling-load, in addition to the load conditions of each chil-
ler, in order to stage these chillers properly with maximum COP. It is impossible to
simply switch these chillers on or off based on their load-conditions, but they can be
staged in various combinations to meet the requirements of the buildingÕs cooling-
load. This underlines the need to directly monitor the total capacity of the chillers
when various operating conditions are in force.
As the part-load performance curves shown in Fig. 4 illustrate, using both chiller
load and outdoor temperature is insufficient to predict the chillerÕs COP accurately,
as the variation in the chillerÕs COP depends largely on the ways of controlling the
condensing temperature. To ensure that air-cooled screw chillers operate within their
maximum performance range, it is, therefore, important to monitor the condensing
temperature for any chiller load. This is because the condensing temperature can
mirror the fluctuation in the chillerÕs COP under various outdoor temperatures.

5. Conclusions

This paper presents a thermodynamic model for air-cooled screw-chillers in order

to investigate how their coefficient of performance can be improved under various
operating conditions. The model parameters are identified based on the performance
data in the chiller’s specifications and the chiller model is validated using a wide
range of operating data of an air-cooled screw chiller. By resetting the set-point con-
densing temperature, based on any given outdoor-temperature, the chillerÕs COP can
increase by 2.3–115.4%, depending on the operating conditions and the degree of in-
crease in the number of staged condenser-fans. With the verified model, the strategy
for operating the chillers at maximum efficiency is discussed.
The chiller model can be used as a design and analytical tool to predict the extent
to which the annual energy use of air-cooled chillers, with the reset scheme, can drop
when these chillers satisfy a buildingÕs cooling-load profile. The results of such a pre-
diction could encourage chiller manufacturers to assimilate the reset strategy into
 K.T. Chan, F.W. Yu / Applied Energy 83 (2006) 265–279 279

air-cooled chillers to make them more efficient and sustainable. It is recommended

that experimental tests should be carried out on air-cooled screw chillers to examine
whether there are potential constraints on screw compressors to work at a lower
compression-ratio at part load. It remains to be seen how to put the new algorithm
into chiller microprocessors to implement the reset strategy.

Acknowledgement

The work described in this paper was supported by a grant from the Research
Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR, China.

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