Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Thermal stress
Insulation stress
Load disruption
Harmonics increase the equipment losses and thus the thermal stress. Triplen harmonics result
in the neutral carrying a current which might equal or exceed the phase currents even if the
loads are balanced. This dictates the derating or oversizing of neutral wires. Moreover,
harmonics caused resonance might damage the equipment. Harmonics further interfere with
protective relays, metering devices, control and communication circuits, and customer
electronic equipment. Sensitive equipment would experience maloperation or component
failure.
Transformer heating
Transformer secondary voltage distortion
Increased power losses
Overloaded neutrals and capacitors
Telephone and communication system noise
Harmonic effects fall into two basic categories: short-term and long-term. Short-term effects
are usually the most noticeable and are related to excessive voltage distortion. On the other
hand, long-term effects often go undetected and are usually related to increased resistive
losses or voltage stresses.
Short-term effects can cause nuisance tripping of sensitive loads. While voltage distortions of
5% are not usually a problem, voltage distortions above 10% will almost always cause
significant nuisance tripping or transformer overheating.
Over and above mechanical fatigue due to vibrations, the main long-term effect of harmonics
is heating.
5.2
Capacitor heating : The losses causing heating are due to two phenomena:
conduction and dielectric hysteresis. As a first approximation, they are proportional to
the square of the rms current.
Vibrations and noise:The electrodynamic forces produced by the instantaneous
currents associated with harmonic currents cause vibrations and acoustical noise,
especially in electromagnetic devices (transformers, reactors, etc.). Pulsating
mechanical torque, due to harmonic rotating fields, can produce vibrations in rotating
machines.
Interference on communication and control circuits: Disturbances are observed
when communication or control circuits are run along side power distribution circuits
carrying distorted currents.
Heating due to additional losses in machines and transformers:
o additional losses in the stators (copper and iron) and principally in the rotors
(damping windings, magnetic circuits) of machines caused by the considerable
differences in speed between the harmonic inducing rotating fields and the rotor.
o supplementary losses in transformers due to the skin effect (increase in the resistance
of copper with frequency), hysteresis and eddy currents (in the magnetic circuit).
Heating of cables and equipment: Losses are increased in cables carrying harmonic
currents, resulting in temperature rise. The causes of the additional losses include:
o an increase in the rms value of the current for an equal active power consumed;
o an increase in the apparent resistance of the core with frequency, due to the skin
effect;
o an increase in dielectric losses in the insulation with frequency, if the cable is
subjected to non-negligible voltage distortion;
o phenomena related to the proximity of conductors with respect to metal cladding and
shielding earthed at both ends of the cable, etc.
Harmonics have the effect of increasing equipment copper, iron and dielectric losses and
thus the thermal stress.
If skin effect is neglected, the pu increase in copper losses due to harmonics is determined by
the current distortion factor or by the voltage distortion factor.
PR PR PR1
PR PR1 (1 THDV2 ) PR1 (1 THD I2 ) PR pu THDV2 THD I2
PR1 PR1
Iron losses are the losses in an iron core of a magnetic circuit. These losses consist of
hysteresis loss and eddy-current loss. Hysteresis loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of
an iron core, and depends on the volume and quality of the used magnetic material, maximum
value of the flux density and frequency of electric current. Eddy-current loss is the power loss
associated with the flow of eddy currents which create induced magnetic fields that oppose
5.3
the change of the original magnetic field due to Lenz's law. Iron losses can be expressed as
follows, assuming sinusoidal flux density:
PFe Ph Pe
B
I P
I
Ph Phi f i Bmi f 0 Bm1 i mi Ph1 i i ; Ph pu h i i iIi pu
i 1 i 1 i 1 Bm1 i 1 I1 Ph1 i 1 I1 i 1
2 2 2
Bmi
2 Ii
Pe
2 Ii
Pe Pei f i B f B i
2 2
mi Pe1 i ; Pe pu
0
2 2
m1
2
i i 2 I i2 pu
i 1 i 1 i 1 Bm1 i 1 I1 Pe1 i 1 I1 i 1
where
The dielectric loss in a capacitor is due to the impossibility of ideal insulation. That is all
insulating materials show some volume resistances in addition to their capacitances. These
resistances represent the dielectric losses. Dielectric losses can be derived from the following
network representing the equivalent of an insulating material.
R R
IR IC
I
δ
Φ V
I IC
C
IR
IR V / R 1
tan
I C 0CV 0 RC
V12
Pd 1 : Dielectric loss at the fundamental frequency V120C tan 1
R
If the loss angle is assumed to be constant, then
Pdn : Dielectric loss at n th harmonic frequency Vn2 n0C tan n
Pd Pdn Vn2 n0C tan V120C tan nVn / V1 Pd 1 nVn / V1
2 2
n n n n
nVn / V1 nVn2 pu
Pd 2
Pd pu
Pd 1 n n
5.4
Skin effect : Alternating current tends to flow on the outer surface of a conductor and is more
pronounced at high frequencies. At the seventh harmonic and above, skin effect will become
significant, causing additional loss and heating. Where harmonic currents are present, cables
should be de-rated accordingly. Multiple cable cores or laminated busbars can be used.
Harmonic amplification is explained below with respect to the following circuit. The bus
voltage when the capacitor is switched;
jX C VS
VC V 'bus VS
Z S jX C 1 o LS C jo CRS
2
1 r 1 XC SCC
r hr o hr
LS C o o LS C XS QC
VS V L Z
Capacitor voltage is then; VCh j S . S j C .VS jA f .VS
jCRS RS C RS
where, VCh is the hth harmonic capacitor voltage, equivalently the capacitor voltage at
LS
resonance, ZC is the characteristic impedance defined as Z C X S X C and Af is the
C
Z
amplification factor defined as A f C
RS
5.5
Equation of VCh points out that harmonics corresponding or close to the resonant
frequency is amplified. The resulting voltages highly exceed the voltage rating and the
consequence is capacitor damage or blown fuses. The amplification factor can be expressed
as;
LS
Z X S XC X S
Af C C .hr
RS RS RS RS
ANSI/IEEE standard 181 “shunt power capacitors” states that capacitors can be
continuously operated in a harmonic environment provide that:
Peak current does not exceed 180% (superseded to 130%) of rated peak current
I peak
1 CCF 1,3 CCF 0,3
I1
Peak voltage does not exceed 120% of rated voltage
V peak
1 VCF 1,2 VCF 0,2
V1
Example: Analyze the incident of capacitor switching in the following system. Calculate the
characteristic impedance and the amplification factor.
Tr
154 kV system : SCC[MVA] X/R
Min: 6000 7.5
154 kV 36 kV Normal : 7000 7.0
Max: 8000 8.0
C
Tr: 154/36 kV , 80 MVA , 12.0 %, X/R = 10
C : 10 MVAr
MVAB 80 ,
kVBh 154 kV , kVBl 36 kV
5.6
80 MVA 80 MVA
I Bh 300 A , I Bl 1283 A
3 154 kV 3 36 kV
VBh / 3 V / 3
Z Bh 296.4 , Z Bl Bl 16.2
I Bh I Bl
8000
ZCC pu 100 pu
80
1
Z s pu tg 18 pu 0.00124 j 0.009923 pu , Z s36 kV Z s pu * Z Bl 0.0201 j 0.1607
ZCC pu
10 1
QC pu 0.125 pu X C pu 8.0 pu
80 QC pu
fr XC 8 SCC36 kV 7.6925
hr 7.85
fo XS 0.12933 QC 0.125
ZC X 36 kV X C 1.0172 pu
A f hr X / R36 kV 77
5.2.2 Transformers
The primary effect of power system harmonics on transformers is the additional heat
generated by the losses caused by the harmonic content of the load current. Other problems
include possible resonances between the transformer inductance and system capacitance,
mechanical insulation stress (winding and lamination) due to temperature cycling and possible
small core vibrations.
The presence of harmonic voltages increases the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the
laminations and stresses the insulation. The increase in core losses due to harmonics depends
on the effect that the harmonics have on the supply voltage and on the design of the
transformer core.
The flow of harmonic currents increases the copper losses; this effect is more important in the
case of converter transformers (The task of these transformers is to isolate the system from the
network and preventing the converter unit to produce less harmonics by changing the number
of phases upon demand. They can be produced for 6, 12, 18, 24 and 48 pulse systems.
5.7
Transformers are designed specially according to the number of pulses, taking the harmonics
into account.) because they do not benefit from the presence of filters, which are normally
connected on the a.c. system side. Apart from the extra rating required, converter transformers
often develop unexpected hot spots in the tank.
Delta-connected windings can be overloaded by the circulation of triplen frequency zero-
sequence currents, unless these extra currents are taken into account in the design. Under this
condition a three-legged transformer design can be effectively overloaded by zero-sequence-
caused harmonic fluxes. These fluxes cause additional heating in the tanks, core clamps, etc.
If the load current contains a D.C. component, the resulting saturation of the transformer
magnetic circuit greatly increases the harmonic content of the excitation current.
Transformer derating to take into account the harmonic content can be given based on
derating factor expressed as;
I h 2
h
2
K h
I h
2
h
In terms of the above K factor, the following expression is used to determine the derated (or
maximum allowed) current:
1 PEC . R
I max
1 KPEC . R
where PEC.R is the ratio of eddy-current loss to rated I2R loss (I being the total r.m.s.
current).
However, flux is never exactly distributed in this way, particularly in silent pole machines.
For a three-phase synchronous generator operating in a harmonic environment, we would first
5.8
need to provide a brief review of the induced e.m.f., winding distribution and coil pitching.
One form of electromagnetic induction is the generation of a voltage because of a relative
motion between a magnetic field and current carrying conductor (c.c.c.). With the c.c.c.
moving perpendicular to the magnetic field, the induced e.m.f. in an a.c. three-phase
synchronous generator is;
E1 4.44.f 0 .N.1 .k w1
The equation should be modifies to include the harmonics. The hth harmonic induced e.m.f. is,
2
k
k wh
E Eh E1.hh . wh E1. (h . k
2
h )2
h 1 h 1 k w1 h 1 w1
THDV E E1 1
2
(h . k
h
k wh
)2 1
h 1 w1
A chorded winding is a winding whose coil sides are less than a pole pitch apart, thus saving
copper. The pitch factor is the ratio of coil voltages for a fractional-pitch winding to those for
a full pitch-one.
5.9
k p1 sin( ) 1
2
The usefulness of winding distribution and chording is to reduce or eliminate the harmonics,
.h k ph sin( .h / 2)
k ph sin( )
2 k p1 sin( / 2)
h .5 s..5
sin( ) sin( ) 0 2 s 4 / 5
2 2 2
Distributed Windings
Windings with all coil sides of a certain phase concentrated in a single slot under one pole, are
called concentrated windings. Distributed windings result in a more efficient utilization of the
armature periphery. The distribution factor is the ratio of the phase e.m.f. for a distributed
winding to that for a concentrated one.
sin(q. / 2)
kd1
q. sin( / 2)
If we use concentrated winding, kd1 will be equal to 1. q is the number of sots per pole per
phase, q=1 for concentrated winding
S
q
2. p.m
sin(30 0 ) 1
kd1
q. sin( / 2) 2.q. sin( / 2)
k wh 2 2. sin( / 2). sin(h / 6). sin( .h / 2)
E E1. (H
h 1
h .
k w1
) E1 (H h .
sin( .h / 2). sin( / 2)
Example 1:
A three-phase, 4-pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator has 120 stators with 4 coil
sides/slot and 2 turns/coil. Coil span is 8/9 pole pitch. The fundamental flux is 0.06 Wb/pole
with the third, fifth and seventh harmonic components having amplitudes of 0.21, 0.1 and
0.035 that of the fundamental. Calculate the rms harmonic components for the phase and line
voltages.
S 120
The number of slots per phase per pole is; q 10 Slots/pole/phase
2.p.m 4.3
The number of turns per phase is,
120 slots 2 turns coil 4 coil sides turns
N 160
3 phase coil 2 coil sides slot phase
8
The coil span in 0 electrical is β= s.α = .180 0 160 0
9
The distribution factor, the pitch factor, the winding factor and the flux per pole per phase are
given by
sin(q. .h / 2)
k dh ; k ph sin( .h / 2) ; k wh k dh .k ph ; h H h .1 / h
q. sin( .h / 2)
sin(10.6 / 2)
E1 4,44 f 0 N1k w1 4,44.50.160.0,06. sin(160 / 2). 2005,14 Volt
10. sin(6 / 2)
5.11
sin(10 * 6 * 3 / 2)
E3 4,44 f 0 Nh31k w 3 4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,21* 0.06 * sin(160 * 3 / 2) * 247.76 Volt
10. sin(6 * 3 / 2)
sin(10 * 6 * 5 / 2)
E5 4,44 f 0 Nh5 1k w 5 4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,1* 0.06 * sin(160 * 5 / 2) * 26.46 Volt
10. sin(6 * 5 / 2)
sin(10 * 6 * 7 / 2)
E7 4,44 f 0 Nh7 1k w 7 4,44 * 50 *160 * 0,035 * 0.06 * sin(160 * 7 / 2) * 3.56 Volt
10. sin(6 * 7 / 2)
Phase voltage,
E phase E
h 1
2
h 2005.14 2 247.76 2 26.46 2 3.56 2 2020.56 Volt 2.02 kV
Line voltage,
E line E
11
l
2
(2005.14 * 3 ) 2 (26.46 * 3 ) 2 (3.56 * 3 ) 2 3.473 kV
2
E 2026.56 2
THDV 1 ( ) 1 0.1242 12.42 %
E1 2005.14
THDV = 14.19 %
If we calculate the fundamental component for voltage in the presence of full-pitched coils,
we will get a bit bigger fundamental component compared with the chording coils, yet using
fractional pitching has the advantage of reducing harmonic voltage thus resulting in an
improved voltage waveform.
Example 3: A three phase, 6-pole, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator has 216 stator
slots with 8 conductors/slot. Coil span is 8/9 pole pitch. The fundamental flux is
5.12
0.12 Wb/pole, while the third harmonic component is 0.012 Wb/pole. Calculate
the rms harmonic components for the phase and line voltages.
S 216
The number of slots per phase per pole: q 12 slots / pole / phase
2. p.m 6.3
The fundamental and harmonic voltages can be calculated in similar manner explained in the
first example,
sin(12.5 / 2)
E1 4,44 f 0 N1k w1 4,44 * 50 * 288 * 0,12 * sin(160 / 2). 7215 Volt
12. sin(5 / 2)
sin(12 * 5 * 3 / 2)
E3 4,44 f 0 Nh31k w 3 4,44 * 3 * 50 * 288 * 0,012 * sin(160 * 3 / 2) * 1272.6 Volt
12. sin(5 * 3 / 2)
E phase E
h 1
h
2
72152 1272.6 2 7328.8 Volt
E line E
11
l
2
(7217.5 * 3 ) 2 12.5 kV
E 2 7.33 2
THDV ( ) 1 ( ) 1 0.1776 17.76 %
E1 7.217
Example 4. Rework example 3 with concentrated windings and 96 conductors /slot. What
effect does this have on the voltage magnitude?
As described before, making similar calculations, line voltage, phase voltage and total
harmonic distortion for voltage can be found as below,
E phase E
h 1
h
2
7.814 kV
5.13
E line E 13.08 kV
2
l
11
E 2
THDV ( ) 1 26.38 %
E1
Using concentrated winding will increase the fundamental generated voltage, but at the same
time, harmonic voltages and total harmonic distortion will get higher compared with the non
concentrated winding situation.
We can summarize winding factors on the generated voltage and total harmonic distortion for
voltage as:
Harmonic may create noise on communication circuits degrading the transmission quality and
can interfere with signaling.