J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
DOI 10.1007/s10964-006-9115-9
ORIGINAL PAPER
Perceived Support and Internalizing Symptoms in African
American Adolescents: Self-Esteem and Ethnic Identity
as Mediators
Noni K. Gaylord-Harden · Brian L. Ragsdale ·
Jelani Mandara · Maryse H. Richards ·
Anne C. Petersen
Received: 7 April 2006 / Revised: 26 May 2006 / Accepted: 6 June 2006 / Published online: 25 July 2006


C Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. 2006
Abstract Existing research leaves a gap in explaining why
African American adolescents do not exhibit more anxiety
and depression than other youth, at the same time that they
experience more contextual risk factors. The current study
examined the roles of social support as well as possible me-
diators self-esteem and ethnic identity (sense of belonging
to one’s ethnic group) in reducing internalizing symptoms
in 227 African American adolescents (mean age = 12.55).
Structural equation models indicated that self-esteem and
ethnic identity partially mediated the relation between so-
cial support and depression. For depression, ethnic identity
N. K. Gaylord-Harden (
)
Assistant Professor, Clinical Psychology, Loyola University
Chicago. Received Ph.D. in Psychology from The University of
Memphis. Current interests include coping and resilience in
African American youth and the role of family characteristics in
children and adolescents’ stress and coping processes.
Department of Psychology.
Loyola University Chicago,
6525 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, Illinois, 60626 USA
e-mail: ngaylor@luc.edu
B. L. Ragsdale
Teaching Associate, School of Education and Social Policy,
Northwestern University. Received Ph.D. in Psychology from
University of Rhode Island. Research interests include ethnic
identity in African American youth and the effects of exposure to
violence on well-being. Northwestern University,
633 Clark Street, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
J. Mandara
Assistant Professor, Human Development and Social Policy,
Northwestern University. Received Ph.D. in Psychology from
University of California, Riverside. Primary research examines
the nature and effects of socialization, father’s involvement, and
how they interact with gender, race, and SES to impact youths’
academic and social development.
Northwestern University,
633 Clark Street, Evanston, IL 60208 USA
accounted for more of the social support effect for males,
whereas self-esteem had more impact for females. The me-
diation model for anxiety was supported in females, with
self-esteem more important than ethnic identity. The re-
sults suggest that ethnic identity and self-esteem function
as important links in how social support reduces internaliz-
ing symptoms in African American youth.
Keywords Self-esteem . Ethnic identity . Social support .
African American adolescents . Depression . Anxiety
M. H. Richards
Professor, Clinical and Developmental Psychology, Loyola
University Chicago. Received Ph.D. in Human Development from
the University of Chicago. Current research interests include the
developmental stage of adolescence with a focus on the daily
experience of urban African American young adolescents and
how this relates to their psycho- social well being. Dr. Richards
served as a Predoctoral Adolescent Fellow (1979–1981) and
Postdoctoral Adolescent Fellow (1984–1985) at the Clinical
Research Training Program in Adolescence in Chicago, IL, which
was co-directed by Dr. Daniel Offer., Loyola University Chicago,
6525 N. Sheridan Rd., Chicago, IL, 60626 USA
A. C. Petersen
Visiting Professor, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs;
President, University of Minnesota and Global Philanthropy
Alliance. Received Ph.D. in Measurement, Evaluation, and
Statistical Analysis from the University of Chicago. Research
interest is in adolescent development. Dr. Petersen served as
Coordinator of the Clinical Research Training Program in
Adolescence (1978–1982) and Associate Director (1976–80) and
Director (1980–82) of the Laboratory for the Study of
Adolescence at Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center
(Chicago, IL) where Dr. Daniel Offer served as Director of the
Department of Psychiatry. Dr. Petersen and Dr. Offer collaborated
on numerous research papers while working together at Michael
Reese Hospital., University of Minnesota and Global
Philanthropy Alliance USA
Springer
78
Adolescence is a developmental transition period marked
by rapid physical, psychological, social, and environmental
change, and these life changes have been found to contribute
to the onset or exacerbation of internalizing difficulties, such
as anxiety and depression, during adolescence (Burton et al.,
2004; Petersen et al., 1991). African American adolescents
report experiencing more stressful events during this devel-
opmental period than their White counterparts (Gonzales
and Kim, 1997; Weist et al., 1995), potentially heightening
their risk of internalizing problems. Interestingly, a number
of studies demonstrate that African American youth do not
exhibit significantly higher rates of internalizing problems
than White youth (Maag and Irvin, 2005; Safren et al., 2000).
Thus, consistent with a resilience framework, it becomes im-
portant to understand the factors that protect African Ameri-
can adolescents, despite elevated contextual risks. The com-
parable rates of internalizing symptoms have been attributed
to strong social ties in the African American community
(Collins, 1995), and previous research confirms that social
support received from family and peers is a factor associ-
ated with lower rates of depression and anxiety in African
American adolescents (Davis et al., 1997; Youngstrom et al.,
2003). What is largely missing is a clear understanding of
the mechanisms that help to link social support to healthy
psychological functioning for African American youth. Pos-
itive views of the self have been proposed as a mechanism
through which socioemotional experiences may influence
developmental outcomes (Harter, 1999; Offer et al., 1984).
However, positive views of one’s ethnic group are considered
to be equally important for functioning in African American
youth (Cross, 1991). Thus, the purpose of the current study
was to examine self-esteem and ethnic identity as mediators
of the relation between perceived family and peer support and
internalizing difficulties in African American adolescents.
Specifically, it is proposed that perceived support exerts its
protective influence on depression and anxiety through its
relation to higher self-esteem and ethnic identity.
Social support and internalizing symptoms
Social support has been studied extensively as a psychoso-
cial determinant of well-being in children, adolescents, and
adults (Cohen and Wills, 1985). Early research on social
support utilized broad and vague conceptualizations of sup-
port, but researchers now distinguish between more specific
support constructs, including the construct of perceived
support (Barrera, 1986; Sandler et al., 1989). Perceived
support is conceptualized as the evaluation or appraisal of
the quality of support, and, compared to objective measures
of support, is more strongly associated with psychological
functioning (Wetherington and Hessler, 1986). Research
on the effects of perceived support in adolescence largely
focuses on perceptions of family support and peer support.
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J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
A number of studies demonstrate that perceptions of higher
support received from family and peers are associated with
fewer internalizing symptoms, including less depression
and anxiety (e.g., Caldwell et al., 1998).
In samples that are predominantly or exclusively African
American, researchers have examined the association be-
tween perceived support and internalizing symptoms us-
ing a variety of measures for internalizing symptoms. Re-
searchers have utilized a composite measure of depressive
and anxiety symptoms as an internalizing variable, and find-
ings have demonstrated that higher levels of family and peer
support predict lower internalizing scores (Kliewer et al.,
1998; Youngstrom et al., 2003). Although the creation of a
composite internalizing variable is a common practice with
measures of depression and anxiety due to overlap in the
constructs, there is literature suggesting distinctive, as well
as overlapping, features of the two (e.g., Kendall and Watson,
1989). Other studies have examined the effects of perceived
support on depression and anxiety separately. Higher levels
of support from family and peers have been shown to be re-
lated to lower levels of depressive symptoms (Caldwell et al.,
1998). In a sample of African American youth, higher lev-
els of parental support predicted lower levels of depressive
symptoms (Johnson and Kliewer, 1999). Also, in a sample
of pregnant and parenting adolescent females, family sup-
port was inversely related to symptoms of depression (Davis
et al., 1997). Low levels of parental support have also been
found to predict the onset of major depressive disorder in
African American adolescent females (Stice et al., 2004).
In a sample of adolescent males, less parent and peer sup-
port predicted depression longitudinally (Zimmerman et al.,
2000).
Consistent findings have been reported for studies exam-
ining anxiety, with peer and family support associated with
lower levels of anxiety symptoms. A longitudinal investiga-
tion demonstrated that family and peer support was related to
less anxiety for African American females (Hammack et al.,
2004). Another longitudinal investigation of African Amer-
ican youth showed that lower levels of family support were
associated with an increase in anxiety symptoms six months
later (White et al., 1998). In a sample of African American
male adolescents, Zimmerman et al. (2000) demonstrated
that perceived support measured at baseline predicted less
anxiety six months later. Although it has been suggested
that the relation between support and internalizing difficul-
ties may be due to symptoms of anxiety and depression
(e.g., maladaptive cognitions) eroding support, findings with
African American youth demonstrated that increases in anx-
iety and depression symptoms do not predict lower levels of
perceived support over time (Zimmerman et al., 2000).
The relation between perceived support and internalizing
symptoms may differ as a function of adolescent gender
(Hops, 1995; Kavanagh and Hops, 1994). In the studies
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
above, findings have been less consistent for adolescent
males than for females. Using the same data as examined
in the current study, Hammack et al. (2004) found that
perceived support predicted less anxiety for females, but
not males. Another study found no relation between family
support and depressive symptoms in African American
adolescent males (Paxton et al., 2004). Females may be
more relationship-oriented than males (Gilligan, 1982),
thus strengthening the association between support and
outcomes. Unfortunately, little research has examined this
association separately for males and females in the same
study, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions regarding
gender differences.
Nevertheless, the evidence of a protective function of per-
ceived support from family and peers in the reduction of de-
pression and anxiety symptoms highlights its importance in
the daily lives of African American youth. A model explain-
ing the protective effects of support suggests that support
may strengthen intervening variables that lead to psycholog-
ical outcomes (Sandler et al., 1989). A greater understanding
of the mechanisms or intervening variables responsible for
the effects of perceived support is needed for African Amer-
ican youth.
Self-esteem as a mediator of perceived support
Perceived support has been proposed to relate to positive psy-
chological functioning through a number of mechanisms,
including provision of a sense of predictability and stabil-
ity, recognition of self-worth, opportunity to process ex-
periences with significant others, and appraisals of stress
(Cohen and Wills, 1985; Hammack et al., 2004; Schmeelk-
Cone and Zimmerman, 2003). Among the many mechanisms
proposed to explain the relation between perceived support
and functioning, the role of self-esteem has been examined
empirically (DuBois et al., 2002; Yarcheski et al., 2001).
Self-esteem is conceptualized as the overall evaluation of
one’s worth or value (Rosenberg, 1965). Due to the role of
self-esteem in positive youth development, most research
has examined it as an outcome variable or as a correlate of
psychosocial outcomes. Very little research has incorporated
self-esteem as a mediator, despite calls to examine its in-
tervening role (DuBois and Tevendale, 1999; Sandler et al.,
1989). Consistent with conceptualizations of mediation ef-
fects (Baron and Kenny, 1986), a mediational model of self-
esteem states that various psychosocial and environmental
factors influence self-esteem, which in turn, influences psy-
chological and behavioral outcomes (DuBois and Tevendale,
1999).
Consistent with the conditions necessary for a mediation
model, perceived support has been found to be associated
with self-esteem in adolescence. For instance, higher lev-
els of parental support have been shown to predict higher
79
self-esteem in African American adolescents (Bean et al.,
2003). Both parental and peer support have been found to
contribute to higher self-esteem in African American pread-
olescents (Franco and Levitt, 1998). A cluster analytic profile
of family and peer typologies indicated that adolescents in
groups characterized by high family and peer support re-
ported higher levels of self-esteem (Roberts et al., 2000).
Positive views of the self have been shown to be important
in helping African American adolescents evade internalizing
difficulties (Harter, 1999). Depressed adolescents report sig-
nificantly lower self-esteem than non-depressed adolescents
(Repetto et al., 2004) and this inverse association has oc-
curred in African American adolescents (Fitzpatrick et al.,
2005). Further, in African American males, higher levels of
self-esteem in adolescence predict lower levels of depression
in adulthood (Mizell, 1999). Although considerably less re-
search has been conducted on the association between self-
esteem and anxiety, findings show that higher self-esteem
is related to fewer anxiety symptoms for African American
adolescents (Matthews and Odom, 1989; Youngstrom, et al.,
2003; Zimmerman et al., 1995).
Evidence that perceived support is related to higher self-
esteem, and evidence that higher self-esteem is related to
symptom reduction, suggests that self-esteem may serve as a
mediator of the relation of perceived support to internalizing
symptoms. Despite the evidence supporting the conditions
for mediation and the calls to examine self-esteem as an
intervening variable, little research has examined a media-
tional model of self-esteem. In two exceptions, adolescent
self-reports of self-esteem were found to mediate the relation
of perceived support to psychological well-being (Yarcheski
et al., 2001), and adolescent self-report of support was related
to lower internalizing symptoms through self-esteem scores
over time (DuBois et al., 2002). Although these investiga-
tions were conducted on diverse ethnic samples, additional
research is warranted to examine the mediational effects of
self-esteem in African American adolescent samples.
Ethnic identity as a mediator of perceived support
Social identity theory asserts that there is an underlying need
to maintain self-esteem and that this need is linked to eth-
nic identity in non-White ethnic groups (Tajfel and Turner,
1986). Thus, when examining the influence of self-esteem on
African American adolescents, it is critical to also examine
the role of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity refers to one’s sense
of belonging to an ethnic group and the part of one’s think-
ing, perceptions, feelings, and behavior that is due to ethnic
group membership (Rotheram and Phinney, 1987). Sociolo-
gists distinguish between race and ethnicity, with the former
encompassing groups who share similar physical attributes
(e.g., Black) and the latter describing groups who share sim-
ilar values, customs, language, etc. (e.g., African American,
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Senegalese, Haitian). Although the terms ethnic identity and
racial identity are used interchangeably in the literature, the
current study utilized the term ethnic identity because only
African American adolescents were included. It is generally
agreed that ethnic identity is a multidimensional construct
assessing a person’s inner feelings, daily experiences, and
social and interpersonal interactions with others (Steinberg
and Morris, 2001). Ethnic identity and self-esteem may show
minimal associations to one another in younger children, but
research suggests a convergence during adolescence as indi-
viduals become more aware of the social significance of their
ethnicity (Smith et al., 1999; Spencer and Dupree, 1996)
and begin to encounter ethnic group barriers (Oyserman
et al., 2001). Empirical evidence consistently demonstrates
a positive relation between ethnic identity and self-esteem in
African American adolescents (Phinney et al., 1997; Row-
ley et al., 1998; Smith et al., 1999; Spencer et al., 2001).
This relation supports the perspective that self-perceptions
are linked to the perceptions of one’s group and positive lev-
els of both are necessary for adaptive functioning (Akbar,
1985). Thus, ethnic identity may also function as a mediator
of the relation between perceived support and internalizing
difficulties.
Unlike self-esteem, less research has examined the role
of “non-racial socialization” determinants, such as perceived
support, on ethnic identity. Consistent with self-esteem, the
findings that exist suggest that support is associated with
positive ethnic identity. In a sample of African American
adolescents, perceived support from family was found to be
positively related to adolescents’ beliefs that racial socializa-
tion (i.e., teaching of cultural pride) was important (Steven-
son et al., 1996). In another study with African American
adolescents, perceived maternal support was significantly
related to adolescents’ positive feelings about their ethnic
group (Caldwell et al., 2002).
Research on the relation between ethnic identity and inter-
nalizing symptoms in adolescence shows that ethnic identity
is consistently linked to internalizing symptoms. For ex-
ample, a study of adolescents from diverse ethnic groups
showed a significant negative relation between positive eth-
nic identity and depression (Roberts et al., 1999), consistent
with other findings with diverse adolescent samples (Yasui
et al., 2004). Other research demonstrated that negative eth-
nic identity was associated with higher levels of depression
and anxiety in African American adolescents (Arroro and
Zigler, 1995), consistent with findings in African American
college students (Munford, 1994; Plant and Yanico, 1991).
Still, another investigation of African American youth found
that ethnic identity was negatively related to depression, but
showed no relation to anxiety (McMahon and Watts, 2002).
Taken together, findings suggest that perceived support is
predictive of ethnic identity, and ethnic identity is predictive
of internalizing difficulties, providing the necessary condi-
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J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
tions for a mediational role of ethnic identity (Baron and
Kenny, 1986). Similar to self-esteem, a paucity of research
has examined the intervening function of ethnic identity on
the relation of perceived support to internalizing outcomes.
One study with African American adolescents examined
these relations and found that ethnic identity did not me-
diate the association between maternal support and symp-
toms of depression and anxiety, primarily due to the lack of
direct effects from ethnic identity to the internalizing symp-
toms (Caldwell et al., 2002). Instead, ethnic identity was
indirectly associated with depression and anxiety through its
relation with perceived stress. Additional studies are needed
to examine the mediating role of ethnic identity.
The current study
The purpose of the current study was to examine the extent
to which self-esteem and ethnic identity mediate the relation
of peer and family support to anxiety and depression. Prior
research demonstrates that support from family and peers is
important for protecting African American youth from el-
evated levels of depression and anxiety, despite higher risk
for these difficulties. Existing research falls short in provid-
ing a clear understanding of the mechanisms that help link
perceived support to healthy psychological functioning for
African American youth. The current study builds on prior
research demonstrating that perceived support from fam-
ily and peers is predictive of fewer depression and anxiety
symptoms (Caldwell et al., 1998; Zimmerman et al., 2000)
by examining mechanisms of this relation. Existing research
shows evidence for self-esteem as a mediator of perceived
support and internalizing symptoms, but almost no research
has examined this model in an African American sample.
Further, the positive association between self-esteem and
ethnic identity in ethnic minority youth suggests that eth-
nic identity may also be an important intervening variable.
The hypotheses centered on the general notion that factors
related to self-esteem and ethnic identity would represent
an important mechanism by which support reduces anxiety
and depression. Consistent with literature suggesting both
distinctive and overlapping features of anxiety and depres-
sion (e.g., Kendall and Watson, 1989), the two constructs
(e.g., depression and anxiety) were assessed by separate
instruments; therefore the current study focuses on the dis-
tinctiveness of the outcomes with regard to the hypothesized
protective factors. Consistent with past research, it was pre-
dicted that higher levels of perceived support from family
and peers would be predictive of lower levels of depression
and anxiety. Building on past research, it was predicted that
perceptions of higher support would be related to lower de-
pression and anxiety scores via its relation to higher levels of
self-esteem and ethnic identity. Because no studies have ex-
amined these relations separately for adolescent males and
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
females in an African American sample, the models were
tested for invariance across gender; however, exiting research
provided little support for making specific predictions about
gender differences.
Method
Participants
Participants in the current study were part of a larger, longi-
tudinal project focused on exposure to community violence.
Since the purpose of the study was to examine the predictors
and effects of exposure to community violence, six public
schools in Chicago were selected based on high neighbor-
hood crime statistics obtained from the Chicago Police De-
partment for the year preceding data collection. Of youth
recruited from the schools, 58% agreed to participate. This
participation rate is consistent with other studies conducted
with inner-city youth (e.g., Allison et al., 1999; Cooley-
Quille and Lorion, 1999). During the first year of this three-
year study, a sample of 301 African-American sixth grade
students completed questionnaires and the time sampling in-
strument. Wave 2 data collection occurred one year later and
wave 3 data collection occurred one year after wave 2. Be-
cause the ethnic identity measure was not assessed in the first
year of the study, data from the 6th grade was not utilized in
the analyses.
The final sample in the current study included 227 ado-
lescents for which data was available for the second (7th
grade) and third (8th grade) years of the study. Data on these
227 youth were combined across 7th and 8th grades (i.e.,
the average of each variable across 7th and 8th grade was
derived) to retain the largest possible sample. The sample
was composed of 85 males (37%) and 142 females (63%),
and had a mean age of 12.55 (SD = .69). The non-retained
youth were similar to the retained youth in terms of parental
marital status, annual household income, and parental educa-
tion. There were no significant differences between retained
and non-retained youth in depressive symptoms or anxiety at
Time 1. The youth came from low-income households, with
a median family income between $10,000 and $20,000 as
reported by a parent or guardian. Most parents (83%) had at
least a high school degree, with 10% reporting a college or
graduate/professional degree. Nearly half the sample (48%)
lived in single-parent households. The median number of
people living in the household was five.
Procedure
Participation was not allowed without written child assent
and parent consent. As an incentive to participate, students
received prizes at the end of each data collection such as
81
gift certificates, sports equipment, and games. According to
the Experience Sampling Method (ESM), participants car-
ried watches for one week that were programmed to signal
at random times approximately every 90 minutes when the
youth were not in school. Designed to minimize disruption
in the school context, participants received two signals dur-
ing the school day. This signaling schedule was designed to
optimize sampling of time when the youth may have been
at risk for exposure to violence. After each signal, the youth
completed a brief self-report form in a booklet they carried
each day. Trained research assistants carefully instructed par-
ticipants in how to complete these forms. To ensure accurate
compliance with the ESM, research staff visited participants
each day at school to answer participant questions and to
monitor the quality and completeness of the ESM forms.
Over the course of the week, youth responded to a maxi-
mum of 51 signals. To be included in the sample, youth had
to complete 15 forms as a minimum. Consistent with ac-
ceptable standards of compliance with the ESM (see Larson,
1989; Larson et al., 2001), the youth in this study responded
to a median number of 42 signals, yielding an 82% signal
response rate. During the daily school visits, research person-
nel also administered surveys. To ensure confidentiality and
the quality of the data, students were administered question-
naires in small groups under close supervision by research
personnel. One and two years later, when participants were
in the seventh and then the eighth grade, they were invited
to again participate in the study. The same procedures were
repeated in the second and third year of data collection.
Measures
Perceived support
To obtain a report of adolescents’ perceived support, youth
completed an adaptation of the Survey of Children’s Social
Support (SCSS; Dubow and Ullman, 1989) which assesses
the perceived availability of social support and the subjective
appraisal of the quality of support received. Two subscales
were used from this measure: perceived family support and
perceived peer support. The two subscales together contained
10 items rated on a 5-point scale (“never” to “always”) and
included questions such as “I can count on family for advice
and help.” Consistent with prior research, the 10 items were
averaged to yield a summary score of perceived support for
each participant (Hammack et al., 2004). Reliability for the
scale was .70 in the current sample.
Ethnic identity
Ethnic identity was measured with the positive ethnic atti-
tudes and sense of belonging scale of the Multigroup Eth-
nic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992). Due to time
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constraints of data collection, only one subscale was utilized
during data collection. The positive ethnic attitudes and sense
of belonging subscale is represented by five items that as-
sess feelings of belonging and attachment to one’s ethnic
group, ethnic pride, and good feelings about one’s ethnic-
ity. The subscale consists of 5 items rated on a four-point
scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.”
Consistent with Phinney (1992), the scale score was derived
by obtaining the mean score across items, with higher scores
indicating higher ethnic identity. In the current sample, inter-
nal consistency, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient,
was .81.
Self-esteem
Self esteem was examined with five items from the ESM
booklet. Respondents were prompted with the following
question: “How were you feeling when you were signaled?”
and rated feelings about self, including importance, tough-
ness, calmness, pride, and respect. Four of the feelings about
self were rated on a 4- point scale ranging from “not at all”
to “very much” and one feeling about self was rated on a
7-point scale. These items were chosen after conducting a
principal components factor analysis with a varimax rotation
on the ESM items related to individual identity. The factor
analysis showed one strong factor for the 7th grade students
and when the analysis was repeated for the 8th grade stu-
dents, the exact same factor structure emerged. The average
of the 7th and 8th grade scores were derived to create the
total score for self esteem. Reliability was established at .94
in the current sample.
Anxiety symptoms
The trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for
Children (STAI-C; Spielberger et al., 1973) was used to
assess anxiety symptoms. The STAI-C is a 20-item measure
on which youth rate the frequency of anxiety symptoms on
a 3-point scale (hardly ever to often). Questionnaire items
include “I worry about school” and “I get a funny feeling in
my stomach.” Higher scores indicate higher levels of anxiety
symptoms. The scale yielded an alpha of .90 in the current
sample.
Depressive symptoms
Participants completed the Children’s Depression Inventory
(CDI; Kovacs, 1985), a 27-item, self-report instrument on
which youth rate their level of symptoms for the two weeks
prior to administration on a 3-point scale (e.g., “I am sad
once in a while” to “I am sad all the time”). Responses to
the items are added to obtain a summary score of depres-
sive symptoms for each participant. Higher scores indicate
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J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
higher levels of depressive symptoms. In the current sam-
ple, internal consistency, as indicated by Cronbach’s alpha,
was .83.
Results
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was utilized to test the
theoretical model for depressive symptoms and anxiety. Be-
cause of missing data at time 1 or time 2 for various ado-
lescents, the current study utilized the average of 7th grade
and 8th grade data for the indicator variables of each factor
in the model, and the average score was used as a single
indicator of its latent variable in the SEM analyses. This
approach is equivalent to using multiple indicators in the
model as long as the variables are standardized first, the
paths from the composites to the latent variables are fixed to
the square root of the internal consistency reliability of the
composites, and their residuals are fixed to the error vari-
ance (Loehlin, 1998). This approach has a few important
advantages for our purpose. First, utilizing the averages of
time 1 and time 2 allows for the increase of the sample size
without imputing missing data. Given the relatively small
sample of males (n = 85), using as much available data
as possible was important. Second, the averaging approach
reduces the complexity of the model and interpretation of
the results because only the structural model is assessed
(Loehlin, 1998).
Descriptive statistics, t-tests, and correlations
It was essential to first test whether or not the data from boys
and girls differed significantly, to determine whether to fit
one model or two. The means, standard deviations, and tests
of gender differences for the study variables are presented in
Table 1. The results of the independent-samples t-tests
showed that females perceived significantly more support
from family and peers (p < .01), as well as significantly
more anxiety than did males (p < .01). No gender difference
emerged on depression or self-esteem scores.
Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations of all Study Variables by
Adolescent Gender
Adolescent Gender
Female (n = 142) Male (n = 85) t (225)
Social Support 12.54 (2.37) 11.73 (2.38) 2.49∗
Ethnic Identity 3.46 (.045) 3.33 (0.61) 1.68
Self-Esteem 3.95 (0.96) 3.92 (0.96) 0.24
Depression 6.25 (4.96) 5.29 (5.04) 1.40
Anxiety 11.10 (6.84) 8.50 (6.20) 2.86∗
∗
p < .01.
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
Table 2 Zero-Order Correlations among Study Variables for Fe-
males and Males
1 2 3 4 5 genders. This analysis helped answer two questions. First,
1. Social Support 1.00 .18∗ .31∗∗ −.48∗∗ −.22∗∗
2. Ethnic Identity .35∗∗ 1.00 −.02 −.15 −.13
3. Self Esteem .42∗∗ .28∗∗ 1.00 −.29∗∗ −.26∗∗
4. Depression −.59∗∗ −.48∗∗ −.27∗∗ 1.00
5. Anxiety −.30∗∗ .06 −.03 .34∗∗ 1.00
Note. Females’ correlations are above the diagonal and males’ corre-
lations are below.
∗
p < .05. ∗∗ p < .01.
Table 2 presents the zero-order correlations of the com-
posite variables for males and females separately. Consistent
with the predictions, perceived support was positively corre-
lated with self-esteem and ethnic identity for both genders,
indicating that the more support the adolescents perceived,
the more positive they tended to feel about themselves and
other African Americans. Further, the correlation coefficients
between perceived support and internalizing difficulties were
the strongest among the study variables. As expected, per-
ceived support was also negatively correlated with depressive
symptoms and anxiety for both groups. Unexpectedly, eth-
nic identity did not correlate significantly with self-esteem
for females; whereas ethnic identity showed a moderately
sized positive relation with self-esteem for males, which im-
plies that those who had more positive feelings about African
Americans also tended to have more positive feelings about
themselves. Ethnic identity also had a negative relation with
depression for males, but no relation to their anxiety scores.
Self-esteem was moderately and negatively correlated with
anxiety and depression for females, but only depression for
males.
Thus, the correlation matrices implied that the path model
might be different for females and males. The strong and
consistent effect of perceived support for both genders also
implied that self-esteem and ethnic identity only partially
mediate its effect on internalizing problems. Furthermore,
anxiety was not related to male’s ethnic identity or self-
esteem at all, so formal tests with anxiety as the outcome
for males were unnecessary. Despite some contrary findings,
formal tests of a modified version of the model were con-
ducted with SEM.
Structural equation analyses
Because of the obvious direct effect of perceived support,
the mediation model was modified to reflect a partial medi-
ation model. The modified theoretical model was assessed
with latent variable SEM using Amos 5.0 with maximum
likelihood estimation. Because of the predicted and possible
83
gender differences, we also used the multiple-group analysis
facility in Amos 5.0 to fit the data simultaneously to both
the multiple-group analysis assessed if the path diagram fit
the data equally well for both females and males; and if
so, it assessed if the regression weights were different be-
.42∗∗ tween the genders. The multiple-group analysis in Amos
5.0 proceeds by automatically generating several nested
models. Each lower level model adds additional constraints
and can be tested for differences from the previous models
(Arbuckle, 2003). For the purposes of the current study, only
the completely unconstrained model and the model that con-
strained the regression weights to be equal (i.e., the structural
weights model) were important. A test of the unconstrained
or first level model assesses the fit of the data to both groups.
If the unconstrained model fits the data well, the test of the
structural weights model gives an estimate of the degree to
which the regression weights are similar in both groups. The
facility also computes critical ratio tests for each parameter
in both samples (Arbuckle, 2003).
The results of the multiple-group analysis with de-
pressive symptoms serving as the outcome showed that
the unconstrained model fit the data well, χ 2 (2) = 2.77,
p = .25, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04, indicating that the path
model fit equally well for both genders. In fact, for males,
χ 2 (1) = 1.61, p = .20, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .08, and for
females, χ 2 (1) = 1.15, p = .28, CFI = 1, RMSEA = .03,
the model fit very well (see Figs. 1 and 2). However, when
constraining the regression weights to be equal, there was a
significant decrease in model fit, χ 2 (11) = 31.1, p = .001,
which indicates that the overall pattern of regression weights
were significantly different between females and males.
MEIM
.96
Ethnic
ity
Identity
(R 2 -.32
R2 =.15)
= 15
.39
Social -.55
Depressive
Symptoms
Support
(R2 =.51)
.47
.94 .96
Self- .06
SCSS ity CDI
Esteem
R22 = 22
(R
.97
ESM
Fig. 1 Maximum likelihood estimation of the model predicting de-
pressive symptoms for males (N = 85). Solid lines indicate statistically
significant paths. χ 2 (1) = 1.61, p = .20, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .08
Springer
84 J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88

MEIM MEIM
.92 .92

Ethnic Ethnic
ity ity
Identity
Identity
(R2 = .04 -.08 R2 = .04 -.12
.20 .20
Depressive
Social -.46 Social -.14 Anxiety
Symptoms
Support Support (R2 =.12)
(R2 =.30)
.33 .33
.94 .96 .94 .97
Self- -.15 Self- -.23
SCSS Identity CDI SCSS STAI-C
Esteem Esteem
R22 ==.11)
(R .11 R2 = .11

.97 .97
ESM ESM

Fig. 2 Maximum likelihood estimation of the model predicting depres- Fig. 3 Maximum likelihood estimation of the model predicting anxi-
sive symptoms for females (N = 142). Solid lines indicate statistically ety for females (N = 142). Solid lines indicate statistically significant
significant paths. χ 2 (1) = 1.15, p = .28, CFI = 1, RMSEA = .03 paths. χ 2 (1) = 1.15, p = .28, CFI = 1, RMSEA = .03

An examination of the critical ratios for the differences
between the regression weights showed that the path from
perceived support to ethnic identity was larger for males
than for females with a one-tailed test (z = 1.8, p = .03).
The path from self-esteem to depressive symptoms was
significant for females, but not males (z = 1.65, p = .05).
Also, the size of the path from ethnic identity to depressive
symptoms was slightly larger for males than for females
(z = 1.4, p = .08). For males, ethnic identity had a sig-
nificantly larger impact on depressive symptoms than did
self-esteem (z = 2.6, p = .005); but for females, there was
no difference between the two (z = .45, p = .33). Further,
perceived support, self-esteem, and ethnic identity explained
over 30% of the variance in females’ depressive symptoms,
but they explained over 50% of the variance for males.
This same multiple-group analysis was then repeated
while using anxiety as the main outcome. The results of
this analysis showed that the unconstrained model was a
poor fit to the data, χ 2 (7) = 16.74, p = .02, indicating that
the theoretical model does not apply equally well to females
and males. This is not surprising given that for males, eth-
nic identity and self-esteem are not significantly related to
anxiety. Thus, the analyses were conducted for females only.
These results showed that the general theoretical model fit
the females data very well, χ 2 (1) = 1.15, p = .28, CFI = 1,
RMSEA = .03, accounting for around 12% of the variance
in their anxiety scores (see Fig. 3).
Discussion
The protective effects of perceived support on the manifes-
tation of internalizing symptoms in African American youth
are well-documented. The current study proposed that per-
ceived support from family and peers would exert its pro-
tective effect on depression and anxiety through its positive
influence on adolescents’ perceptions of self and percep-
tions of their ethnic group. Thus, the purpose of the current
study was to examine the ability of self-esteem and ethnic
identity to mediate the relation of perceived support to inter-
nalizing difficulties of depression and anxiety in a sample of
African American adolescents. In addressing this possibility,
the current study built on previous research by examining a
more complex model of the protective role of perceived sup-
port for African American youth. Consistent with the first
hypothesis, perceived support from family and peers was
predictive of fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms. The
larger model implied that a combination of self-esteem and
ethnic identity can account for some, but not all of the effects
of perceived support on African American adolescents’ de-
pressive symptoms, showing partial support for the second
hypothesis. Even when self-esteem and ethnic identity were
accounted for, perceived support still had a very large direct
relationship with depressive symptoms. Furthermore, ethnic
identity seems to be more relevant and accounted for more of
the perceived support effect for males, whereas self-esteem
showed more of an impact on females’ depressive symptoms.
The mediational model for anxiety showed partial support
for the hypothesis in female participants. In contrast to the
hypotheses, the mediation model of anxiety symptoms was
not supported for males. Self-esteem had similar impact on

Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
females’ anxiety and depression scores. For males, neither
self-esteem nor ethnic identity related to their anxiety scores.
The protective effects of perceived support
The current study proposed a mediational model that in-
cluded adolescents’ perceived support from both family and
peers. The findings support previous research demonstrating
that African American adolescents perceptions of support
from family and peers is related to fewer symptoms of
depression and anxiety (Caldwell et al., 1998; Johnson and
Kliewer, 1999; Kliewer et al., 1998), providing additional
backing for the importance of social ties in the African
American community. The findings were also consistent
with prior research demonstrating that higher levels of
perceived support are related to more positive perceptions of
self (Bean et al., 2003; Franco and Levitt, 1998) and percep-
tions of one’s ethnic group (Caldwell et al., 2002; Stevenson,
1996). A more supportive network composed of family and
peers may buffer the effects of events that directly threaten
self-esteem or reduce the distress associated with stressors
in adolescence and ethnicity-linked stressors (e.g., racism)
by promoting appraisals of stressors that maintain esteem
(Sandler et al., 1989). The examination of the association
between perceived support and ethnic identity in the current
study represents a growing area of research investigating
the impact of “non-ethnic socialization” processes on ethnic
identity (Caldwell et al., 2002). Specifically, research has
consistently shown that direct ethnic socialization behaviors
by individuals in one’s social network, especially parents,
are predictive of one’s ethnic identity. What this study has
shown is that more general processes, such as support from
others, are associated with adolescents’ feelings about of
their ethnic group. Consistent with the attachment theory
(Bowlby, 1969), supportive relationships with family and
friends may become part of adolescents’ internal working
models of relationships, and these working models may then
be generalized to other members of their ethnic group, thus
contributing to positive feelings towards their ethnic group.
Self-esteem and ethnic identity as a mediators
Tests of the hypothesized model showed that both self-
esteem and ethnic identity partially mediated the effects of
perceived support on depression and anxiety. The most strik-
ing findings of the current study are the gender differences in
this mediational model. The gender differences demonstrated
that ethnic identity was a more salient mediator for the ef-
fects of perceived support on males’ depression; whereas,
self-esteem was a more salient mediator for perceived sup-
ports’ effects on depression in females. One plausible ex-
planation may stem from research demonstrating that ado-
lescent females are monitored more closely than adolescent
85
males are monitored (Beck et al., 2003; Svensson, 2003),
which may result in females being protected from some of
the more negative experiences that, according to ethnic iden-
tity process models, would initiate the awareness of ethnic
identity (Cross, 1991; Phinney, 1990). Therefore, it may be
expected that adolescent females in early adolescence have
less awareness of the importance of ethnic identity than males
and measures of ethnic identity will show weaker relations
to other determinants and outcomes for females at this age.
However, additional research is warranted before definitive
conclusions can be made.
Another explanation may be the increased salience of
group membership for African American males versus fe-
males. Because African American males spend more time
with peers than family (Coates, 1987), they may gain more
exposure to experiences that require group members to show
more similarity to one another and less similarity to other
ethnic groups (Spencer et al., 1995). These group dynamics
may increase the ethnic identity of African American ado-
lescent males, providing the link from perceived support to
outcomes. Finally, a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic group
may be more salient for other outcomes in African Ameri-
can adolescent females. For example, Belgrave et al., (2000)
found that high ethnic identity, operationalized as sense of
belonging, was associated with less risky sexual attitudes for
African American female adolescents.
Inconsistent with our predictions, self-esteem and ethnic
identity did not show a mediating role on anxiety symp-
toms for males in the current study, primarily due to the
lack of associations of self-esteem and ethnic identity to
anxiety symptoms. The lack of associations is incongru-
ent with most research on African American adolescents
(Arroro and Zigler, 1995; Zimmerman et al., 1995); how-
ever, one study demonstrated that ethnic identity was related
to depression, but not anxiety (McMahon and Watts, 2002).
Perhaps, other components of ethnic identity, such as engag-
ing in ethnic behaviors, may be more important for males’
anxiety than a sense of belonging to one’s ethnic group
or self-perceptions. For example, African American ado-
lescents who engage in behaviors perceived to be reflective
of non-Black ethnic behaviors attitudes experience elevated
levels of anxiety (Arroro and Zigler, 1995). Because African
American males spend more time outside of the home than
females, it may be important to exhibit ethnic behaviors to
gain acceptance and conform to the expectations of other
group members. Still, other research has demonstrated that
the relation between ethnic identity and anxiety was indi-
rect through perceived stress (Caldwell et al., 2002). African
American males experience more stressful events than fe-
males (Gibbs, 1988), and the inclusion of perceived stress
in future research may provide clarification on the role of
self-esteem and ethnic identity on anxiety symptoms.
Springer
86
Drawbacks of the current study should be noted. First, the
findings of the path analyses in the current study prevented
causal inferences. The data indicated the existence of these
relations, and further analysis is necessary to definitively
state causation. Also, the participants included in the current
study were from low-income, inner-city neighborhoods with
high rates of community violence, a contextual issue that
cannot be overlooked in regards to the generalizability of
the findings. The current study utilized a dimension of eth-
nic identity that, despite its theoretical importance, has been
relatively neglected in past research (Phinney, 1990). Future
research will benefit from inclusion of additional dimen-
sions of ethnic identity. The assessment of other dimensions
of ethnic identity, which may reflect other stages in the pro-
cess of ethnic identity development, may be important for
understanding the nature of this process in adolescence.
Although numerous studies have demonstrated that
perceived support is related to more positive outcomes in
African American adolescents, the current study is one of
only a few studies to extend these findings by examining
possible mediators of the relation between support and
outcomes. Further, the current study may be the only study
to date that assesses the influence of both perceptions of
self and perceptions of one’s ethnic group as explanatory
mechanisms for African American adolescents in the same
study. Theoretical writings on African American children
and adolescents have consistently discussed the importance
of both constructs to well-being (e.g., Cross, 1991). Previous
research examining the mediating role of ethnic identity
did not include adolescents’ perceptions of self-esteem
(Caldwell et al., 2002), and the results of the current
study show differences in the mediating roles of these two
constructs. The finding that self-esteem and ethnic identity
account for some of the relation between perceived support
and psychological outcomes is encouraging and suggests
that further research should explore the mediating effects of
these variables for other dimensions of ethnic identity.
In summary, the current study highlights the importance
of considering mechanisms that may explain the relation
of perceived support from family and peers to internaliz-
ing difficulties in African American adolescents. By provid-
ing data on the role of both self-esteem and ethnic identity
in the mediation process among an under-researched pop-
ulation, the current research generates valuable questions
for future research. The results imply that a combination of
self-esteem and ethnic identity can account for some of the
effects of perceived support on African American adoles-
cents’ internalizing difficulties. Of critical importance to fu-
ture studies on ethnic identity are the implications for gender
differences. Future research may benefit from further exam-
ining gender differences in the influence of ethnic identity
and the salience of different dimensions of ethnic identity
for adolescent males and females. Perhaps more compre-
Springer
J Youth Adolescence (2007) 36:77–88
hensive models can lead to a greater understanding of the
contextual determinants on the development of perceptions
of self and perceptions of one’s group in African American
adolescents.
Acknowledgments This research was funded by grant R01-MH57938
from the National Institute of Mental Health awarded to Maryse H.
Richards. The authors acknowledge the contributions of the Project
Directors, Cathy Flynn, Brian Ragsdale, and Phil Hammack, and the
dedicated team of research assistants at Loyola University Chicago
and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign without whom
collection of this valuable data would not have been possible. We are
extremely grateful for the students, school administrators, teachers, and
parents who volunteered their time to participate in this research.
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