Г.Д. Орлова
Пособие по переводу
английской научно-технической литературы
Рекомендовано
Учебно-методическим объединением по
лингвистическому образованию в качестве учебного пособия
при подготовке референтов-переводчиков, аспирантов, соискателей, магистров
Тула 2006
УДК 532.51 802.0 (07)
ISBN 5-7679-0131-7
4602020102 - 007
O 54 − 06
76 П (03) − 99
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Перевод как вид деятельности.
Виды перевода
Перевод - это выражение того, что уже было выражено на одном языке
средствами другого языка.
Перевод - искусство, требующее умения рассредоточить внимание настолько,
чтобы, занимаясь частностями, всегда иметь в виду целое, т.е. весь текст.
Итак, запомните!
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Неумение отвлечься от конкретных форм и неумение пользоваться
контекстом - типичная ошибка при переводе.
Непереводимых оригиналов нет, т.к. то, что можно выразить на одном языке,
можно выразить и на любом другом. Есть только трудности, связанные с
недостаточными знаниями либо языка, либо существа предмета.
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Виды технического перевода.
Различают следующие виды технического перевода: полный письменный
перевод, реферативный перевод, аннотационный перевод.
Полный письменный перевод - основная форма технического перевода.
Вся практически полезная научно-техническая информация, извлекаемая из
текста, обрабатывается в форме полного письменного перевода.
Работа над полным письменным переводом предусматривает ряд этапов.
Запомните!
1-й этап. Знакомство с оригиналом. Внимательное чтение всего текста с
использованием, по мере надобности, рабочих источников информации:
словарей, справочников, специальной литературы.
2-й этап. Выделение логических частей оригинала. Деление текста на
законченные смысловые отрезки - предложения, абзацы, периоды.
3-й этап. Черновой перевод текста. Последовательная работа над логически
выделенными частями оригинала.
4-й этап. Повторное (неоднократное) чтение оригинала, сверка его с
выполненным переводом с целью контроля правильной передачи содержания.
5-й этап. Окончательное редактирование перевода с внесением поправок.
6-й этап. Перевод заголовка.
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текста.
Следует помнить, что величина определяемой для
Памятка №2 перевода части текста зависит от 3-х факторов: смысловой
(2-й этап) законченности, сложности содержания, возможностей памяти
переводчика. Такой частью текста может быть предложение,
группа предложений, абзац, 11/2 абзаца и т.п., но эта часть
должна быть обязательно законченной по смыслу. Чем
сложнее текст - тем меньше такая часть, чем лучше память
переводчика - тем она больше.
Памятка №3 После того, как содержание выделенной части текста
(3-й этап) понято и усвоено, его нужно выразить по-русски. При
письменном изложении важно полностью отвлечься от
оригинала, т.к. нельзя читать и думать на одном языке и
одновременно писать и думать на другом.
Памятка №4 После того, как письменно изложено содержание
(4-й этап) выделенной части текста, нужно обратиться к оригиналу для
сверки.
При переводе последующих частей текста необходимо
постоянно следить за стилем, т.е. за качеством, единообразием
и логикой изложения.
Единообразие терминологии должно соблюдаться на
протяжении всего текста. Например, если в начале текста
часть корпуса какого-то агрегата названа “дном”, то в
дальнейшем нельзя называть ее “основанием”, “днищем” и т.п.
Необходимо постоянно следить за тем, чтобы между
каждой последующей и предыдущей частью перевода была
логическая связь.
Памятка №5 Помните, окончательно отредактировать перевод – значит
(5-й этап) стилистически обработать его в целом. При редактировании
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целесообразно руководствоваться следующими правилами:
а) если одну и ту же мысль можно выразить несколькими
способами, то предпочтение отдается более краткому способу;
б) если слово иностранного происхождения можно без
ущерба заменить словом русского происхождения, то
переводчик обязан это сделать;
в) все термины и названия должны быть строго
однозначны.
Памятка №6 Перевод заголовка должен отражать суть содержания
(6-й этап) текста, статьи, патента и т.п. Поэтому заголовок переводится в
последнюю очередь с учетом всех особенностей текста.
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Избегайте дословного перевода. Постарайтесь передать мысль оригинала
средствами родного языка, не нарушая его синтаксического строя.
Обратите внимание!
Примерная схема аннотационного перевода может быть следующей:
1. Постановка проблемы.
2. Методы решения проблемы.
3. Выделение узловых пунктов статьи.
4. Рекомендации.
Основные клише и штампы, используемые при аннотационном переводе:
1. Статья посвящена вопросу...
Речь идет о...
2. Предлагаются методы...
Описываются преимущества методов...
3. Особое внимание уделяется...
Автор подчеркивает важность...
4. Статья представляет интерес для...
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Источники научно-технической
информации
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Помните! Найти нужное слово в словаре Вам помогут сочетания из трех
букв, помещенные в верхних углах каждой страницы - начальные буквы первого
и последнего слов данной страницы.
Physics, wave, charge, particle, ray, hydrogen, discovery, field, development, farm,
detector, time, work, law, research, power, phenomenon, importance, achievement,
data, velocity, plant, equipment, zero, unit, circumference, movement, establishment,
X-ray, et cetera.
Инструкция
для нахождения исходной формы слова.
Чтобы найти исходную форму слова, нужно отбросить грамматическое
окончание.
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1.Если перед окончаниями -(e)s, -e(d), -(e)r, -(e)st стоят буквы g, c, v,
отбросьте лишь -s, -d, -r, -st,
например:
changes - change; placed - place; larger - largest - large.
Примечание. Если слово оканчивается на -ing, то -ing отбрасывается и
добавляется буква -e, например: producing - produce.
2. Если перед -(e)s, -e(d), -(e)r, -(e)st стоит буква i с предшествующей
согласной, отбросьте окончание, а букву i замените на y,
например:
supplies - supplied - supply; earlier - earliest - early.
3.Если в односложном слове перед -ing стоит буква y, отбросьте окончание -
ing, а букву y замените на ie,
например:
lying - lie; dying - die.
4.Если перед -e(d), -(e)r, -(e)st стоит удвоенная согласная, отбросьте
окончание и одну из удвоенных согласных,
например:
stopped - stop; hotter - hot; getting - get.
Примечание. Удвоенные согласные dd, ll, ss сохраняются после
отбрасывания окончания, например: called - call; adding - add; passed - pass. Во
всех остальных случаях окончания отбрасываются полностью; корневая часть
слова остается неизменяемой, например: tested - test; examples - example.
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Задание 5. Дайте словарное расположение послелогов; переведите
словосочетания с помощью словаря.
Помните! Словосочетания глагола с наречием приводятся в словаре после
знака (параллелограмм).
To look through, down, like, for, after, at, about, forward.
Задание 6. Переведите предложения. Найдите в словаре выделенные
фразеологические сочетания.
Помните! Фразеологические сочетания приводятся в англо-русском словаре
со знаком (ромб).
Значение фразеологических сочетаний или идиоматических выражений
следует искать в словаре по знаменательным словам, а не по служебным.
1.He used to drop in every now and then. 2.There was not much point in doing
that. 3.It pays in the long run, you know. 4.I can’t make head or tail of what is written
here. 5.There is no point to store data which is out of date.
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2 narrow bounds узкие рамки
narrow circumstances стесненные обстоятельства
narrow majority незначительное
большинство
narrow victory трудная победа
narrow means ...
narrow examination ...
narrow street ...
narrow-minded ...
3 Strong design прочная конструкция
Strong coffee крепкий кофе
Strong reason веская причина
Strong measures ...
Strong remedy ...
Strong drinks ...
Задание 11.
а. Найдите словарные статьи глаголов do, make, take. Ознакомьтесь с их
содержанием. Обратите внимание на разнообразие значений этих глаголов.
б. Переведите сочетания с глаголом take:
to take place, to take interest in, to take notice, to take measures, to take part in, to
take into account, to take care of, to take steps, to take advantage of, to take offence, to
take shelter, to take precautions.
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2. persecute, prosecute 12. conservation, conversation
3. diary, dairy 13. quantitative, qualitative
4. vacation, vocation 14. some, same
5. date, data 15. single, signal
6. proceed, precede 16. letter, latter, later
7. bond, band 17. future, further
8. except, expect 18. through, though, thorough
9. ingenious, ingenuous 19. very, vary
10. inter, intra 20. change, charge
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фактов. Это достигается употреблением особого порядка слов (инверсии) и
использованием специальных выделительных конструкций.
Passive voice. Пассивный залог
Who was the device invented by? Кем был изобретен прибор?
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Our lab is equipped with modern Наша лаборатория
computers. оборудована современными
компьютерами.
Cooling is made by the Охлаждение происходит путем
circulation of water. циркуляции воды.
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Например:
This question was not answered.
На этот вопрос не ответили.
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to think about (of) думать о
to touch on (upon) затрагивать, касаться
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2.Подлежащее при сказуемом в Passive Voice переводится:
а) существительным (местоимением) в именительном падеже.
Например:
The house will be built. Дом построят.
б) существительным (местоимением) в винительном или дательном
падеже без предлога. Например:
He was seen in the laboratory. Его видели в лаборатории.
He was sent all the necessary Ему послали все
equipment. необходимое оборудование.
в) существительным (местоимением) в любом косвенном падеже с
предлогом. Например:
An engineer was sent for. За инженером послали.
This article is often referred На эту статью часто
to. ссылаются.
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measured by two yardsticks – accomplishment and performance. Accomplishment is
what is done; performance is how well it is done.
Задание 2. Переведите предложения на английский язык, используя Passive
Voice. Помните! Порядок слов английского и русского предложений часто не
совпадают.
1.На эти данные часто ссылаются. 2.На этой дате будут настаивать. 3.Об этом
ученом много говорили. 4.На качество этих приборов можно положиться. 5.За
теорией последовали эксперименты. 6.О сроках договорились. 7.На скорость
реакции влияет много факторов. 8.Из какого металла изготовлена эта деталь?
9.На заводе установили новое оборудование. 10.Этому инженеру предложили
должность менеджера. 11.Нас пригласили принять участие в международной
конференции. 12.Данное вещество уже определили. 13.Чистое серебро было
получено во втором цикле эксперимента. 14.Отходы сжигаются, не входите в
лабораторию! 15.Температура плавления еще не определена, и вещество все еще
твердое. 16.Когда сотрудник вошел в лабораторию, он почувствовал какой-то
запах, потому что два газа смешивались в этот момент.
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Verbals. Неличные формы глагола
Participles. Причастия
Причастие – неличная форма глагола, в которой сочетаются признаки
прилагательного или наречия с признаками глагола. Различают два вида
причастий: Participle I (Present Participle) и Participle II (Past Participle). Participles I
и II, как и прилагательные, обозначают признак предмета. В отличие от
прилагательного, признак обозначаемый причастием, указывает на действие или
состояние предмета (a revolving part – вращающаяся деталь; the invented engine -
изобретенный двигатель), а не на его качество (a big part – крупная деталь).
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Формы причастий
Participle I Participle II
Active Voice Passive Voice
Indefinit asking being asked asked
e writing being written written
Perfect having having been
asked asked
having having been
written written
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Participle II в функции определения переводится:
Например:
The lecture delivered by our professor was very interesting.
Лекция, прочитанная нашим профессором, была очень интересной.
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2. Придаточным обстоятельственным предложением или
существительным с предлогом.
Например:
While working in the laboratory we make experiments.
Работая в лаборатории, мы проводим эксперименты.
When tested that device showed good results.
Во время испытаний этот прибор показал хорошие результаты.
(Когда этот прибор проходил испытания, он показал хорошие результаты).
Обратите внимание!
Если Participle II переводится обстоятельственным придаточным
предложением, его подлежащим становится подлежащее главного предложения, а
в главном предложении оно заменяется личным местоимением соответствующего
рода и числа.
Например: When asked the student answered well.
Когда студента спросили, он ответил хорошо.
If used this method will help us to increase the output.
Если этот способ будет применен, он поможет нам повысить выпуск
продукции.
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Participle II образует: а) конструкции пассивного залога; б)времена группы
Perfect.
Например:
The problem is being solved.
Проблема решается.
A group of engineers has designed a new device.
Группа инженеров сконструировала новый прибор.
К сложным формам Participle I относятся формы типа: being used, having used,
having been used (см.таблицу форм Participle I).
Помните!
1. Форма типа being used (Indefinite Passive) показывает, что действие,
выраженное причастием, происходит одновременно с действием, выраженным
глаголом в личной форме; формы типа having used, having been used (Perfect
Active/Passive) показывают, что действие, выраженное причастием, предшествует
действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.
Например: The devices being used in our work are up-to-date.
Приборы, применяемые в нашей работе, современны.
Having finished his experiments he compared the results.
Закончив свои эксперименты, он сравнил результаты.
2. Перевод сложных форм причастий зависит от выполняемой ими функции.
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В функции определения причастие переводится причастием настоящего
времени страдательного залога или определительным придаточным
предложением:
The method being used by this engineer is very effective.
Метод, используемый этим инженером, очень эффективен.
В функции обстоятельства причастие обычно переводится
обстоятельственным придаточным предложением или деепричастием
совершенного вида:
Having finished the series of experiments they published the results.
Закончив серию экспериментов, они опубликовали результаты.
Having been translated into many languages the book became very popular.
После того, как книга была переведена на многие языки, она стала очень
популярной.
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Обратите внимание! Независимый причастный оборот, в отличие от
зависимого, отделяется от главного предложения запятой.
Например:
1) Steel being a very strong material, we find wide application of it in engineering.
Так как сталь является очень прочным материалом, она находит широкое
применение в технике.
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2) In highly developed countries 9 out of 10 robots are produced in Japan, half of
them being made by robots themselves.
В высокоразвитых странах каждые 9 из 10 роботов производятся в Японии,
причем половина из них изготавливается самими роботами.
Gerund. Герундий
Запомните:
а) герундий образуется от глагольной основы при помощи суффикса -ing.
Например ask – asking; go – going; read – reading.
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б) герундий имеет категорию времени и залога;
в) существуют простые и сложные формы герундия.
Формы герундия
Обратите внимание!
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Функции герундия
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б) правое определение с предлогом "of" или "for"; переводится
существительным:
There are different ways of obtaining this substance.
Существуют различные способы получения этого вещества.
5. Обстоятельство (всегда с предлогом – in, on, upon, before, after, by, without,
etc.); переводится: а) деепричастием; б) существительным с предлогом; в)
придаточным предложением.
After having obtained good results they stopped experiments.
а) Получив хорошие результаты, они прекратили эксперименты.
б) После получения хороших результатов, они прекратили эксперименты.
Например:
In making observations …
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При проведении наблюдений …
Upon returning to the Earth …
После возвращения на Землю …
Герундий Причастие I
перед глаголом-сказуемым перед подлежащим
Герундий Причастие I
в функции обстоятельства
After testing the motor they put While testing the motor they put
down the results. down the results.
После испытания двигателя Испытывая двигатель, они
они записали результаты. записывали результаты.
в функции определения
There are several ways of The plant producing electricity is
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producing electricity. very powerful.
Имеется несколько способов Эта установка, производящая
производства электричества. электричество, очень мощная.
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to need нуждаться
to finish заканчивать
to suggest предлагать
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падеже, а также если данная глагольная форма выполняет функции подлежащего
или дополнения.
1.Being an effective manager is not the same as being an efficient manager.
2.Being an effective manager also means being flexible. 3.Setting unnecessary rules or
adhering to existing rules at all costs will only inhibit staff performance. 4.The very
engineering skills that won you a promotion to management can be a detriment to your
becoming an effective manager of engineers. 5.Learning to delegate responsibility to
subordinates is not easy, especially if you are highly competent engineer. 6.Soon after
becoming a manager, you become aware that there are other major forces in the
company besides engineering, R&D, and marketing. 7.Most plastic resins are not
capable of handling the loads of structural applications. 8.Continuous thermal press
forming involves running the feedstock horizontally between two opposed steel
conveyor belts. 9.A well-run organization raises productivity by eliminating
unnecessary jobs. 10. The computer will assist the process planner in preparing the
process plans, time studies and cost estimates. 11. Meetings usually are best for
identifying or presenting problems, not for solving them. 12. A meeting should have a
clearly defined purpose that will justify taking busy people away from their work.
13.When a discussion begins wandering far afield, some fencing-in is in order. This is
done by narrowing the field – keeping to one basic question and not allowing others to
intrude.
1.The engineer mentioned his having tested the instrument. 2.We knew nothing of
their having been met by our chief. 3.B. Franklin’s having worked in the field of
electricity is known all over the world. 4.The main disadvantage of early rockets
resulted from the rockets being inaccurate. 5.The manager approved of the problem
being discussed in detail. 6.Everybody congratulated on Mr. Brown being appointed
manager. 7.He isn’t used to his name having been often mentioned in the press lately.
44
8.The velocity of a moving object can change by its speeding up, slowing down, or
changing its direction of motion.
45
INFINITIVE. ИНФИНИТИВ
46
Он гордится тем, что работает с этим известным ученым.
The professor is glad to have seen his former students.
Профессор рад, что повидал своих бывших студентов.
Обратите внимание!
Обратите внимание!
Infinitive Passive переводится придаточным определительным предложением
со словами будет, должен:
The method to be used is quite new.
Метод, который будет (должен) использоваться, совершенно новый.
5. Обстоятельство. Переводится:
а) придаточным предложением с союзом для того, чтобы:
To read this English article you must use a dictionary.
Для того, чтобы прочитать эту английскую статью, вам нужно
воспользоваться словарем.
б) инфинитивом:
She went there to study physics.
Она поехала туда изучать физику.
в) деепричастием:
Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form water.
Водород соединяется с кислородом, образуя воду.
48
Было разработано несколько приборов для того , чтобы обнаруживать
космические лучи.
Инфинитивные обороты
52
Задание 16. Переведите предложения, содержащие конструкцию «for +
существительное (мест.) + инфинитив». Помните! Конструкция, как правило,
переводится придаточным предложением с союзом (для того) чтобы, при этом
существительное становится подлежащим, а инфинитив переводится сказуемым.
1.Much experimental work is needed for these phenomena to be explained. 2.It is
difficult for him to explain the nature of electricity. 3.A fuse is needed for the danger to
be prevented. 4.An electric circuit is a closed path for the electrons to flow.
53
Задание 19. Переведите предложения, содержащие оборот «именительный
падеж с инфинитивом». Перевод начинайте со сказуемого. Помните! Формы
инфинитива Indefinite и Continuous выражают действие, одновременное с
действием сказуемого, причем форма Continuous показывает длительное
действие; форма Perfect показывает, что действие предшествует действию
сказуемого.
а) 1. He is said to test a circuit. 2. He is said to be testing a circuit. 3. He is said to
have tested a circuit.
б) 1. He is reported to measure voltage. 2. He is reported to be measuring voltage.
3. He is reported to have measured voltage.
54
1.We know the electrons to flow from the negative terminal of the battery to the
positive one. 2.I want you to explain the nature of electricity. 3.We may expect a short
circuit to result from wire fault. 4.We observed small pieces of paper to be attracted by
amber. 5.Bohr considered the atom to consist of two parts: the nucleus and electrons.
6.We know J.J. Thomson to have discovered the electron. 7.The electrical engineer saw
the voltage be increasing rapidly. 8.The new methods permitted these phenomena to be
investigated thoroughly.
Text A.
Rethinking work
Across the planet, the shrinking of opportunities to work for decent pay is a crisis
yet to be faced. In the end, the job crisis raises the most fundamental question of human
existence: what are we doing here? There is a colossal amount of work waiting to be
done by human beings – building decent places to live, exploring the universe, making
55
cities less dangerous, teaching one another, raising our children, visiting, comforting,
healing, feeding one another, dancing, making music, telling stories, inventing things,
and governing ourselves. But much of the essential activity people have always
undertaken to raise and educate their families, to enjoy themselves, to give pleasure to
others, and to advance the general welfare is not packaged as jobs. Until we rethink
work and decide what human beings are meant to do in the age of robots and what basic
economic claims on society human beings have by virtue of being here, there will never
be enough jobs.
– From “The end of jobs”, by Richard J. Barnet, senior fellow at the Institute for
Policy Studies, in Harper’s magazine, September 1993.
Text B.
Men and Women in Engineering
Women are more likely than men to choose engineering because they are good at
math and science, while men are more likely to say they entered the field because they
thought it was interesting and offered good career opportunities and security. These are
among the differences between the sexes discovered in a survey the Society of Women
Engineers conducted.
Members of 22 engineering societies were surveyed in 1992 to determine gender
differences in the profession. More than half (51 percent) of the men respondents said
they felt a part of management, compared to only 32 percent of the women. Men also
say they have fewer layers of authority between themselves and the top. Persisting
across matched age groups, these differences were not a function of the older average
age of the men surveyed.
Men are much more likely than women to believe that people in their company are
treated equitably; women are three times as likely as men to feel that there are
consistent inequities. Fewer than 20 percent of the men said they were aware of
incidents where people have been “overlooked” for advancement, while 58 percent of
women knew of such incidents affecting women and 28 percent were aware of incidents
affecting minorities.
56
Сложные предложения
Лексические особенности
научно-технической литературы
Лексика научно-технической литературы состоит из общеупотребительных
слов и специальных терминов.
Значительную часть общеупотребительных слов составляют многозначные
слова.
61
provided при условии, что
following вслед за
given если дано
и др.
3.Некоторые слова и словосочетания обеспечивают логические связи между
отдельными частями текста.
К ним относятся: alternatively - и наоборот, to begin with - прежде всего,
furthermore - кроме того, summing up - говоря вкратце и др.
4.Ряд слов и словосочетаний служат для выражения отношения автора к
излагаемым фактам и для уточнения этих фактов. Например: needless to say - не
вызывает сомнения, strictly speaking - строго говоря, unfortunately - к сожалению
и др.
5.Фразеологические словосочетания, употребляемые в научно-технической
литературе, носят довольно нейтральный характер. К наиболее типичным из них
относятся: to be in operation - действовать, to be under development - находиться в
стадии разработки, to take advantage - использовать, along with - наряду и др.
Вторым слоем научно-технической литературы являются термины – слова и
словосочетания, принятые для обозначения специальных понятий в той или иной
области науки и техники.
Для перевода терминов особое значение имеет понимание явлений,
процессов, о которых идет речь в данном тексте, и знание соответствующей
русской терминологии. Если специалист хорошо знает русскую терминологию в
данной области и четко представляет себе описываемую в тексте проблему, то,
встретив незнакомый термин, он может в ряде случаев сам, не прибегая к
словарю, догадаться, каким соответствующим русским термином его следует
перевести
При переводе терминов необходимо учитывать контекст, так как многие
термины многозначны, т.е. имеют несколько значений не только в разных
областях науки и техники, но даже в одной и той же области.
62
В английском языке сравнительно широко употребляются слова,
образованные от латинских или греческих слов. Иногда они оказываются
«ложными друзьями» переводчика. Чтобы не делать ошибок при переводе,
рекомендуется, если неизвестно, какому русскому термину соответствует данный
английский, обращаться к специальному словарю.
63
Запомните значения следующих многофункциональных слов:
after
64
after all в конце концов
after a while через некоторое время
after the manner по способу
shortly after вскоре после
well after значительно позже
as
наречие союз
как, в качестве так как, когда, в то время как, по мере того как, как
This method was adopted as the 1.As we have already seen the manager is the driving force of the
most economical one. organization.
Этот метод был принят как Как мы уже видели, менеджер - это движущая сила организации.
самый экономичный. 2.As altitude increases, the pressure and temperature change.
По мере того, как увеличивается высота, изменяются давление и
температура.
3.As managing is an art based on knowledge and skills it can be learned.
Так как управление - это искусство, в основе которого лежат знания и
навыки, ему можно научиться.
65
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные сочетания с as:
as well as так же как (и) as though как если бы
as ... as так (же) ... как (и) as affected под влиянием
as far as до, насколько as against по сравнению
as if как будто as a whole в целом
as long as до тех пор пока as a rule как правило
as soon as как только as applied применительно
as early as + дата уже, еще as compared to (with) по сравнению
as far as ... is concerned что касается as low as + величина вплоть до
as follows следующим образом as many as + величина вплоть до
as is the case как обстоит дело as much as + величина вплоть до
as the case may be смотря по as regards что касается
обстоятельствам
as a matter of fact фактически, на самом as yet до сих пор
деле
so as так чтобы
66
before
союз предлог наречие
прежде чем перед, до раньше, прежде
Before a manager can define the The agenda should be given before Now as before a designer should
authority of his subordinates, he must the meeting. discuss a design with a production
understand what authority is. Повестку дня нужно сообщить engineer.
Прежде чем менеджер сможет до собрания. Сейчас, как и раньше,
определить полномочия своих конструктор должен обсудить
подчиненных, он должен понять, что проект с инженером-технологом.
такое полномочия.
but
союз наречие предлог
но, а только, лишь кроме
Economics is a new but very Heat energy is nothing but the We study every day in the week
important science. energy of motion of the molecules. but Sunday.
Экономика - новая, но очень Тепловая энергия - это всего Мы учимся каждый день, кроме
важная наука. лишь энергия движения молекул. воскресенья.
67
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные сочетания с but:
all but все, кроме; почти
but for если бы не
the last but one предпоследний
for
союз предлог
так как для, за, в течение
No one can do without friction, for without it we could 1.A transformer is a device for stepping up and down
not even walk. the voltage.
Невозможно обойтись без трения, так как без него Трансформатор - прибор для повышения и
мы не смогли бы даже ходить. понижения напряжения.
2.The group of engineers was developing a new design
for 2 months.
Группа инженеров разрабатывала новый проект в
течение 2-х месяцев.
3.I have brought some articles for you to translate.
(Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for.)
Я принес несколько статей, чтобы вы перевели их.
68
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные сочетания с for:
for all that несмотря на все это, for a moment на момент
вопреки всему
for fear чтобы не, из страха, из for example например
боязни for instance например
for once в виде исключения, for want of из-за недостатка
на этот раз из-за отсутствия
for the rest в остальном for the time being временно, пока
were is not for если бы не
since
союз предлог
с тех пор как; поскольку; так как с (со времени)
1.Since the first rocket appeared many changes have Substances such as gold, silver, copper have been
taken place in this field of science. known since old times.
С тех пор, как появилась первая ракета, многое Такие вещества как золото, серебро, медь известны
изменилось в этой области науки. с древних времен.
2.Since managing is an art it can be learned.
Поскольку управление - искусство, ему можно
научиться.
69
yet
Наречие союз
еще, все еще однако, все же, несмотря на это
When your business plan will be completed is not yet There are a lot of good modern braking systems, yet
known. research in this field goes on.
Когда будет завершен ваш бизнес-план, еще не Имеется множество хороших современных систем
известно. торможения, однако исследования в этой области
продолжаются.
70
Задание 1. Прочитайте предложения. Установите функцию выделенных слов.
Переведите.
1.Men had dreamed of journeying to the Moon or the planets especially after the
rise of modern science in the 17th century. 2.After many years of study K.Tsiolkovsky
published in 1903 a paper which analyzed the problem of space flight in great detail.
3.The manager must know how to deal with social situations as well as with technical
details. 4. A magnetic field surrounds a wire, its strength decreasing as the distance
from the wire surface increases. 5.The theoretical significance of the wave theory of
matter as applied to electronics will be discussed later. 6.The reader may be familiar
with vectors as met in physics. 7.As far as we know managing is an art. 8.As the world
economy continues to become more interdependent, the opportunities for small
businesses to compete in the international marketplace become more attractive. 9.It is
important for the model to be accurate but simple enough. 10.For combustion to be
rapid, the fuel and oxidant must be quickly mixed. 11.In order for a proton or neutron to
leave the nucleus much energy is required. 12.For most of the scientific researches
relatively small satellites can be used. 13.For a long time the internal combustion engine
was the only type of engine used for aircraft. 14.The kite flies, for it exposes its flat
surface at an angle against the wind. 15.For the application of the computer to the
solution of engineering problems a working knowledge of differential equations is
necessarily assumed. 16.Meetings serve many useful purposes, such as working out
solutions to practical problems, formulating policies and decisions and obtaining group
acceptance of a plan. 17.The manager should think how to organize a meeting so as to
best achieve his objectives. 18.To make meetings work for you rather than against you,
prepare for them thoroughly. 19.The leader should prepare a carefully conceived written
plan for the meeting. 20.There is a subtle but important difference between controlling
people and leading them. 21.Since planning provides the future actions of the
organization, a good planner must be able to think beyond the immediate, concrete facts
of a situation. 22.For engineers and scientists switching to management is crucial.
23.Labour productivity is defined as the amount of output that can be obtained per hour
of labour. 24.All nations are interested in increasing labour productivity, since it is
71
intimately related to a nation’s standard of living. 25.There are a lot of good modern
braking systems. Yet research goes on, and the latest brake systems provide enhanced
performance and greater reliability. 26.From time to time, the leader of a meeting is
expected to summarize what has gone before, the present position, and his
understanding of the group’s objectives.
72
Функции местоимения it
Личное Указате Формальное подлежащее в Формальное Вводное
местоимение льное безличных предложениях (не дополнение слово в
он, она, оно местоимение переводится) предложениях
(о - это с
неодушевленных эмфатическим
предметах) оборотом.
I have read your 1.What 1.It is cold. This method It is these
paper and found it very is it? Холодно. makes it possible to properties that
interesting. Что это? 2.It is necessary to make up a plan if obtain better results. are the most
Я читал вашу 2.It is a you want your business to be a success. Данный метод important.
статью и нашел ее new Необходимо составить план, если дает возможность Именно
очень интересной. computer. вы хотите, чтобы ваше предприятие получить лучшие эти свойства
Это имело успех. результаты. наиболее
новый 3.It is important that your plan guide важны.
компьютер. the financial health of your business.
Важно, чтобы ваш план
способствовал финансовому
73
благополучию вашего предприятия.
4.It seems that the engine is out of
order.
Кажется, двигатель не в порядке.
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные сочетания с it:
it is appropriate целесообразно, уместно
it is the case дело обстоит так
it is safe to say можно с уверенностью сказать
it is unlikely маловероятно
it will be noted следует отметить
74
Функции that
75
Обратите внимание на наиболее употребительные сочетания с that:
that is = i.e. то есть
that is why вот почему
that is to say следовательно, таким образом
in that тем, что; в том, что; поскольку
except that кроме того, что
76
Задание 2. Изучите таблицу «Функции местоимения it». Переведите
следующие предложения, пользуясь изученной таблицей.
1.Planning gives you a path to follow. It makes your future what you want it to be.
2.Planning is critical. It is the best tool available to help a small business raise money.
3.If you don’t plan for the success of your business you will fail. It is that simple! 4.It is
sometimes difficult to know how to plan and what to plan for. 5.It is important to
establish realistic goals with a sound methodology for achieving them. 6.It is a business
plan that explains how the business will function. 7.A business plan describes what a
business does, how it will be done, who has to do it, where it will be done, why it’s
being done and when it has to be completed. 8.Planning is not easy. The manager who
believes it is, probably is not an effective planner. 9.It is quality that every car maker
strives for. 10.It is difficult to machine a porous metal surface.
77
deal about the factors that determine the extent of unemployment and inflation. 13.The
third basic function of any economic system is to distribute the goods and services that
are produced among the members of society. 14.Capital goods consist of plant and
equipment that are used to make other goods. 15.Consumers’ goods are items that
consumers purchase like clothing, food, and drink. 16.The design of the experimental
device differs from that of conventional devices.
Функции слова one.
Числительное – Неопределенно- Слово-заместитель
один личное местоимение для замены
упомянутого ранее
сущест-
вительного
There is only one One should take the This method is a
solution of this problem. precautions mentioned. conventional one.
Существует только Следует соблюдать Этот метод
одно решение этой меры является
задачи. предосторожности. общепринятым
методом.
78
major causes of this problem is a fixed period of time for the meeting. 10.One way for
an economy to increase its output - and its per capita income - may be to invest in
research and development. 11.One of the most startling developments of the 1990s has
been the movement of the East European countries like Poland and Czechoslovakia
away from central planning and toward capitalism. 12.If one can’t have what one likes,
one must like what one has. 13.To show the relationship between two variables, one can
plot the value of the one variable against the value of the other variable. 14.When
setting up a plan, even the most informal one, a good manager clarifies the relationships
and responsibilities of individuals. 15.One difference between nickel-cadmium and
lead-acid batteries is cost.
79
likewise точно так же
similarly аналогичным образом
Besides кроме этого, притом
Now далее
итак
80
Задание 5. Переведите следующие выдержки из текста. Помните! Слова и
словосочетания, служащие для связи, стоят в начале или в середине предложения.
Во всех случаях при переводе вынесите эти слова в начало предложения.
There are many reasons why management practices vary. In the first place, the
practice of management is shaped by the cultural values of the manager. For example,
remarkable differences exist between American styles of management and those
adopted by European, Japanese or Middle-Eastern managers. Also, the same principles
can rarely be implemented in different organizations in the same way; they must be
tailored to fit the goals, people, and circumstances of the particular situations involved.
Further differences in management practice will appear due to the personality and style
of the manager.
The specifics of a manager’s job depend partly on what management level he is on.
A second determinant of what a manager does is his functional responsibility. For
example, the specific activities that must be dealt with by an engineering manager are
quite different from those that would have to be handled by a production or sales
manager. Finally, what a manager does depends on whether he is serving in a line or
staff capacity.
Meetings serve many useful purposes, such as working out solutions to practical
problems, formulating policies or decisions concerning future courses of action, and
obtaining group acceptance of a decision or plan. In addition, there is a mutual sharing
of information and an opportunity to clarify, stimulate, and sharpen the thinking of
participants.
An advance agenda enhances understanding, generates ideas, and brings the group
together primed with the best information they can muster. Furthermore, group
members who come to meetings prepared are better motivated and derive greater
satisfaction from the meeting.
All decisions should be reached by a consensus of group members. The discussion
leader should have no pre-established decisions concerning the problems scheduled.
Otherwise, a meeting would not be necessary.
81
The most likely possibility, however, is that the development of the new idea will
go smoothly at first, only to give way to mounting frastration later on.
There is a subtle but important difference between controlling people and leading
them. Control establishes the direction of human action; leadership elicits a particular
quality of action. Also, management and leadership are not synonymous. Leadership is
merely one style of management. A manager can be effective through other managerial
styles, as long as they fit the requirements of the situation. Hence, managing is much
broader than leading.
82
Apparently очевидно, по-видимому
Presumably по-видимому,
предположительно
Suppose предположим
Say скажем
it is likely that по-видимому
it appears (seems) likely that кажется вероятным, что
we feel that нам кажется, что
it is felt that кажется, что
we assume that мы полагаем, что
it is assumed that предполагают, что
we believe that мы полагаем, что
it is believed that полагают, что
в) дающие оценку высказыванию:
fortunately, happily к счастью; по счастливой
случайности
Unfortunately к сожалению
strange enough как это ни удивительно
strange to say странно, что
Surprisingly неожиданным образом; как ни
странно
curiously enough довольно любопытно
г) выделяющие и уточняющие отдельные части высказывания:
Mainly главным образом
Largely главным образом, в основном,
преимущественно
Basically в своей основе, в основном, по
существу
Essentially по существу, в основном
particularly, in particular в особенности, в частности
83
in general, generally, typically вообще, обычно, как правило
generally speaking, broadly вообще говоря
speaking
strictly speaking строго говоря
as a rule как правило
at any rate во всяком случае
at most, at best в лучшем случае
at least по крайней мере
in a sense в известном смысле
in a general sense в широком смысле
to some degree, to some extent до некоторой степени
more or less более или менее
not to mention, to say nothing of не говоря уже о ...
to say the least по меньшей мере
д) вводящие дополнительные пояснения:
in other words, to put it in another другими словами, иначе говоря
way, to put the other way round
more simply проще говоря
to be more exact, to be more говоря точнее; точнее
accurate, to be more precise, to be
specific, more specifically, more
properly
so to speak, so to say так сказать
е) выражающие ссылку на общепризнанность мысли:
It is well known that ... Общеизвестно, что ...
It is common knowledge that ...
It has long been an accepted fact Давно признано, что ...
...
It has been recognized that ... Признано, что ...
It is generally realized that ... Всем известно, что ...
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It has been established ... Установлено, что ...
1.Meetings are probably the best means of communication between managers and
the people who report to them. 2.Of course, idea development does not always go
smoothly. 3.Basically, planning is the process by which managers anticipate
developments and identify courses of action necessary to achieve organizational
objectives. 4.Actually, there is no evidence that these new methods get people to work
harder or better. 5.The truth is that most people do not require external motivation.
6.Specifically, plans can be classified according to their duration, function, or scope.
7.Unfortunately, there is no reason to assume that the average manager understands
people very well. 8.The success of a manager in performing his tasks will largely
determine the firm’s efficiency and effectiveness. 9.Living within a budget probably
causes more problems for engineering managers than any other responsibility. 10.It has
been established that fields generated by nuclear blasts can have a disruptive effect on
electronic equipment, even when the blast is detonated thousands of miles away.
11.Without a doubt, the most lucrative target area for expanding the use of structural
plastics is the automotive market.
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разрабатываться
to be in use использоваться, применяться
to be in operation применяться, работать,
действовать
to be in service применяться, использоваться
to be in excess превышать
to be in a position быть в состоянии, иметь
возможность
to be in progress осуществляться, идти полным
ходом
to be of ... importance представлять важность
Заметьте:
а) глагол to involve имеет следующие значения:
включать (в себя), состоять из;
быть связанным (с чем-либо), влечь за собой, вызывать;
86
заключаться в, содержать;
представлять собой;
требовать;
87
2)срок, период, семестр;
3)условие.
Задание 9. Переведите.
1.Problems should be listed on the agenda in terms of action-priorities. 2.When
formulating objectives, you should think in terms of why the plan is necessary. 3.One
way of classifying plans is in terms of the function or use to which they are applied.
4.The test objective should be stated in terms of expected results. 5.These concepts are
most easily understood in terms of simple experiments. 6.Acceleration may be
expressed in terms of distance, time and velocity. 7.The force of gravity is measured in
terms of weight. 8.What pricing and sales terms are you planning? 9.The term weight
had acquired a dual meaning, either defined as a magnitude of force, or as a magnitude
of a mass when denoting quantities as result of a weighing process. 10.A good manager
delegates responsibilities in terms of the results he expects as defined by time, quantity
and quality. 11.Batteries must be evaluated in terms of long-term storage effects and the
number of charge/discharge cycles.
Обратите внимание!
Отрицательная форма глагола to fail придает предложению утвердительное
значение.
They didn’t fail to understand. Они сумели понять.
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Задание 10. Переведите предложения.
1.What many managers fail to recognize is that planning is a good investment.
2.Some scientists failed to realize the role of mathematics in science. 3.The manager
didn’t fail to make a long-range plan. 4.If you don’t plan for the success of your
business you will fail. 5.Most bearings fail because of microscopic damage caused by
lubricant contamination, heat build up, unsuitable lubricant, or absence of lubricant.
6.Few bearings actually fail from fatigue because there is no life left in them.
Термины и их классификация
89
Компоненты терминов-словосочетаний находятся в атрибутивной связи.
Основной компонент, как правило, стоит всегда в конце. Определяющий (-ие)
компонент (-ы) выражает признаки, характеризующие основной компонент.
90
high-voltage switch - высоковольтный переключатель;
2) с помощью родительного падежа:
direct current system - система постоянного тока;
3) с помощью различных предлогов:
data processing equipment - оборудование для обработки данных;
4) группой поясняющих слов:
feedback system - система управления с обратной связью;
5) перевод с изменением порядка компонентов атрибутивной группы:
automatic control systems faculty - факультет систем автоматического
управления.
Инструкция
для перевода многокомпонентных терминов.
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memory - память
memory device - запоминающее устройство
film - пленка
film memory device - запоминающее устройство на тонких пленках.
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сначала описательный перевод термина, а затем сравните свой перевод с русским
термином.
Пример:
actuating mechanism /автоматика/
исполнительный механизм
93
Английский термин Область применения
corrosion-resistant metal металлургия
fire-resistant material металлургия
voltage sensitive device автоматика
light sensitive cell радиоэлектроника
2. Термины с предлогом of
rate-of-climb indicator - индикатор скорости набора высоты
3. Термины с предлогом by
layer-by-layer winding - обмотка равными слоями
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Английский термин Область применения
step-by-step method математика
step-by-step switch радиоэлектроника
point-by-point computation вычислительная
техника
Пример:
безаварийный
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Обратите внимание! Прилагательные с суффиксом -able переводятся по
следующей модели:
наблюдаемые (видимые) звезды
Задание 8. Переведите.
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1.The engineering manager must keep from falling behind in the latest
management techniques. 2.The next few years will see a shake-out of the various
designs and the emergence of the most promising techniques. 3.A new computer is the
result of recent major advancements in integrated-circuit technology. 4.Many
engineering departments have a formal method of reporting on the performance of
individuals. 5.Mass and Force have been used in practical engineering and physics with
generally satisfactory results without much thought to their interaction. 6.Engineering
college curricula have been revised. 7.The weakest point in all the schools now is the
computer-related portion of manufacturing engineering. 8.In engineering, stress is a
force that induces strain - a deformation. 9.The average engineer tries to follow the
literature in his field, attends professional meetings, and, perhaps, writes technical
papers. However, this is often not sufficient to keep him abreast of rapidly changing
technology.
Неологизмы
Быстрое развитие новых отраслей науки и техники приводит к появлению в
языке целого ряда неологизмов.
Неологизм - это новое слово, появляющееся в языке, или новое значение уже
имеющегося в языке слова.
Отличительной чертой неологизмов является их непостоянный
(окказиональный) характер.
Например:
русский вариант: варианты в английском языке:
дом быта a house of public services
public service establishment
consumer service
communal service
Наличие целого ряда возможных вариантов показывает, что слово еще не
стало нормой. Просуществовав в языке определенное время, неологизм либо
переходит в разряд общеупотребительных слов, либо исчезает совершенно.
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В английском языке в последние годы родилось много неологизмов -
а) с элементом -in:
break-in обкатка, ввод в
эксплуатацию; подслушивание
(телефонных разговоров)
Burn-in отжиг, вжигание
cut-in включение, начало работы
б) с префиксами mini-/maxi-:
Minicomputer мини ЭВМ
Minifloppy минидискета
maxi-sculpture монументальная скульптура
maxi-taxi многоместное такси
в) с суффиксом -ship:
Brinkmanship балансирование на грани
войны
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Префиксы ставятся в начале слова и изменяют его значение.
Суффиксы служат, в основном, для образования новых частей речи.
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ое значение d
non- не- noninterferen невмешательство
ce
out- пере- outbalance перевешивать,
(превосходить превосходить
что-либо)
over- пере-, overdo перестараться
сверх-,
чрезмерно
post- после postwar послевоенный
postaccelerat послеускорение
ion
pre- до-, пред-, prewar довоенный
раньше prehistoric доисторический
re- снова, вновь rewrite переписать
sub- суб-, под-, subtropical субтропический
ниже subconscious подсознательный
super- пере-, superheat перегрев
сверх-
trans- транс-, transplant пересадить
пере-
ultra- ультра- ultraviolet ультрафиолетовый
ultrasonic ультразвуковой
un- не-, раз-, unkind недобрый
без- uncoupling расцепка
under- недо-, ниже undervalue недоооценивать
нормы
Основные суффиксы
100
а) существительных
101
Суффикс Его Примеры Перевод
основное
значение
-ity качество, legality законность,
состояние легальность
dignity достоинство
-ment результат equipment оборудование
действия settlement поселение
-ness качество, softness мягкость
состояние
-ship состояние friendship дружба
б) прилагательных
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Суффикс Его Примеры Перевод
основное
значение
слабой степени
-ive наличие creative созидательный
качества,
свойства
-less отсутствие powerless бессильный
качества
-ous наличие famous известный
качества,
свойства
в) наречий
г) глаголов
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Сокращения. В англо-американской научно-технической литературе
встречается большое количество разного рода сокращений. Сокращаются как
отдельные слова, так и словосочетания.
Например:
Laser light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation
e.m.f. electromotive force
Lube lubrication
Memo memorandum
ALGOL ALGOrithmic Language
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
Bit binary digit
CAD Computer-Aided Design
CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CRT Cathode-Ray Tube
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Например:
слово complexion в английском языке - цвет лица часто переводят на русский
язык неправильно - комплекция. Комплекция в русском языке означает
телосложение;
magazine в англ. яз. журнал
магазин в рус. Яз. торговое предприятие
Слова, сходно звучащие, но не совпадающие по значению, называются
псевдоинтернационализмами или «ложными друзьями переводчика».
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Слово Перевод и созвучное русское слово
Convoy сопровождение; покрытие; транспорт, обоз,
автоколонна
конвой - escort
Decade десяток; десятилетие
декада - ten days
Decoration украшение; знак отличия; отделка
декорация - scenery
Detail подробность
деталь (машины) - component, element, part
Diagram схема, чертеж
диаграмма - graph, chart, curve
Dislocation перемещение, смещение; расстройство,
нарушение
дислокация (воен.) - disposition of troops
Diversion отклонение; обход, отвод; отвлечение внимания
диверсия - sabotage
Elevator грузоподъемник, лифт; руль высоты
элеватор - grain store
Fabric строение, структура; ткань, материал
фабрика - factory, mill
Instrument прибор, аппарат; орудие
инструмент - tools
Magazine накопитель; кассета; журнал; магазинная
коробка; пистолетная обойма; бобина
магазин (лавка) - shop, store
Multiplication умножение, увеличение
мультипликация (кино) - animated cartoons
paragraph абзац
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Слово Перевод и созвучное русское слово
параграф - item, point, section
Prospect вид, перспектива
проспект (улица) - avenue
проспект (программа) - prospectus
Resin смола; канифоль; полимер
резина - rubber
Spectre привидение, призрак
спектр - spectrum
Translate переводить; истолковывать
транслировать - broadcast
Typography типографское дело, книгопечатание
типография - printing-house
Задание 1. Образуйте с помощью суффикса -er (-or) существительные от
данных глаголов; переведите их на русский язык:
act, found, direct, observe, work, manufacture, perform, manage, employ,
accelerate, design, calculate, compute.
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Задание 5. Образуйте существительные от следующих прилагательных при
помощи суффикса -ity; переведите их на русский язык:
productive, reliable, rational, responsible, suitable, available, major, capable,
similar, possible, probable, electric, conductive.
Задание 6. Прочитайте и переведите слова с отрицательными префиксами:
inexhaustible, irrationally, unchangeable, disadvantage, dissimilar, inelastic,
imperfect, non-conducting, incomplete, miscalculation, uncertain, irregular, discharge,
inseparable, non-effective, indifferent, disappear, inexpensive, uncommon, unloaded,
displace, unnecessary, undoubtedly, disorganize.
Задание 7. Переведите следующие слова; обратите внимание на значение
префикса и корня:
decompose, discover, antibody, non-resistance, rearrangement, reconstruction, pre-
war, prefabricated, post-war, supersonic, prehistoric, ultraviolet, interact, interrelation,
overcome, overvalue, overtime, interdependence.
Задание 8. Прочитайте и переведите следующие слова. Проверьте перевод по
словарю:
nature, opportunity, mixture, general, intelligent, capital, principle, principal,
action, accurate, critical, rationale, master, activity, commission, thesis.
Задание 9. Образуйте от данных существительных глаголы при помощи
конверсии. Переведите:
aid - помощь; to aid - помогать
air - воздух; to air - ................................................
alloy - сплав; ...........................................................
paper - бумага; ...........................................................
cover - ...........................................................
покрытие;
form - форма; ...........................................................
handle - ручка; ...........................................................
guard - охрана; ...........................................................
cause - причина; ...........................................................
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rest - покой; ...........................................................
stamp - штамп; ...........................................................
fuel - топливо; ...........................................................
guide - гид; ...........................................................
trap - ловушка; ...........................................................
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Переводческие трансформации
111
4Чтобы избежать растрескивания, |1 иногда |2 необходимо использовать |3
закалку с выдержкой.
Помните!
Порядок слов в английском и русском предложениях часто не совпадает.
Если английское предложение заканчивается сказуемым, перевод следует
начинать со сказуемого.
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3Нахождение данного прибора в непосредственной близости от телевизора |2
может вызвать |1 помехи.
6.1They |2 first |3 tried to characterize |4 a microcomputer |5 by word length.
2 Прежде всего |1 они |3 попытались охарактеризовать |4 микрокомпьютер |5
длиной слова.
1.In 1990, price controls were reported to have been removed in Poland and East
Germany virtually overnight. 2.The producers of goods are expected to set their prices
independently and not to collude. 3.Precision and reliability of noncontact measurement
techniques have been improving steadily. 4.There should be a planning and analytical
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function to lay out programs and to assign priorities among them. 5.Minutes of the first
business meeting were read. 6.Solar activity is known to influence the ionosphere.
7.Scientists hope to determine if the earth is growing warmer or colder, whether certain
parts will get more moisture, and the possible connection between severe storms and
mechanisms such as sun spots, solar flares, and high-speed solar wind streams. 8.The
sun is thought to influence the amount of ozone in the atmosphere.
Замены
Замена – самый распространенный и многообразный вид переводческой
трансформации. Замене могут подвергаться: а) грамматические единицы(формы
слов, части речи, члены предложения, типы синтаксической связи и др.); б)
лексические единицы; в) целые конструкции.
Грамматические замены
Замены форм слова
Запомните:
а) форме единственного числа в русском языке часто соответствует
форма множественного числа в английском языке:
ток – currents;
развитие техники – technical advances;
б)форме множественного числа в русском языке нередко соответствует
английская форма единственного числа:
сведения – information;
теоретические исследования – technical development
Запомните!
В английском языке следующие существительные не имеют формы
множественного числа, всегда согласуются с глаголом в единственном числе и
могут иметь в качестве определения указательное местоимение только
единственного числа (this и that):
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advice совет, советы
information сведение, сведения
money деньги
news новость, новости
progress успех, успехи
permission разрешение
work работа
weather погода
knowledge знание, знания
furniture мебель, фурнитура
machinery оборудование, механизмы
115
and mathematics is necessary for space физики необходимы для изучения
research. космоса.
116
Задание 7. Переведите на английский язык.
1. Его одежда была сырой. 2. Этот бинокль очень плохой. 3. Зарплата
рабочих была увеличена. 4. Каково содержание этой книги? 5. Картофель был
высокого качества.
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1.Various methods of quality control were in use, but none was satisfactory. 2.Full
advantage was taken of the properties of liquid metals. 3.Reference was made to
different types of plans. 4.In this article mention is made of the opportunities in
exporting. 5.Throughout the book much emphasis has been placed on a significant role
of economics in shaping our society today. 6.Detailed consideration is given to the
influence of economics and economists upon the formulation of public policy.
7.Account must be taken of managerial skills that can be developed through practice.
8.Advantage must be taken of special properties of germanium. 9.Great care must be
taken when working with radioisotopes. 10.Provision should be made to identify the
position of the satellite.
Запомните!
1. Английское отглагольное существительное – имя-деятель (обычно с
суффиксом -er) заменяется на русскую личную форму глагола. Например:
I am not a good dancer. Я плохо танцую.
She is a very light eater. Она очень мало ест.
He is quite a heavy smoker. Он много курит.
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Синтаксические замены
Замена форм слова и частей речи часто сопровождается заменой членов
предложения, т.е. изменением синтаксической структуры предложения. Следует
запомнить, что
а) английская активная конструкция при переводе часто заменяется
пассивной и наоборот. Например:
All cracks were grown to a length of ~ 25mm.
Рост всех трещин составил ~ 25мм.
б) подлежащее английского предложения при переводе на русский язык
может заменяться обстоятельством. Например:
Computers use other types of elements, such as tiny magnetized rings.
В компьютерах используются и другие типы элементов, такие как крохотные
намагниченные кольца.
119
usually preceded by a number of experiments and observations. 8.We were informed
that a new idea had been advanced at the closing session. 9.Chemical methods of
purifying water are given much attention to at present. 10.Much of his life was spent as
professor of moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow in Scotland. 11.Gold is not
affected by moisture.
Лексические замены
При лексических заменах происходит замена отдельных конкретных слов
или словосочетаний исходного языка словами или словосочетаниями языка
перевода, которые не являются их словарными соответствиями. Переводчик
подыскивает вариант перевода, подходящий лишь для данного конкретного
случая. Такой вариант перевода называют контекстуальной заменой.
Переводческая практика выработала некоторые приемы, используемые для
создания контекстуальных замен. Наиболее распространенными среди них
являются:
прием конкретизации;
прием генерализации;
прием антонимического перевода.
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Запомните! Следующие слова наиболее часто подвергаются конкретизации:
a) case Failure nation thing
effort formulation one trouble
element Industry piece violence
facilities Matter point work
б) to be to leave
to go to say
to come to tell
б) 1. The automotive industry has been working with the electronics industry,
exploring a wide range of solutions involving microprocessors.
Автомобильные компании совместно с представителями электронной
промышленности исследуют широкий круг возможных подходов к решению
проблем, связанных с применением микропроцессоров.
2. . . . here or there in the semiconductor industry.
. . . на том или ином предприятии электронной промышленности.
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Задание 12. Переведите предложения, конкретизируйте слово thing.
Выберите один из возможных вариантов перевода.
Thing – вещь, предмет, дело, факт, случай, обстоятельство, существо,
проблема, вопрос, фактор, произведение, черта и др.
1. How are things? 2.Things look promising. 3.I want to look into the thing myself.
4.All organizations share one thing in common: they have to be managed. 5.According
to one standard definition, a resource is a thing or service used to produce goods (or
services) which can satisfy wants. 6.In economics one thing is obvious: you cannot
escape the problem of choice. 7.Many experts believe that the only truly important
thing in determining productivity within a plant is management. 8.Fixing priorities is
the most important thing for a manager to save time.
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Задание 13. Переведите следующие предложения. Используйте прием
антонимического перевода.
1.Your name is not unknown to me. 2.Did you remember to post the letters I gave
you? 3. I believe such stories are not uncommon. 4.The tones of her voice were clear
and not unmelodious. 5.He remembered to be polite. 6.Keep out! We are not ready yet.
7.He was not old enough. 8.Are you awake? – Yes, I am. I am not well today. 9.It is not
an unfavourable moment to make use of transducer-based technology. 10.The case is
not improbable. 11.Mars and Venus have atmospheres not dissimilar to ours. 12.River
and lake deposits also not uncommonly contain remains of organisms which inhabited
waters.
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Добавления
Переводчик иногда бывает вынужден добавлять слова в тексте перевода,
чтобы не нарушать нормы русского языка. Например:
The jet airliner carried 78 passengers and 4 crew.
На борту воздушного лайнера было 78 пассажиров и 4 члена экипажа.
Помните!
1. Если в предложении употребляется сочетание «существительное +
существительное» или «прилагательное + существительное», то при переводе
часто используют добавления, особенно если сочетание носит
терминологический характер. Например:
solid engine – двигатель на твердом топливе;
2. Если английское существительное во множественном числе не имеет
адекватной русской формы, то при переводе следует использовать добавления.
Например:
industries – отрасли промышленности;
3. Эллиптическая конструкция if any (if anything) характеризуется
пропуском оборота there is (are).
Если в английском предложении встретилась эллиптическая конструкция if
any (if anything), используйте при переводе прием добавления и в качестве
рабочего варианта примените оборот «если таковые имеются». Затем перевод
отредактируйте в соответствии со смыслом всего предложения. Например:
The nucleus determines the radioactive properties, if any, of the atom.
Ядро определяет радиоактивные свойства атома, если он таковыми обладает.
4. Если глагол в английском предложении управляет одним
существительным при помощи разных предлогов, а в русском языке эти
предлоги требуют разных падежей, то существительное должно быть повторено
при переводе дважды или заменено соответствующим местоимением. Например:
An antenna radiates most efficiently at or near its fundamental wave.
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Антенна излучает наиболее эффективно на основной волне или вблизи
основной волны (нее).
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Задание 18. Переведите группы слов и предложения с эллиптической
конструкцией if any (if anything).
а) The profits, if any, . . .
The benefit, if any, . . .
The unemployed, if any, . . .
The radioactive products, if any, . . .
The new methods, if any, . . .
б) 1.It would have been too much to expect definite signs of life on Mars, but
scientists have confirmed that Mars has few mountains, if any. 2.This indicates, if
anything, an absolutely new phase in the development of cybernetics. 3.In the past 20
years the study of flying saucers has little added, if anything, to scientific knowledge.
4.The laboratory has received very few new devices lately, if any. 5.Over a period the
subordinates have asked their managers and supervisors what advice, if any, they could
give them in this matter.
Опущения
В ряде случаев переводчик бывает вправе делать некоторые опущения, если
это необходимо для избежания нарушения лингвистических или стилистических
норм русского языка. В переводе чаще всего опускаются семантически
избыточные слова.
Прием опущения следует применять при переводе так называемых “парных
синонимов”. Парные синонимы – параллельно употребляемые слова
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одинакового или близкого значения, объединенные союзами and или or. Русскому
языку это явление совершенно не свойственно.
Запомните!
Если в английском предложении употреблены парные синонимы, то при
переводе рекомендуется один из них опустить, т.е. заменить два слова – одним.
Например:
regular and normal обычный
happily and fortunately к счастью
by force and violence насильственным путем
precision and accuracy точность
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10.Change doesn’t happen in straight lines – there are sharp jumps and very flat
plateaus. 11.A close working relationship between design and manufacturing
engineering is not a naturally occurring phenomenon in all companies. 12.The present
data show good agreement. 13.We struggled for months with the name for the new
device. 14.The cost of computers becomes prohibitive. 15.It was not until about 1911
that a first really successful theory of atomic structure was suggested by E. Rutherford.
16.Long chains of chemically linked molecules called polymers are the building blocks
of modern materials ranging from plastics and paints to synthetic fibers. 17.PC software
companies are trying to make customers pay extra for technical support. 18.Today’s
network managers are faced with trying to satisfy the growing demand to connect LAN-
to-LAN based users at different sites and to provide users with dial-out access to
commercial E-mail services. 19.An important future consideration is that PCI and other
local-bus systems have high-frequency loading, which limits the number of slots.
128
Работа с текстом
Текст 1. Rules for Communicating in International Business
129
side to side to mean "yes," but we interpret the same behavior as "no." In Japan looking
someone in the eye can cause problems. A boss who looks directly in a subordinate’s
eyes is seen as judgmental and harsh. A subordinate who looks the boss in the eye is
seen as hostile and overly aggressive.
Rule 7: Learn the language. Ability to speak the language helps attune you to the
local culture and makes an overseas assignment much easier. In addition, it will greatly
aid communicating with business associates. Remember that if you are engaged in
exporting, the language of international business is that of the customer.
Задания к тексту 1
I.Прочитайте текст «Rules for Communicating in International Business».
Обратите внимание на употребление повелительного наклонения.
II.Найдите словарные статьи слов face и point в англо-русском
фразеологическом словаре. Определите значение следующих фразеологических
сочетаний:
to save face
there is no point
to get to the point
III.Переведите текст «Rules for Communicating in International Business».
130
Текст 2. Computers Design for Tomorrow
131
will be fast and versatile, with extensive automatic control. On-board computers will
allow one operator to control several machines.
This mechanization of earthmoving, increasing automation of equipment, and
press for greater productivity will never end until man has no more need to move the
earth.
Задание к тексту 2
Прочитайте и переведите текст «Computers Design for Tomorrow». Обратите
внимание на употребление слова technique(s).
Текст 3. Electronic Controls Lead the Way
132
Automatic blade control systems for some
motor graders employ accelerometers to sense blade
angle and mechanical followers to sense height. And
in an experimental bulldozer control system, draft
force of the blade is sensed with a strain gauge while
vehicle speed is measured with an ultrasonic beam
reflected from the ground. This sensed data is fed
into an electronic circuit that computes optimum blade angle and engine power.
One system for leveling large areas uses a rotating laser beam emitted from a
centrally located transmitter. The beam rotates 5 to 10 times a second and strikes a
photoelectric receiver that controls scraper-blade level through a hydraulic actuator.
Задания к тексту 3
I.Прочитайте текст. Определите, с какой областью связана информация
данного текста.
II.Переведите текст письменно с помощью отраслевого словаря.
III.Выберите из предлагаемых вариантов перевода заголовка текста
«Electronic Controls Lead the Way» лучший:
Электронные схемы во все отрасли науки и техники!
Электронные схемы - в жизнь!
На пути к электронному управлению.
Внедрение электронного управления.
Электронное управление в авангарде прогресса.
Электронное управление прокладывает себе путь.
Электронное управление - путевка в жизнь!
Электронные средства управления в дорожном строительстве.
Электроника в строительстве дорог.
133
IV.Переведите на английский язык. Используйте лексику текста «Electronic
Controls Lead the Way».
Появление интегральных схем способствовало внедрению электронного
управления в дорожно-строительное оборудование.
Цель дистанционного управления состоит в том, чтобы обезопасить
операторов, особенно при пожаротушении, при горных работах и при работе с
радиоактивными материалами.
В последнее время внимание обращается на так называемый машинный
интеллект, который помогает оператору правильно пользоваться оборудованием.
134
Industrial paint drying calls for much more precise control as well as an
acceleration of this process. Forced drying, by artificial heat is therefore vitally
necessary in industry to achieve time and cost reduction, and to increase output.
Задания к тексту 4
I.Прочитайте текст «Paint Technology». Найдите в тексте слова с окончанием
-ed и определите их функции.
II.Выпишите из текста интернационализмы. Найдите среди них так
называемых «ложных друзей переводчика».
III.Сделайте письменный перевод текста «Paint Technology».
Текст 5.
135
remarkable concentrations of high stress, strain, strain rate and temperature in the
workpiece and cutting tool.
Задания к тексту 5
I.Прочитайте текст, постарайтесь понять его общее содержание.
II.Найдите в тексте:
а) предложение, содержащее слово involved. Определите его функцию;
переведите с учетом контекста;
б) предложение, содержащее инверсию. Переведите.
III.Переведите текст с минимальным использованием словаря.
IV.Озаглавьте текст.
136
Make plans definite by putting them in writing. This facilitates communication and
gives a sense of importance and urgency.
Build task assignments, authority delegations, and responsibilities into every plan.
Specify the results desired.
Maintain plans by specific review and control processes. Make changes, set
deadlines, and provide for continuous monitoring and evaluation.
Be alert for doubts and conflicts that arise during the implementation stage and
resolve them quickly. Deal directly with the thoughts, feelings, and attitudes of those
who disagree with an adopted plan.
Задания к тексту 6
137
Текст 7. Planning ... The Most Important Ingredient
Successful small business expansions and new formations lead the way in creating
new markets, innovations and jobs that fuel economic growth and prosperity.
In recognition of the importance of small business to a strong economy, Apple
Computer, Inc. has joined with the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) to help
meet the information needs of existing business owners and aspiring entrepreneurs.
Your success in business depends on what you know and how well you can apply
what you have learned.
Planning:
138
A business plan can be a communications tool for investors, suppliers, employees
and others interested in understanding the operations and goals of your business.
If you don't plan for the success of your business ... you will fail. It is that simple!
Planning Can Be Difficult:
Although planning is critical to your success, it is often overlooked in favor of
intuition or "gut feeling." There are other obstacles that hinder planning, including:
Lack of know-how - it is sometimes difficult to know how to plan and what to
plan for.
Fear of the unknown - it is hard enough dealing with the problems of today
without worrying about what's going to happen in the future.
Inexactness - the best set plans have a funny way of not working out exactly the
way they are supposed to.
These obstacles are very real. However, they must be overcome if you are to be
successful. While we may find it difficult to face the future, heading into it without any
direction is much worse.
The Business Plan:
The business plan is a written document that clearly defines the goals of a business
and outlines the methods for achieving them. A business plan describes what a business
does, how it will be done, who has to do it, where it will be done, why it's being done
and when it has to be completed.
Dreams and ambitions are great and important. But what really counts in the
business world are results. Therefore, it is important to establish realistic goals with a
sound methodology for achieving them. A business plan:
Is the management and financial "blueprint" for a business start-up and profitable
operation.
Is written by the business owner with outside help as needed.
Explains how the business will function and depicts its operational characteristics.
Details how the business will be capitalized and managed.
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Elements of a Business Plan:
1. Business Description
Business name, address and owner identification.
Identifies goals and objectives.
Clarifies why you are or why you want to be in business.
2. Products and Services
Very descriptive explanation of all products and services.
Describes what you are selling and why.
3. Sales and Marketing
Sales and marketing are the core of your business rationale. Your plan should
address several basic questions.
Who and how large is your market? How will you be competitive? What pricing
and sales terms are you planning? How will you market your products and services?
4. Operating Requirements
The plan should identify and describe the equipment, facilities and people
necessary to generate your products and services.
How will your products and services be produced and made available to the
customer?
5. Financial Management
This is the most critical part of your business plan. You will establish vital
schedules that will guide the financial health of your business.
If you are just starting a business, your plan should include:
Projected "start-up costs."
Your expected profit or return on investment (ROI) for the first year.
Projected income statement and balance sheet for two years.
Projected monthly cash flow statement for 12 months.
If you are a young or established business, your plan should include:
Income statement and balance sheet for the last two years.
Projected income statement and balance sheet for the next two years.
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Projected monthly cash flow statement for 12 months.
Your plan should include an explanation of all projections. If you feel that your
finance or accounting knowledge is not sufficient to prepare these statements, get
professional assistance.
The bottom line is: Will, or does your company make a profit?
6. Concluding Narrative
This segment of your plan should summarize your business goals and objectives
and send a message that you are committed to the success of your business.
Put Your Best Foot Forward:
Your business plan should be complete, clear, neat and accurate. It will be an
extension of you and your business.
The length of a good plan will vary from a few pages to well over a hundred pages.
The plan should provide a sound "blueprint" for your business and entice any reader to
want to know more.
A Final Word On Planning:
Planning is the most important part of starting and running a successful business. It
is a fact ... if you don't know where you are going, you will end up somewhere else.
Задания к тексту 7
I.Расположите следующие слова в алфавитном порядке, затранскрибируйте
их. Проверьте транскрипцию и перевод по словарю:
busy, business, path, guide, employee, success, worry, identify, rationale, basic,
competitive, term, equipment, facilities, available, financial, health, month, sufficient,
company, accurate, length.
II.Образуйте существительные от глаголов, добавив следующие суффиксы;
переведите:
-er (-or): to supply, to read, to own, to invest, to begin;
-ment: to require, to equip, to state, to manage, to develop, to improve, to achieve,
to invest;
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-t(s)ion: to operate, to direct, to expand, to recognize, to identify, to project,
to inform, to explain, to clarify, to satisfy.
III.Переведите группы слов одного корня. Обратите внимание на суффиксы
частей речи:
to employ - employer - employee - unemployment;
economy - economic - economics;
exact - exactness - inexactness;
to manage - manager - management;
to know - knowledge - known - unknown, know-how;
to invest - investor - investment;
to compete - competitor - competitive - competitiveness;
to produce - product - productive - production.
IV.Найдите в экономическом словаре слово business, изучите его словарную
статью. Выпишите все значения слова business.
V.Переведите следующие словосочетания со словом business. При переводе
учитывайте контекст:
a successful business; to start a business; to run a business; goals of one’s business;
to capitalize the business; to manage the business; a business plan; business world;
business owners; small business expansions; success in business.
VI.Запомните значения следующих слов и словосочетаний:
aspiring начинающие предприниматели
entrepreneurs
critical, a крайне необходимый, важный
guide, n руководство, путеводитель
rationale, n логическое обоснование,
разумное объяснение
gut feeling внутреннее чувство
accurate, a точный
142
neat, a аккуратный
143
а) создание новых рынков;
способствовать развитию экономики;
развитие (расширение) малых предприятий;
развитие экономики;
владельцы существующих предприятий;
начать дело;
планы, составленные наилучшим образом;
определить цели;
наметить методы;
144
Бизнес план - это письменный документ, который точно определяет цели
предприятия и предлагает методы для их достижения.
Бизнес план должен быть полным, ясным, аккуратным и точным.
Типичный бизнес план имеет следующие разделы:
описание предприятия (дела);
изделия и услуги;
продажа и сбыт;
требования к деятельности;
руководство финансами;
заключительная часть.
Наиболее важная часть бизнес плана - это руководство финансами.
Планирование крайне важно для успешного начала и ведения дела.
XII. а) Проанализируйте текст «Planning ... The Most Important Ingredient»
и составьте перечень основных вопросов, затронутых в тексте.
б) Изложите кратко содержание прочитанного текста, используя слова и
словосочетания типа:
145
) given ..
Делаются попытки Attempts are made to
) сформулировать ... formulate ...
Делаются выводы ... Conclusions are drawn ...
)
XIII.Составьте аннотацию текста «Planning ... The Most Important Ingredient»
на русском языке объемом в 5-6 предложений.
XIV.Переведите текст составленной Вами аннотации на английский язык.
Many managers see planning as a dispensable task to be done if time permits. But
it is in fact the most basic and crucial managerial function. By providing a cost-time
framework within which technical operations are organized and executed, planning
bridges the gap between where an organization is at present and where it should be in
the future.
146
Benefits of planning
Planning produces benefits that are essential to effective management. It enables
the manager to anticipate problems, rather than to merely react to them when they arise.
In many cases, anticipation results in prevention. But even when anticipated problems
occur, the manager can respond in a reasoned fashion, without being under pressure to
produce an off-the-cuff, ill-considered "solution."
Planning also helps the manager establish specific objectives, so that he is in
control of the progress of his group and of his career. Without definite objectives, his
work performance will be haphazard and success will be a matter of luck. Furthermore,
sound planning makes other managerial tasks easier. Designing or modifying the
structure of the organization, directing subordinates, and evaluating performance
depend on setting and charting a course to achieve department objectives.
Although all managers must plan regardless of their position in the company
hierarchy, the scope and complexity of planning will increase as the manager moves up
the organizational ladder. Top managers are preoccupied with determining corporate
strategy, increasing the rate of company growth, and developing new markets. Mid-
level managers must coordinate, minimize overlapping, and enhance resource-
utilization between various company departments and groups. First-level managers and
supervisors spend considerable time implementing policies and procedures, assigning
work activities, and devising ways for enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of
work operations.
Types of plans
Plans can be classified according to their duration, function, or scope.
Duration: Short-range planning is usually done at the lower levels of the
organization, while long-range planning takes place chiefly at the upper management
levels. Short-range plans are usually single-use plans developed to deal with "one-shot"
situations and then discarded. A common form of single-use plan is the budget; once the
period of time covered by the budget is completed, the budget is replaced by a new one.
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Long-range plans are usually of the standing or repeat-use type. They are used over and
over again to help guide the activities of members of the organization.
Function: Another way of classifying plans is in terms of the function or use to
which they are applied. Plans may be developed for key organizational functions such
as Marketing, Manufacturing, Finance, Engineering, and R&D. The functional grouping
of plans assists management in understanding the interaction between major areas or
operations. This, in turn, helps in spotting potential conflicts and problems so that they
can be dealt with effectively.
Scope: A third way of classifying plans is with respect to their breadth or scope.
Examples include:
Objectives: An objective is a general statement of the mission of the organization
or group. This statement describes what is to be accomplished; it does not stipulate how
it will be achieved. General corporate objectives are communicated to divisions and
departments, where they are translated into specific goals and activities. This process
results in establishing a hierarchy of objectives for each kind of function at each level of
the organization.
Policies: While objectives tell what is to be done, policies focus on the constraints
within which the objectives will be accomplished. Policies, out of necessity, are broad
statements directed to guide organization members in making decisions and handling
problems. Well-developed policies ensure a continuing focus on predetermined
objectives, maintain consistency of action, and minimize randomness of decision-
making.
Policies are usually developed by high-level executives. Managers and department
heads, however, may make policy recommendations subject to the approval of
managers at higher levels. Examples of policies include such stipulations as "R&D
projects will not be subcontracted unless the company does not have the necessary
resources or expertise to perform the job," or "Promotions of engineers from within are
encouraged when the engineers have a demonstrated managerial potential."
148
Procedures: Whereas policies are broad guides, procedures are more specific steps
describing how to accomplish the objectives. A standard operating procedure specifies
the steps to be followed in handling day-to-day intra or interdepartmental operations.
Well-established procedures help reduce ambiguity and confusion in the way that
divisions and departments operate, and provide uniformity of action through
standardized actions. For example, to implement the policy of promoting from within, a
standard operating procedure will spell out how promising talent should be identified,
developed, and trained. Another procedure might identify the steps to be followed by
Engineering in its relations with other divisions when bidding for internal and external
operations.
Methods: Methods are detailed descriptions of the manner and sequence of
performing tasks that are necessary for completing specific assignments within a
division or department. They are developed to influence the way staff personnel
perform their tasks. Examples include a prescribed method for developing a prototype
design or for the assembly of a given product.
The difference between policies, procedures, and methods in terms of their scope
and depth is a matter of degree. Policies and methods fall at the two opposite ends of a
continuum, with procedures somewhere between. While policies are the broadest of all
plans and originate at the highest levels of an organization, procedures are concerned
with the operations of major functional departments and are interdepartmental in their
effect. Methods are designed specifically to direct the performance of individuals.
Rules: Rules are prescribed standards designed to impose restrictions on the
personal behavior of employees. They are by definition inflexible and spell out
penalties for violations. Examples include rules concerning smoking on company
premises, dress, and absences.
While objectives, policies, procedures, methods, and rules are necessary and have
important functions to perform, they should not be multiplied beyond necessity. Their
over-abundance can stifle initiative and reduce compliance. The effective manager
149
maintains a balance between the organization's needs for planning and control, and his
subordinates’ need for autonomy and flexibility.
The planning process
Planning is a systematic activity that can be enhanced by following a prescribed
series of steps.
Define objectives: The first step in the planning process is to identify the purpose
of the plan. Stating objectives in concrete form helps determine the plan's direction.
Objectives should be concrete, achievable, and measurable. If possible, objectives
should be described quantitatively, but qualitative objectives are better than no
objectives at all. When formulating objectives, you should think in terms of why the
plan is necessary. This forces you to think of specific goals, their relationship to other
jobs and activities within your department, and their link with the more general aims of
the organization.
Determine tasks: After defining the objectives of the plan, specific tasks must be
determined. You should answer the question: What must be done to achieve the stated
objectives? Here is where the manager will have his rigor tested. If you are ambiguous
in stating the objectives of your plan, you will find it almost impossible to identify the
tasks that are necessary for executing the objectives.
Evaluate personnel: This phase in the planning process relates to the manning of
the plan. A check of the capabilities and qualifications of staff members will enable you
to determine which areas must be strengthened, decide whether or not training will be
necessary, and identify people who will be crucial to the success of the plan. As part of
this phase, you should designate the upper-level personnel who will be required to
advance the plan. Specific questions to be answered include: Who must authorize the
plan? Who should be put in charge of developing the plan? Who will coordinate the
various aspects of the plan? What capabilities will be required to execute the plan, and
which staff members possess these capabilities? If certain capabilities are not available,
how can they be obtained?
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Marshal resources: In addition to the human resources necessary for manning the
plan, you must establish what other resources and facilities are required for
implementing the plan. These resources will vary, depending on the nature of the
project. For ease of analysis, resources should be categorized. For example, a
production plan can be broken down in terms of raw materials, fittings and supplies,
production equipment, auxiliary equipment, standby equipment, handling equipment,
and packing materials.
Determine procedures for implementation: What methods must be employed for
putting the plan into action? The more concise you have been in carrying out the
previous steps of the planning process, the easier you will be able to answer that
question. The answer must not be general or ambiguous; it must identify precisely how
the plan will be executed.
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The planning process does not necessarily have to be accomplished in the sequence
outlined here. Different phases of the process can be implemented simultaneously. Two
important points should be kept in mind, however. First, all phases of the process are
absolutely necessary; second, they should be tailored to the specific type of plan and
environment involved.
Barriers to effective planning
Planning is not easy. The manager who believes it is, probably is not an effective
planner. Recognizing why planning is difficult will put you on guard against the pitfalls
and give you a head start in avoiding them.
Tedium: Managers don't like to plan because planning is a repetitive and tedious
process. The manager must examine all the feasible alternatives and document possible
scenarios so that, given any plausible eventuality, he has prepared a response that will
lead to his goal. He must check and recheck to make sure that all alternatives have been
identified, and that proper weights have been assigned to those alternatives. This is a
laborious, desk-bound activity. Indeed, a good planner must have a great amount of
patience and perseverance.
Inappropriate attitudes: Rarely are business failures or poor decisions the result
of too much planning; instead, they can usually be traced to the conviction that "I don't
need a plan; I am sure I can handle whatever develops." This attitude, characterized as
"shooting from the hip," should be distinguished from "paralysis by analysis," in which
the manager refuses to plan until he has "complete" information – which, of course, he
will never have. Such attitudes are guaranteed to prevent planning, or to make whatever
planning is done ineffective.
Too little time and money: This problem is itself often the result of poor
planning. What many managers fail to recognize is that planning is a good
investment. Since planning is basically a form of preventive action, the payoff will be
far greater than the costs incurred.
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Ambiguous objectives: Another obstacle to good planning is the lack of clear
objectives toward which the planning is being directed. The situation is even worse
when the objectives are inappropriate or just plain wrong.
Inadequate information: Having too much, too little, or the wrong information is
a major barrier to planning.
Developing planning skills
The barriers to planning are really excuses for not planning. Overcoming them is
crucial to managerial success. The best way to accomplish this is to become a good
planner. Here are some practical tips:
Consider each of the people the plan will affect. Viewing the plan from these
people's standpoint will reveal how it might affect their objectives, needs, and personal
interests, and will facilitate getting their support in adopting the plan.
Provide alternative options in case the original plan isn't adopted.
Learn to anticipate change. Just because a course of action produced satisfactory
results in the past does not necessarily mean it will work again. While change cannot
always be precisely predicted, it can be anticipated.
Don't be afraid to take calculated risks. Risk taking is an integral part of
management. Advancement to higher-level management positions is partly contingent
on the manager's record of taking risks.
Establish priorities so that long-range as well as short-range objectives can be met.
The immediate or easy projects will always beckon first, but the hard distant ones
usually produce the biggest payoffs.
Make plans known to those involved, thereby avoiding communication
breakdowns. Information withholding is seen as a powerful game in many quarters. By
keeping others in the dark, the manager holds his cards close to the chest because it
makes him feel privy to information that is denied others. But such a practice is
guaranteed to turn peers and subordinates against him.
Establish appropriate measures at the time a plan is prepared, so that evaluation of
the plan proceeds smoothly.
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Develop a continuation plan for keeping things rolling when you are absent.
Naturally, the details of the continuation plan will vary from manager to manager,
depending on his job responsibilities, the length of time he will be away, and who will
be left in charge.
Задание к тексту 8
Сделайте реферативный перевод текста «Planning: the Path to Better Results».
Для выполнения реферативного перевода используйте следующую инструкцию:
а) прочитайте весь текст;
б) сделайте разметку текста: возьмите в квадратные скобки
исключаемые части текста;
в) прочитайте оставленные за скобками части текста; устраните
возможные несвязности;
г) сделайте полный письменный перевод части оригинала, оставшейся
за скобками.
154
Since managerial performance depends on fundamental skills rather than on
personality traits, the criterion for identifying potentially successful managers should
not be what a person is, but rather what he does. Such a perspective shifts the emphasis
of evaluation from the qualities that a person possesses (personality), to how the person
handles various situations (performance).
Since performance is the key to a manager's effectiveness, the situation in which he
manages is crucial to his success. People who perform well in one situation may not be
as successful in another. In other words, the manager's particular mix of skills must "fit"
the requirements of the situation to be managed.
For engineers and scientists switching to management, the study of management is
crucial. Since the ingredients of managerial competency can be developed through
study and training, technical people who want to be managers have no excuse for not
getting the education they need. Of course, the development of management skills will
not come about solely by reading books or attending courses. These activities constitute
a first step: they develop knowledge, not skills. The only way to develop the necessary
skills is by putting the knowledge into action through practice.
Задания к тексту 9
I.Сделайте письменный перевод текста «Why Study Management?»
II.Переведите предложения на английский язык. В случае затруднений,
обратитесь к тексту «Why Study Management?»
1.Навыки управления можно развивать. 2.Работа менеджера зависит как от
развитых навыков, так и от личностных качеств. 3.Способы управления на
практике различны. 4.Стиль управления зависит от страны, от организации, от
цели, от людей и обстоятельств и, конечно, от личности менеджера. 5.Судить о
том, насколько успешен менеджер, нужно по тому, что он делает, а не по тому,
каким человеком он является. 6.Каждый менеджер любого уровня должен
осуществлять одни и те же основные административные функции, а именно:
планирование, организацию и контроль. 7.Менеджер должен уметь
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стимулировать деятельность подчиненных, быть контактным, уметь делать
оценку работы и разрешать конфликты. 8.Менеджер должен непосредственно
участвовать в принятии решений. 9.Менеджерами не рождаются, ими становятся.
10.Искусству управления можно научиться.
M. K. BADAWY
Managing time is a task that confronts every engineer and engineering manager.
Uncontrollable factors such as endless meetings, telephone conversations, and routine
paperwork can bring productive output to a screeching halt. And the engineer himself
can be guilty of wasting his valuable time by failing to delegate work, schedule days,
make decisions, and establish priorities.
Learning how to manage time effectively is a key factor in an engineer’s
performance. Effective time management provides greater control over the work
environment and it increases productivity. In order to maximize the use of his time, the
career-minded engineer or technical manager should heed certain principles of time
management.
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If you do not control your time, others will control it for you. To achieve your job
and career objectives, you must strive to control your own environment.
«On the contrary, he’s always treated me like a brother: surly, rude,
uncompromising.»
Effective job and career management are contingent upon effective self-
management which, in turn, is contingent upon effective time management.
Diagnose the real causes of time-wasting before attempting to solve time-
management problems. Questions to ask yourself include: Are "trivia traps" only
symptoms or are they the real reasons for the poor use of time? Are there inherent
personality factors that affect how you manage your time?
Use the principle of return on investment. Estimate the value of each task on a
scale of 1 to 10. By dividing the task value by the time available, you get the "return on
investment." The higher the number, the higher the rate of return. Organizing your work
schedule to accomplish your highest return tasks is the best approach to time
management.
Effective time management can be learned, but it requires self-discipline.
Recognizing your bad habits and doing something about them is essential.
Learn to concentrate on the "critical few" and eliminate the "trivial many" when
striving to manage your time more effectively (see №1 above).
Since your responsibilities will always exceed your capacity to carry them out, you
must learn to delegate. Never undertake what you can delegate.
Although effective time management will increase the quantity of your efforts, it is
the quality of the results that really count.
Time is an inflexible, irreplaceable resource that deserves the special attention of
engineers and engineering managers. These principles for managing time put into
perspective an aspect of your worklife that is very often hard to pin down. But any
engineer with higher aspirations must be able to master this "timefactor" if he intends to
advance in his career.
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Задания к тексту 10
I.Переведите следующие интернационализмы; проверьте перевод по
словарю:
confront, control, factor, telephone, routine, productivity, maximize, technical,
principle, career, result, diagnose, real, problem, symptom, scale, discipline.
II.Переведите следующие слова; обратите внимание на суффиксы и
префиксы:
valuable, performance, environment, available, responsibility, quantity, effectively,
really, necessary, endless, inflexible, irreplaceable, uncontrollable.
III.Переведите сочетания слов. Обратите внимание на порядок перевода
существительных, употребляемых в роли определений:
time management, time management problems, job and career objectives, career-
minded engineers, straight-jacket approach.
IV.Прочитайте текст «Taking 'Time' to Get Ahead». Найдите в тексте
предложения, в которых употреблен герундий; определите его функции и
переведите.
V.Найдите в тексте «Taking 'Time' to Get Ahead» предложение, содержащее
сравнительный оборот the ... the. Переведите .
VI.Переведите текст «Taking 'Time' to Get Ahead» с минимальным
использованием словаря.
158
accomplishment. But the euphoria won't last long. Almost immediately you'll be
plunged into the nitty-gritty activities of being a manager.
Your new responsibilities will require a dramatic shift in perspective. You will no
longer be responsible only for your own work projects; you'll be accountable for the
performance of an entire staff.
Learning to be a competent manager involves working each day with the greatest
unknown of all: people. You will have to understand and motivate staff members, set
standards of performance, and discipline subordinates when necessary. You will have to
become a good listener so you will be able to relate to their on-the-job problems and,
occasionally, to their personal ones.
You will also learn that you no longer control your own destiny. The budget,
interactions with other groups, and accomplishing your boss's objectives will become
your major concerns.
159
take the time necessary to accomplish them successfully. A prime tool in identifying
these "vital few" is Pareto's Law.
Pareto's Law is called the 80/20 rule. Named for an Italian economist of the 19th
century, it states that the outputs of any large group follow an 80/20 distribution: 80%
of a company's sales will be generated by 20% of the items sold; 80% of delinquent
accounts payable will be caused by 20% of the customers; 80% of production problems
will be caused by 20% of the products; and 80% of personnel problems will be caused
by 20% of the staff.
The numbers will not always check out exactly, but the ratios will always be very
close to 80/20. Whether it be sales, profits, problems, or projects, you will find that
most of the critical outputs are caused by only a few of the inputs. Identifying and
acting on the vital few areas of your job will affect 80% of your output. This is an
important part of becoming an effective manager.
Being an effective manager also means being flexible. Setting unnecessary rules or
adhering to existing rules at all costs will only inhibit staff performance. In one actual
example of the benefits of flexibility, an engineer was being interrupted too often to get
an important report done. The supervisor suggested that he take a day off to work on the
report at home while his wife and children were away. He finished the report in a few
hours. The experiment worked so well that the supervisor subsequently allowed other
engineers to work at home occasionally.
As a new manager, you will have to motivate staff members. This means that you
will have to understand them and communicate effectively with them. Through this
interaction, you will learn their strengths and weaknesses. Since you cannot always
eliminate the weaknesses, you must work on helping your subordinates build on their
strengths.
160
Many books and articles have been written describing how to use the strengths and
weaknesses of staff members to motivate them to better performance. But too many of
the tactics recommended result in manipulation rather than motivation. The best
approach is a direct and candid one.
Understanding that motivation means "motive-for-action" may shed some light on
how to motivate others. Actually, you cannot motivate anyone; the best you can do is
make it possible for each person to motivate himself. A strong motive for action is the
conviction that completing the assignment at hand will be of benefit to the company and
to the staff member. It is your responsibility to foster this conviction.
Delegating Responsibility
Learning to delegate will not be easy, especially if you have been a highly
competent engineer. The very engineering skills that won you a promotion to
management can be a detriment to your becoming an effective manager of engineers.
As you review the work of your subordinates, you will be itching to release those skills
once again. You will find it hard not to give a complete answer when you are asked,
"What should I do now? I'm stumped." But even if your background and experience
make the correct answer obvious to you, you should merely provide suggestions. Have
the subordinate view the problem in a broader perspective. If necessary, recommend
several courses of action. You will probably find that with a little effort, he can select
and develop the best course of action himself.
If you select the best approach for a subordinate, it becomes "what the boss wants";
and if it does not work out, he will not feel responsible. Thus, his commitment to
solving the problem is reduced, and his problem-solving development is slowed. In an
unusual case, a subordinate may become your arms and legs—doing what you want
done, taking little blame for what is done wrong, and giving little thought to what the
job is all about. But this should be the exception, not the rule.
161
If you give in to the urge of wanting to prove that you still have what it takes to be
a good engineer, you will spend all your time thinking up answers to staff problems,
while your staff is underworked. They will be waiting for you to come up with answers
for their assignments. The role of manager and subordinate will be reversed. Rather
than fall into this trap, face the fact that some mistakes will be made while you are
learning to delegate and your subordinates are learning to do things your way.
Delegating responsibility to subordinates is only one side of the delegation coin.
Equally important is how much authority you assume. This will not be a problem in the
ordinary course of events. But there will be times when you will have to decide whether
or not to make a decision that is not explicitly yours to make. In one such case, a
supervisor was faced with making a decision on a large capital expenditure when the
general manager was out of town. Lead times and delivery were critical, so someone
had to decide. The supervisor made the decision even though he was not sure that he
had the authority to do so. When the general manager returned, the supervisor told him
about the matter and asked for a clarification of the limits of his authority. "If the
situation is critical, assume I've delegated you the authority you need," the general
manager said. "Make the decision in the best interest of the company and our product
group in that order. I'll support your decision as if it were mine. But, if I think you have
overstepped your authority, I'll privately let you know."
No manager could ask for more. You do have the authority to get the job done. If
you don't take it, you won't be a good manager.
Soon after becoming a manager, you become aware that there are other major
forces in the company besides engineering, R&D, and marketing. You will become
better attuned to your company's plans for the future. You will learn about finance –
from the present value of money to the costs of carrying inventory. And, you will learn
about budgets.
162
Living within a budget probably causes more problems for engineering managers
than any other responsibility. The budget always seems too small. By definition, a
budget is a financial plan for the year, just as schedules are time plans and PERT
diagrams are performance plans. The tough part of living within a budget is trying to
cope with unexpected needs.
Theoretically, the "efficient" manager will scrupulously control every expenditure
and maintain bookkeeping records of his own. At every point in time, he will know
exactly where each account is with respect to the budget. He will automatically veto any
expenditure that threatens to exceed the budget, no matter what the reason. Such a
manager will certainly be controlling expenditures, but he will not be managing the
budget.
The opposite extreme is the manager who is not concerned about any items in his
budget. He approves all requisitions for any amount, and hopes for the best. This
approach will certainly free more time for other management duties, but it is also a sure
way of getting a department into trouble.
The effective manager knows that only a few items in the budget have the most
leverage on totals and need to be monitored carefully. These items include salaries,
overtime, project materials, outside testing, and travel. Managing these items requires
an awareness of the real needs of the department, as well as a sense of compromise. If
an unexpected need to increase travel expenses threatens to blow your budget, look over
the other budget items and identify areas in which spending can be cut, so that the total
budget can be brought into balance.
Staff members should be made a part of the budget control system. One company
does this by allowing all exempt employees to sign their own purchase orders up to
$100. This gives each employee a measure of budget responsibility, and frees the
manager from the task of approving the numerous small purchase orders that are
automatically approved anyway. A further benefit is that these purchase orders are hand
written, so they go out the same day they are filled out, expediting the delivery of
needed parts.
163
Making Meetings Count
Most meetings are poorly structured and are a waste of time. An effective meeting
has a precise and brief agenda, a definite objective, a specific time period for
completing the work at hand, and participants who have a need to be present.
To make sure your meetings are meaningful, decide on the what, why, when, who,
where, and how long. With answers to these questions, you can decide if a meeting is
necessary and, if so, what the agenda should cover.
An important part of a meeting is keeping and publishing the minutes. Sometimes
a junior attendee is appointed to keep the notes and write the minutes. This may be
adequate. But if the meeting is important and the results have to be clearly stated
without confusion, you may have to keep the minutes yourself. Otherwise, you run the
risk of misunderstood conclusions.
If a subordinate is used, make sure you see and edit the final draft before the
minutes are published. The minutes must accurately reflect the decisions made at the
meeting.
Engineering must interact well with both marketing and manufacturing; the less
formal the interface, the better. Engineering designs are rarely perfect, marketing
forecasts are usually off, and manufacturing often misses tolerances or schedule dates.
But unless these three groups work closely together, they become separate outposts,
each one blaming the other two for mistakes or omissions.
Interface problems can be solved best if responsibility for matters of common
concern is shared by members of each group. For example, a designer might discuss a
stamping design with a tool engineer before he makes final drawings. Or, a marketing
manager might touch base with the chief manufacturing engineer about potential
changes in product mix before changing production plans.
164
Задания к тексту 11
I.Прочитайте текст «Down-to-Earth Advice for the New Manager».
II.Сделайте полный письменный перевод текста «Down-to-Earth Advice for the
New Manager». Используйте известные Вам переводческие трансформации.
III.Составьте на русском языке аннотацию текста «Down-to-Earth Advice for
the New Manager».
IV.Переведите составленную Вами аннотацию на английский язык.
165
subordinates or associates. So the first rule for ensuring the success of a meeting is to
make sure that it is necessary. Once necessity has been established, the manager can
focus his attention on how to organize it so as to best achieve his objectives.
Determining group size: Only those who have a need to be at the meeting should
attend. Group size has a significant influence on the effectiveness of a meeting.
Experiments have shown that as discussion-group size increases, the likelihood of
group consensus decreases. In addition, the discussion leader in a smaller group can
influence decisions more than the leader in a larger group.
166
Preparing an advance agenda: The most frequent shortcoming of an agenda is
lack of careful planning. Most agendas are thrown together with little attention to
grouping and highlighting the various areas to be discussed. As a result, participants are
not alerted to the important aspects of scheduled topics. Problems should be listed on
the agenda in terms of action-priorities.
A question that discussion leaders frequently puzzle over is whether or not the
agenda should be circulated before the meeting. In general, the answer is yes. An
advance agenda enhances understanding, generates ideas, and brings the group together
primed with the best information they can muster. Furthermore, group members who
come to meetings prepared are better motivated and derive greater satisfaction from the
meeting.
Some discussion leaders encourage group members to prepare questions which are
submitted in writing before an agenda is drawn up. This gives the members an increased
sense of interest and involvement in the business of the meeting.
Setting the scene: Although the importance of adequate physical conditions
should be obvious, this factor is the one that is most often overlooked. The discussion
leader should personally check the conference room before anyone arrives and make
sure that the following conditions are met:
• The seating arrangement should be such that participants are close together to
develop the necessary feeling of cooperation. They should be able to see each other and
the discussion leader without difficulty.
• A blackboard and a space for displaying diagrams, charts, and maps should be
provided.
• Lighting and air conditioning should be adequate.
• The conference room should be free from noise and interruptions.
167
leader must maintain the group's sense of direction and keep the meeting moving.
During the discussion, he should regulate the proceedings, but not lecture. He should
limit his own participation to introducing the subject and asking questions that serve to
provoke and guide discussion. He should keep his role to a minimum. The longer a
discussion leader talks, the more passive the group becomes, and the more difficult the
task of stimulating discussion.
One of the greatest pitfalls of meetings is that participants tend to state their points
in a vague or confusing manner. The discussion leader should clarify obscure
contributions by asking the member advancing the confused views a few pertinent
questions, pointing out the hidden premises in the speaker's statement or rephrasing his
statements.
The relative effectiveness of the solutions arrived at during a meeting depends on
several factors. One of the most important is the extent to which a clear goal has been
defined before, and underlined during, the discussion.
Education in correct meeting procedure is the best way to prevent behavior that
obstructs the smooth functioning of the group. The discussion leader should devote a
few minutes of the meeting to presenting some carefully worked-out rules of order. A
copy of the rules should be distributed to all members of the group and discussed before
the regular business of the meeting is begun. At a minimum, the rules should include
the following:
• All decisions should be reached by a consensus of group members. The
discussion leader should have no pre-established decisions concerning the problems
scheduled. Otherwise, a meeting would not be necessary.
• Everyone should be urged to participate in the discussion. A free and voluntary
expression of ideas facilitates the thinking of group members and contributes to a lively
discussion.
• Participants should speak one at a time and should not interrupt one another. Out
of courtesy to whoever has the floor, private conversations should not be permitted.
168
• Statements by participants should be brief and should address only the point or
issue under discussion at the time.
• Although many differences of opinion will be encountered, expressions of
hostility should be avoided. Direct and honest expressions are fine, but emotionally
tinged words that create unnecessary opposition should be considered "off base."
When obstructive behavior occurs, calling attention to these rules will induce the
participants to conduct themselves properly during the remainder of the meeting.
To be successful, the discussion should produce something approaching unanimity
on the matters to be decided. If not, a vote should be taken according to majority rule.
When the discussion leader is reasonably sure that everything of value has been
extracted from participants, he should make a summation of the discussion, highlight
the principal ideas developed, put the question at issue to a vote, and make
recommendations for implementing the decision.
Задания к тексту 12
I.Сделайте полный письменный перевод текста «We’ve Got to Stop Meeting
Like This».
II.Переведите следующие предложения. В случае затруднений обратитесь к
тексту «We’ve Got to Stop Meeting Like This».
1.Собрание – наилучший способ общения между менеджером и людьми, ему
подчиняющимися. 2.Исследования показывают, что время собрания часто
используется совершенно нерационально. 3.Собрание отвечает многим целям,
таким как выработка решений практических задач. 4.Чтобы гарантировать успех
собрания, нужно удостовериться, что оно необходимо. 5.Количество
присутствующих имеет большое влияние на эффективность собрания. 6.По мере
того, как возрастает число участников, снижается вероятность принятия единого
решения. 7.Организатор должен четко определить цели собрания.
8.Формулировка вопросов очень важна. 9.Готовя план собрания, нужно
придерживаться следующего: поставить проблему; изложить факты; определить
169
цели; изучить предложения; подвести итоги обсуждения; рассмотреть способы
осуществления решений. 10.Заранее изложенная повестка дня обеспечивает успех
собрания.
A Willing Reply
Marine designers have responded to the accusations in several ways.
170
For sewage, they have devised holding tanks to fit in the bilges of boats equipped
with toilets. These tanks contain typically 9 to 30 gal and can be pumped out at marinas.
Tanks are molded of several plastics – particularly ultrahigh-molecular weight
polyethylene – that are inert to bacteria.
One-third of the company's sailboats are now equipped with holding tanks.
New York State led the way with legislation on holding tanks –insisting that no
dumping take place in lakes, rivers, or off-shore waters in its jurisdiction.
171
II.Обратите внимание на латинское сокращение, употребленное в заголовке
текста «Ecology vs Recreational Boats». Вспомните его полную форму и значение.
III.Выпишите из текста «Ecology vs Recreational Boats» слова, относящиеся к
области охраны окружающей среды.
IV.Переведите текст «Ecology vs Recreational Boats».
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 1.
172
p.m. (post после полудня
meridiem)
pro et con (pro et за и против
contra)
proviso при условии
sic! важно; подлинник
status quo исходное положение; в первоначальном
виде
sui generis в своем роде
terra incognita незнакомая область
vers, v/s, vs (Versus) Против
via Путем
vice versa и наоборот
viz а именно
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 2.
173
thereby thus в силу этого
therefrom from smth из ...
therein in smth в ...
therethrough through smth через ...
thereunder under smth под ...
thereupon after which впоследствии
whereafter after which после чего
wherefore for which для чего
wherein in which в чем; где
whereof of which чего; какого
whereupon after which после чего
wherewith with which чем
174
ОРЛОВА ГАЛИНА ДМИТРИЕВНА
Пособие по переводу
английской научно-технической литературы
Учебное пособие
175