IEEE 802.

11 – MAC/PHY
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
 Nonpersistent / x-persistent CSMA Protocols

• Nonpersistent CSMA Protocol:

Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately
Step 2: If the medium is busy, wait a random amount of time and
repeat Step 1
– Random backoff reduces probability of collisions
– Waste idle time if the backoff time is too long

• 1-persistent CSMA Protocol:

Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit immediately
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium
becomes idle, and then transmit immediately
– There will always be a collision if two nodes want to retransmit
(usually you stop transmission attempts after few tries)

• p-persistent CSMA Protocol:

Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay for worst
case propagation delay for one packet with probability (1-p)
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen until medium
becomes idle, then go to Step 1
Step 3: If transmission is delayed by one time slot, continue with Step 1

– A good tradeoff between nonpersistent and 1-persistent CSMA

 How to Select Probability p ?

• Assume that N nodes have a packet to send and the medium

is busy
• Then, Np is the expected number of nodes that will attempt to
transmit once the medium becomes idle
• If Np > 1, then a collision is expected to occur

Therefore, network must make sure that Np < 1 to avoid

collision, where N is the maximum number of nodes that can
be active at a time
 Throughput

1.0 0.01-persistent CSMA

0.9 Nonpersistent CSMA
0.8
0.7
0.1-persistent CSMA
0.6
0.5-persistent CSMA
0.5
S

1-persistent CSMA
0.4
0.3
0.2
Slotted Aloha
Aloha
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
G
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
802.11
IEEE 802.11 MAC Functionality
802.11
802.11 Specifications
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 Accessing the medium CSMA/CD

station A CRS
defer

station B CRS

defer
station C CR CRS
S

collision

• Adapters that can detect collisions (e.g. Ethernet adapters)

– Carrier Sensing: listen to the media to determine if it is free
– Initiate transmission as soon as carrier drops
– When collision is detected station defers
– When defer timer expires: repeat carrier sensing and start
transmission
 Accessing the medium CSMA/CA

station A

station B CRS defer

station C CRS defer defer

CR CR
S S

• Wireless LAN adapters cannot detect collisions:

– Carrier Sensing - listen to the media to determine if it is free
– Collision Avoidance - minimize chance for collision by starting
(random) back-off timer, when medium is sensed free, and prior to
transmission
 CSMA/CA with MAC - level Acknowledgment

Message

ACK

• Collisions still can occur (interference; incapability of sensing other carrier)

– IEEE 802.11 defines “low-level” ACK protocol
– Provides faster error recovery
– Makes presence of high level error recovery less critical
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 “Hidden stations”: the problem

A B C

A sends to B
C doesn’t detect that, so C might also start sending to B
Collision of messages at B: both messages lost

• Situation that occurs in larger cells (typical outdoor)

– Loss of performance
– Error recovery required
“Hidden terminal”: the problem
 “Hidden stations”: the solution

A B
C
RTS: I want to send to B 500 bytes
CTS: OK A, go ahead, so everybody quiet
Data: the 500 bytes of data from A to B
ACK: B received the data OK, so an ACK

• IEEE 802.11 defines:

– MAC level RTS/CTS protocol (Request to Send / Clear to Send)
– Can be switched off to reduce overhead (when no hidden nodes exist)
– More robustness, and increased reliability
– No interruptions when large files are transmitted
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 Message fragmentation

Hit

A hit in a large frame requires re-transmission of a large frame

Fragmenting reduces the frame size and the required time to re-transmit

• IEEE 802.11 defines:

– MAC level function to transmit large messages as smaller frames (user
definable)
– Improves performance in RF polluted environments
– Can be switched off to avoid the overhead in RF clean environments
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 Multi-channel roaming

• IEEE 802.11 systems, support multi-channel roaming

– Access points are set to a fixed frequency
– Stations do not need to be configured for a fixed frequency
– Stations switch frequency when roaming between access points
– Stations “associate” dynamically to the access point with best
signal, on power on
• This implies
– Easier configuration
– Faster installation
 Multi-channel roaming

Channel 1 Channel 11

Channel 6
Channel 1
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 Automatic rate select

• Wireless PC Card, dynamically switches data-rate

– Fall back to lower data-rate when communications quality
decreases
• out of range situations
• Interference
– Fall-back scheme:
• 11 Mbps, 5.5 Mbps, 2 Mbps, 1 Mbps
• This implies
– Operating at larger distances
– Robustness in RF polluted areas
 Automatic rate select

• PC Card is capable of supporting different data-rates

“simultaneously”:
– e.g. operates at “High” speed in communication to nearby
station and at “Low” speed to station that is further away.
• Data rate capability is maintained in “station association
table”
• Speed of IEEE Management - and Control frames use
fixed speed determined as “IEEE Basic Rates”, and
controlled by “Multi-cast Rate parameter”.
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• In-cell relay
• Power Management
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
• Wireless Distribution System (WDS)
 Cell size / Multi Rate applications

• Cell-size can be influenced by “Distance between APs” parameter:

– Distance between APs = Large -> large cell
– Distance between APs = Medium -> medium size cell
– Distance between APs = Small -> small cell
• Cell-size influences capacity per station in the cell
– small cell physically accommodates smaller number of stations than
large cell
– bandwidth per station in small cell greater than in large cell
• Cell size influences data-rate
– larger distance between station and access-point may lead to lower
data-rate
 Cell size / Multi Rate applications

• Mixture of cell-sizes accommodate mixed applications:

– Office workers:
• High physical station density
• High bandwidth requirement
• Small cell operating at high data rate
• Distance between APs is small
– Warehouse operations (such as forklift truck)
• Low physical station density
• Low bandwidth requirement (transaction processing)
• Large cell operating at low data rate
• Distance between APs is large
 Multi Rate applications

2 Mbits/sec

1 Mbits/sec
 IEEE 802.11 features

• ACK protocol
• Medium reservation (RTS/CTS)
• Fragmentation
• Multi-channel roaming
• Automatic data-rate fall-back
• Cell size / Multi-rate applications
• Power Management
 Power Management

• IEEE 802.11, supports power management:

– nothing to send: station in sleep mode
– out-bound traffic stored in Access Point (out-bound = from AP to
STA)
– station wake up only for Traffic Information Map (TIM)
– if messages: stay awake to receive them
• This implies:
– Prolonged battery life
– Increase usability in hand-held equipment
– Works best in application that have limited bandwidth
requirements (transaction processing)
IEEE 802.11 – PHY
802.11 Specifications
802.11
 802.11 - Technical Comparison

Network Std IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11a

Access Method CSMA/CA CSMA/CA CSMA/CA

Modulation CCK (8 complex chip 64-QAM-OFDM 64-QAM-OFDM

spreading) 16-QAM-OFDM 16-QAM-OFDM
QPSK-OFDM QPSK-OFDM
BPSK-OFDM BPSK-OFDM

Data Rate 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbps 1, 2, 5.5, 11 , 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48,
36, 48, 54 Mbps 54 Mbps

Freq. Band 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz 5.150 – 5.250
5.25 0– 5.350
5.725 – 5.825 GHz

Channelization 25/30 MHz spacing 25/30 MHz spacing 20 MHz spacing

3 Channels 3 Channels
802.11b (and g) Physical Layer Channels

Limites de Potência (EIRP):

· 802.11b/g (2.4 GHz): 30dBm / 1000mW

Obs: Resolução Anatel 365/2004:

Na faixa de radiofreqüências de 2400 - 2483,5 MHz,
potência e.i.r.p. limitada a 400 mW, em localidades
com população superior a 500.000 habitantes.
! "
#
 DSSS Channels (802.11)

5 MHz offset between each channel.

3 Non-Overlapping Channels exist in US: 1, 6, and 11

These are very important when doing Access Point layout and Site Surveying.
 Channels- 802.11b

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 2483
2400

Spectrum: 83MHz
Channels: Three 22MHz stationary channels. Only 3 non-overlapping.
Speeds: 1, 2, 5.5, and 11 Mbps data rate

Notes: With direct sequence the energy is spread out over a wide area of the band. 802.11b channels have a bandwidth of 22Mhz. This
will allow 3 non-overlapping, non-interfering channels to be used in the same area. This is also the 802.11 channel scheme. If there is a
severe signal interference in one area, it is possible to change to another channel and totally avoid the interference. Changing channels
does not happen automatically in DS, and must be done with re-configuration. Note actual throughput is much less due to protocol
overheads – best case 6Mbps.
 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi

802.11b/g
CH 1 CH 6 CH 11

DSSS

Three non-overlapping channels in 2.4 – GHz band (20MHz Wide)

 Channel Setup

Channel 1 Channel 11 Channel 6 Channel 11 Channel 1

Channel 6 Channel 1 Channel 11 Channel 6 Channel 11

 Site Survey Channel Mapping

Channel 1 Channel 11 Channel 6 Channel 11 Channel 6

Channel 6 Channel 1 Channel 11 Channel 1 Channel 11

Notes: Deciding on the placement and number of access points is the first critical step in determining proper coverage. Very few gaps in the
coverage should be left since those will be dead air and the client could lack connectivity in those locations. Bandwidth requirements do have an
impact on the coverage areas; that will be discussed in an upcoming slide.
The second critical area is to map out the channel assignments and make sure that there is minimal overlap between channels that cover the same
frequency. Channels 1, 6 and 11 do not have overlapping frequencies and are normally used for roaming applications with Direct Sequence
Access Points.
 802.11b Coverage

1 Mbps DSSS

2 Mbps DSSS
5.5 Mbps DSSS

11 Mbps DSSS

Notes: 802.11b coverage at 1 and 2 Mbps is identical to the other 2 Mbps products with the added benefit of support for 5.5 and 11 Mbps.
When compared to FH, A 2Mb FH product will typically cover what a DS will cover while running 5.5 Mbps. A DS system also has the
ability to datarate shift when moving, allowing the same person operating at 11Mbps, then move to 5.5, 2, and finally still communicate at the
outside ring at 1 Mbps. This rate shifting happens without losing connection, and without any interaction from the user.
 30mW Cell Size Comparison

11 Mbps DSSS
25 – 30 meter radius

5.5 Mbps DSSS

30 – 60 meter radius

2 Mbps DSSS
60 – 90 meter radius

30 milliWatt client and

Access Point range capabilities

Notes: Default power/coverage. UT environments don’t tend to be typical.

Maximum coverage for every cell isn’t necessarily a goal. Our biggest problem is that APs hear one another, but don’t provide good
signal. So, for decent coverage we need more APs, but then we run into problems of overlapping channels. Even if that wasn’t the
problem, you might want more bandwidth because there are lots of people in an area to cover.
By adjusting transmitter power, you can change the coverage.
 Site Survey Bandwidth Layout

2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps

5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps

11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps

11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps 11 Mbps

5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps 5.5 Mbps

2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps 2 Mbps

Notes: Bandwidth requirements are also factors in coverage mapping, since the distance from an Access Point has a bearing on the available
bandwidth. The above example provides for seamless roaming, but not at a constant speed. Here, we would take advantage of our Multirate
technology and step down in bandwidth, in order to gain greater coverage distances with a single Access Point. If 11 Mbps is required
everywhere, then the Access Points would need to be relocated so that ONLY the “red” 11 Mbps circles are touching each other. This would
require a greater amount of Access Points, but consistent bandwidth would be achieved. Notice that the data rate decreases as the coverage
distance increases.
Coverage areas don’t line up like this in reality. Nor are they flat, but rather three dimensional.
 802.11a Physical Layer Channels

802.11a
Channel Frequency
Identifier (MHz)
34 5170
36 5180
38 5190
40 5200
42 5210 Limites de Potência (EIRP):
44 5220 ·
46 5230 · 802.11a (5.15-5.25GHz): 17dBm / 50mW
48 5240 · 802.11a (5.25-5.35GHz): 24dBm / 250mW
52 5260 · 802.11a (5.725-5.825GHz): 30dBm / 1000mW
56 5280
60 5300
Nota – ver canais selecionados em slide adiante
64 5320
149 5745
153 5765
157 5785
161 5805
! "
#
 802.11a

Spectrum (US*):
50mW from 5.150 – 5.250 GHz
250mW from 5.250 - 5.350 GHz
1W from 5.725 – 5.825 GHz
Speeds:
6, 12, and 24Mbps for compliances
54Mbps+ expected
Channels:
Notes: Spectrum: More spectrum is available at a higher rate 20 MHz channels
yielding more throughput than 802.11b. In the US, all three ranges
are available. However in other countries only the first two, or only
Vendors? 8 - 15
the first is available. It is unclear how this will effect demand for
products and how many channels will be provided. At 5GHz, these
signals will not travel as far.
 As faixas para WLAN e WPAN

! " #
$ # % & ' !
$% ( ) #
%*+, - %*+.# /" 0*+, -
%*+. 1 0*+

" 2 3 " + 4 " 5 678#

0*+# & + &" /"
 802.11a Physical Layer Channels

802.11a (EUA e Américas)

Frequency Channel Transmit Maximum Transmit
Number Frequency Power
U-NII lower band 36 5.180 GHz 50mW (2.5mW/MHz)
40 5.200 GHz
44 5.220 GHz
48 5.240 GHz
U-NII middle band 52 5.260 GHz 250mW (12.5mW/MHz)
56 5.280 GHz
60 5.300 GHz
64 5.320 GHz
U-NII upper band 149 5.745 GHz 1000 mW (50mW/MHz)
153 5.765 GHz
157 5.785 GHz
161 5.805 GHz
802.11a Physical Layer Channels
 OFDM for Mobile Communications

OFDM represents a different system design approach. It can be thought of as a

combination of modulation and multiple access schemes that segments a communications channel in
such a way that many users can share it. Whereas TDMA segments according to time, and CDMA
segments according to spreading codes, OFDM segments according to frequency. It is a technique that
divides the spectrum into a number of equally spaced tones, and carries a portion of a user’s
information on each tone. A tone can be thought of as a frequency, much in the same way that each
key on a piano represents a unique frequency. OFDM can be viewed as a form of frequency division
multiplexing (FDM). However, OFDM has na important special property that each tone is orthogonal
with every other tone. FDM typically requires there to be frequency guard bands between the
frequencies so that they do not interfere with each other. OFDM allows the spectrum of each tone to
overlap, and since they are orthogonal, they do not interfere with each other. By allowing the tones to
overlap, the overall amount of spectrum required is reduced.
 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi

OFDM
802.11a

Eight non-overlapping channels in lower 5-GHz band

 Module contents

• Technologies overview
• Spread Spectrum
– Direct Sequence
– Frequency Hopping

• Modulation
– DBPSK/DQPSK
– CCK
 OSI Reference Model: PHY

• Network Oper. System

– Network Layer
Network
NetworkLayer
Layer – Guarantees delivery data
• Drivers
IEEE:
IEEE:LLC
LLCLayer
Layer – LLC Layer
– send/receive data
• LAN Controller
IEEE:
IEEE:MAC
MACLayer
Layer – MAC Layer
– data into/out frame
Physical
PhysicalLayer
Layer
• MODEM
– Physical Layer
– frame into/out phy frame
 Wireless LAN technologies (overview)

Wireless
WirelessLAN
LANTechnologies
Technologies

Spread
Spread
Infrared
Infrared Narrow
NarrowBand
Band Spectrum
Spectrum

Direct
Direct Frequency
Frequency
Sequence
Sequence Hopping
Hopping
 Wireless LAN technologies (Spread Spectrum)

• Unlicensed usage (ISM band)

• No line of sight requirement (indoor)
• High link reliability
• Built-in transmission security
•
Frequency Spectrum (MHz)
Two techniques used:
88 103 2400
– Direct Sequence FM Band

– Frequency Hopping Power Power

2400 2500
Frequency Frequency
Standard Radio Spread Spectrum
Transmission Transmission
 Module contents

• Technologies overview
• Spread Spectrum
– Direct Sequence
– Frequency Hopping

• Modulation
– DBPSK/DQPSK
– CCK
Multiple Access Methods: Multiple users share the available spectrum

TIME TIME • Multiple users share

the same frequency
Each user assigned channel sequentially
a different frequency User 3
1 2 3 • Time slot sequence
- like ordinary radio User 2 repeats over and
User 1 over

FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
FDMA TDMA

CODE • Channel is “spread” over wide

frequency band
TIME • Many users share the same
User 3 frequency band at the same time
User 2 • Each user is assigned a unique
User 1 “code” to identify and separate
them
FREQUENCY
CDMA
also known as “Spread Spectrum”
 Spread Spectrum Technologies: DS vs. FH

• Direct Sequence COMPLETE WAVEBAND ALLOCATED

– Each symbol is transmitted over

multiple frequencies at the same time
– Very efficient (no overhead)
– Higher speed than FH at comparable
distances Time
– System capacity (multiple channels)
higher than FH

• Frequency Hopping
– Sequential use of multiple
frequencies
– Hop sequence and rate will vary
– “End hop waste time” Time
 Spread Spectrum Technologies: Direct Sequence transmitter

Digital Signal (Bits) Multiplier

Source and
RF
Channel X
Modulator
Coding Frequency
Spectrum

f
Code Bits (Chips) “Spread” Frequency f
Code Spectrum
Generator

• Spreading: Information signal (I.e. a “symbol”) is multiplied by a

unique, high rate digital code which stretches (spreads) its
bandwidth before transmission.
• Code bits are called “Chips”.
• Sequence is called “Barker Code”
Spread Spectrum Technologies: What happens during “spreading”

Symbol time ts
• Due to the multiplication of a
“1” “0” symbol with Barker code, the
“rate-of-change” increases with
X “symbol”
a factor 11
• This means that cycle rate
= “Barker” sequence increases from 1 MHz to 11
MHz

Result of multiplication
Chip
time tc • In terms of spectrum this
means that after RF modulation
the signal is spread from 2
MHz bandwidth to 22 MHz
bandwidth

2 Mhz 22 Mhz
 Spread Spectrum Technologies: Direct Sequence receiver

Digital Signal (Bits)

Multiplied
Channel
RF
X and
Demodulator
De-Spread Source
“Spread” Frequency f Signal Decoding
Spectrum
f
Code Bits (Chips)
Code
Generator

• At the receiver, the spread signal is multiplied again by a synchronized

replica of the same code, and is “de-spread” and recovered
• The outcome of the process is the original “symbol”
 Spread Spectrum Technologies: De-spreading

Direct Sequence • When the incoming signal is

Spread Spectrum de-spread, it results in either a
Signal positive (+) or a negative (-)
“spike”

11 chip code : • These “spikes” arrive at

+11
intervals equal to the symbol
time

Data
+1
• A positive spike represents a
-1 “1” symbol, a negative spike
represents a “0” symbol

Symbol -11

time
Spread Spectrum Technologies: Direct Sequence receiver - effect of echoes

• Echoes may arrive at the

receiver, fluctuations can be
noticed at positions other than
at the symbol time boundaries

peak
• These fluctuations are ignored
as the receiver will only
echo interpret the spike at the
synchronization points
(separated from each other by
the symbol time)
echo

Symbol
time
802.11
 Module contents

• Technologies overview
• Spread Spectrum
– Direct Sequence
– Frequency Hopping

• Modulation
– DBPSK/DQPSK
– CCK
Modulation: DBPSK (Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying)

Bit Input ω)
Phase Change (+jω
0 0
1 π
Table 1, 1 Mb/s DBPSK Encoding Table.
Modulation: DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)

Dibit pattern (d0,d1)

d0 is first in time ω)
Phase Change (+jω
00 0
01 π/2
11 π
10 3π/2 (-π/2)
Table 1, 2 Mb/s DQPSK Encoding Table
 CCK : Turbo 11 Mbps approach

CCK = Complementary Code Keying

• IEEE 802.11 standard for high speed
• 11 and 5.5 Mbps data rates
• Outstanding high multi-path performance
• Outstanding low-SNR performance
• Seamless interoperability with existing DS
• Maintains QPSK chips at 11 MHz chip rate
• Maintains 3 frequency channels
 CCK : How it works

5.5 MBps
CCK
• Data bits are encoded to a symbol which is
transmitted in the form of 8 chips
• For Data-Rate = Medium Encoding means: 2 bits encoded to
4 complex code
– mapping 2 data bits to I or Q channel (in- words; 2-QPSK
Phase, Quaternary Phase)
– mapping 2 data bits to one of 4 Complex 8 chips
Codewords
• For Data-Rate = High Encoding means: 11 MBps
CCK
– mapping 2 data bits to I or Q channel (in-
Phase, Quaternary Phase)
6 bits encoded to
– mapping 6 data bits to one of 64 64 complex code
Complex Codewords words; 2-QPSK

• Codewords are complex complementary

codes selected from a code set 8 chips
 CCK : Operating at medium speed

I OUT
2 Pick One of 1
4 Complex
Codes *
Q OUT
1
DATA
IN
Scrambler

1
MUX
1:8 1

1.375 MHz 11 MHz

8 chips clocked with 11 MHz

Data Rate = 4 bits/symbol * 1.375 MSps = 5.5 MBps

 CCK : How it works

I OUT
6 Pick One of 1
64 Complex
Codes
Q OUT
1
DATA
IN
Scrambler

1
MUX
1:8 1

1.375 MHz
11 MHz

Data Rate = 8 bits/symbol * 1.375 MSps = 11 Mbps

 CCK : Data rates and symbol rates

• Bit-rates:

– The 11 chips Barker sequence in Standard DSSS carries one

symbol clocked at 1MHz, which results in a symbol rate of
1Msymbol/sec.

– The 8 chips sequence in CCK clocked at 1 MHz, results in a

symbol rate of 1.375 Msymbol/sec (i.e. 11/8)

– At date rate = medium, 4 data bits are mapped on one symbol,

which results in 5.5 Mbps (i.e. 1.375 * 4)

– At date rate = high, 8 data bits are mapped on one symbol, which
results in 11 Mbps (i.e. 1.375 * 8)
 CCK : From DSSS BPSK to 11 Mbps CCK

802.11 DSSS BPSK 802.11 DSSS QPSK 5.5 MBps 11 MBps

1 MBps 2MBps CCK CCK
Barker Barker
BPSK QPSK

1 bit used to 2 bits encoded to 6 bits encoded to

2 bits used to 64 complex code
BPSK code word 4 complex code
QPSK code word words; 2-QPSK
words; 2-QPSK

I, Q I, Q I, Q
I, Q

11 chips 11 chips 8 chips 8 chips

1 MSps 1 MSps 1.375 MSps 1.375 MSps
 Technical Comparison

Network Std IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11a

Access Method CSMA/CA CSMA/CA CSMA/CA

Modulation CCK (8 complex chip 64-QAM-OFDM 64-QAM-OFDM

spreading) 16-QAM-OFDM 16-QAM-OFDM
QPSK-OFDM QPSK-OFDM
BPSK-OFDM BPSK-OFDM

Data Rate 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbps 1, 2, 5.5, 11 , 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48,
36, 48, 54 Mbps 54 Mbps

Freq. Band 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz 2.4 – 2.4835 GHz 5.150 – 5.250
5.25 0– 5.350
5.725 – 5.825 GHz

Channelization 25/30 MHz spacing 25/30 MHz spacing 20 MHz spacing

3 Channels 3 Channels
802.11
 Problemas de Propagação

2.
Electromagnetic
Interference
(EMI) from 1.
Other stations, Attenuation: signal gets
Microwave ovens, etc. weaker with distance

Blocking 3.
Direct Signal Object Shadow
Laptop
Zone
4. Multipath
(Dead Spot)
Interference

Reflected Signal
Direct and reflected signals may cancel out
Wi-Fi Multipath
 Propagação com Percurso Múltiplo

A interferência entre os múltiplos percursos pode ser

destrutiva, dando origem a desvanecimento da portadora
modulada recebida, e consequente degradação da qualidade
de transmissão (BER).
Access Point 802.11)
 Sistemas de Antenas com Diversidade

• São usados para combater a distorção e o

desvanecimento resultantes de propagação com
percurso múltiplo.
• Utilizam duas antenas idênticas, a pequena distância
uma da outra, cobrindo a mesma área de serviço.

Exemplo: Cisco AIR-ANT3351, usada para aumentar

o alcance dos adaptadores de clientes.
Ganho: 2,2 dBi
 Características das Antenas

• Ganho
- medida do acréscimo de potência na direcção de máxima radiação

• Diagrama de Radiação
- gráfico da distribuição espacial da potência radiada (geralmente
representado em dois planos, horizontal e vertical)

• Polarização
- gráfico da variação temporal da intensidade do campo, num plano
normal à direcção de propagação
Antenas
 Exemplos de Cobertura de Antenas

Omni Directional Directional Patch Yagi/Parabolic

 Diagrama de Radiação – Exemplo

13.5 dBi Yagi

Cisco AIR-ANT1949 Horizontal Vertical
 Line of Sight/Earth Curvature

Many obstructions may block line of sight.

•Topographic features such as hills or mountains
•Vegetation such as trees or vines
•Man-made objects like buildings or towers
•The curvature of the Earth.

Line of Sight disappears at 6 miles (9.65 km) due to the curvature of the earth.
 Fresnel Zone

The area around the visual line-of-sight that radio waves spread out into after they
leave the antenna. This area must be clear or else signal strength will weaken.
Fresnel Zone is an area of concern for 2.4 GHz wireless systems. Although 2.4
GHz signals pass rather well through walls, they have a tough time passing
through trees. The main difference is the water content in each. Walls are very dry:
trees contain high levels of moisture. Radio waves in the 2.4 GHz band absorb into
water quite well.
 Cantenna

• Cantenna (htttp://www.cantenna.com)
–Extends the range of a client and/or access point
–Legitimate uses as well
Belkin: Wireless Pre-802.11n Router
Linksys Wireless-G Router with SRX

The Linksys Wireless-G Router with SRX combines

smart antenna technology with standards-based
Wireless-G (802.11g) networking. By overlaying the
signals of two Wireless-G compatible radios, the
"Multiple In, Multiple Out" (MIMO) technology
effectively doubles the data rate.
Similar to Belkin's "pre N" wireless router, Linksys
doesn't claim to be "pre" anything. Like Belkin's
MIMO technology, it claims better range and speed,
reducing "dead spots" in the wireless coverage area.
The new Linksys SRX combines an 802.11g, access
point with a built-in 4-port full-duplex 10/100 Switch
and Router to share a high-speed cable or DSL
Internet connection.
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 War Driving

• “Wireless LAN war drivers routinely cruise their immediate areas in

cars equipped with laptops loaded with a wireless LAN card, an
external high-gain antenna and a GPS receiver. The wireless LAN
card and GPS receiver feed signals into freeware, such as
NetStumbler, which detects APs and their identifiers along with their
GPS-derived locations. NetStumbler also automatically detects
whether or not built-in Wi-Fi Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is
turned on or off.

• More malevolent war-drivers may use Air-Snort or Kismet, tools

designed to crack WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy).
 War Chalking

•War Chalking is a language devoted to publicly labeling Wireless Networks

across the world (this is more of a myth…not been proven this is done at all).
•http://www.warchalking.org