The Power Flow Solution

l Most common and important tool in power system

analysis
u also known as the “Load Flow” solution
u used for planning and controlling a system
u assumptions: balanced condition and single phase analysis
l Problem:
u determine the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus
u determine the active and reactive power flow in each line
u each bus has four state variables:
n voltage magnitude
n voltage phase angle
n real power injection
n reactive power injection
Power Systems I
The Power Flow Solution
u Each bus has two of the four state variables defined or given
l Types of buses:
u Slack bus (swing bus)
n voltage magnitude and angle are specified, reference bus
n solution: active and reactive power injections
u Regulated bus (generator bus, P-V bus)
n models generation-station buses
n real power and voltage magnitude are specified
n solution: reactive power injection and voltage angle
u Load bus (P-Q bus)
n models load-center buses
n active and reactive powers are specified (negative values for loads)
n solution: voltage magnitude and angle
Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson PF Solution
l Quadratic convergence
u mathematically superior to Guass-Seidel method
l More efficient for large networks
u number of iterations required for solution is independent of
system size
l The Newton-Raphson equations are cast in natural power
system form
u solving for voltage magnitude and angle, given real and reactive
power injections

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Method
l A method of successive approximation using Taylor’s
expansion
u Consider the function: f(x) = c, where x is unknown

u Let x[0] be an initial estimate, then ∆x[0] is a small deviation from

the correct solution

( )
f x[0 ] + ∆x[ 0] = c

u Expand the left-hand side into a Taylor’s series about x[0] yeilds
 f  [ 0] 2
( ) df  [0 ]
( )
2
d
f x[0] +  ∆x + 1
2  2 
∆x + L =c
dx   dx 

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Method
u Assuming the error, ∆x[0], is small, the higher-order terms are
neglected, resulting in

( )
f x [0] df  [0 ]
+  ∆x ≈c ⇒ ∆c [0] df  [ 0]
≈ ∆x
dx  dx 
u where
( )
∆c[ 0 ] = c − f x[0 ]
u rearranging the equations
∆ c [0]
∆x[ 0] =
df 

dx  
x[1] = x[0 ] + ∆x[ 0]
Power Systems I
Example
l Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Method

50

40

30

20

10
3 2
f(x) = x -6x +9x-4
0

-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
Power Systems I
Power Flow Equations
l KCL for current injection
n n
I i = ∑ Yij V j = ∑ Yij V j ∠ θij + δj
j =1 j =1
l Real and reactive power injection

Pi − j Qi = Vi* I i
l Substituting for Ii yields:

Pi − j Qi = (Vi ∠ − δ)∑ Yij V j ∠ θij + δj

n

j =1

Power Systems I
Power Flow Equations
l Divide into real and reactive parts

Pi = ∑ Vi V j Yij cos(θij − δi + δj )
n

j =1

V j Yij sin (θij − δi + δj )

n
Qi = − ∑V
j =1
i

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Formation
l Cast power equations into iterative form

( )
n
Pi[ k ] = ∑ Vi[ k ] V j[ k ] Yij cos θij − δi[ k ] + δ[j k ]
j =1

( )
n
Qi[ k ] = − ∑ j =1
Vi[ k ] V j[ k ] Yij sin θij − δi[ k ] + δ[j k ]

l Matrix function formation of the system of equations

Pinjsch 
c =  sch 
δ[ k ] 
=  [k ]  ( ) =
( )
Pinj x[ k ]
( )

[k ] [k ]
x f x [k ]

Qinj   
V   Q
 inj x

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Formation
l General formation of the equation to find a solution
c = f (xsolution ) x[ 0] = initial estimate of xsolution
l The iterative equation

[ k + 1]
= x[ k ] +
c − f( )x [k ]

( )
x
df x[ k ] 
 dx 
 
l The Jacobian - the first derivative of a set of functions

( )
df x[ k ] a matrix of all combinatorial pairs
dx

Power Systems I
The Jacobian Matrix
∂P ∂P 
df (x ) ∆P   ∂δ ∂V ∆δ
⇒ ∆Q  = ∂Q ∂Q ∆ V 
dx    ∂δ
∂V  
 
 ∆P1   ∂P1
∂δ1 L ∂P1
∂δn− 1
∂P1
∂V1
L ∂P1
∂Vn− m
  ∆δ1 
 M    
 M O M M O M M
   
 ∆Pn − 1   ∂δn1− 1
∂P ∂Pn− 1 ∂Pn− 1 ∂Pn− 1 
L ∂δn− 1 L  ∆δn − 1 
 =  ∂Q1 
∂V1 ∂Vn− m
 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 ∂Q1 
 ∆Q1   ∂δ1 L ∂δn− 1 ∂V1
L ∂Vn− m  
∆ V1 
 M   M O M M O M  M 
  ∂Qn− m ∂Qn− m ∂Qn − m ∂Qn − m
 
∆Qn − m 
    ∂δ1 L ∂δn− 1 ∂V1
L  ∆ Vn − m 
∂Vn− m   
Power Systems I
Jacobian Terms
l Real power w.r.t. the voltage angle
∂Pi
= ∑ Vi V j Yij sin (θij − δi + δj )
∂δi j ≠ i
∂Pi
= − Vi V j Yij sin (θij − δi + δj ) i ≠ j
∂δj
l Real power w.r.t. the voltage magnitude
∂Pi
= 2 Vi Yii cosθii + ∑V Yij cos(θij − δi + δj )
∂Vi
j
j≠i

∂Pi
= Vi Yij cos(θij − δi + δj ) i ≠ j
∂V j
Power Systems I
Jacobian Terms
l Reactive power w.r.t. the voltage angle
∂Qi
= ∑ Vi V j Yij cos(θij − δi + δj )
∂δi j≠i

∂Qi
= − Vi V j Yij cos(θij − δi + δj ) i ≠ j
∂δj
l Reactive power w.r.t. the voltage magnitude
∂Qi
= − 2 Vi Yii sin θii + ∑V Yij sin (θij − δi + δj )
∂Vi
j
j≠i

∂Qi
= − Vi Yij sin (θij − δi + δj ) i ≠ j
∂V j
Power Systems I
Iteration process
l Power mismatch or power residuals
u difference in schedule to calculated power

∆Pi [k ]
= Pi sch
− Pi [k ]

∆Qi[ k ] = Qisch − Qi[ k ]

l New estimates for the voltages
[ k + 1]
δ i = δ + ∆δ
i
[k ]
i
[k ]

Vi[ k + 1] = Vi[ k ] + ∆ Vi[ k ]

Power Systems I
Bus Type and the Jacobian Formation
l Slack Bus / Swing Bus
u one generator bus must be selected and defined as the voltage
and angular reference
n The voltage and angle are known for this bus
n The angle is arbitrarily selected as zero degrees
n bus is not included in the Jacobian matrix formation
l Generator Bus
n have known terminal voltage and real (actual) power injection
n the bus voltage angle and reactive power injection are computed
n bus is included in the real power parts of the Jacobian matrix
l Load Bus
n have known real and reactive power injections
n bus is fully included in the Jacobian matrix

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Steps
1. Set flat start
u For load buses, set voltages equal to the slack bus or 1.0∠0°
u For generator buses, set the angles equal the slack bus or 0°
2. Calculate power mismatch
u For load buses, calculate P and Q injections using the known and
estimated system voltages
u For generator buses, calculate P injections
u Obtain the power mismatches, ∆P and ∆Q
3. Form the Jacobian matrix
u Use the various equations for the partial derivatives w.r.t. the
voltage angles and magnitudes

Power Systems I
Newton-Raphson Steps
4. Find the matrix solution (choose a or b)
u a. inverse the Jacobian matrix and multiply by the mismatch
power
u b. perform gaussian elimination on the Jacobian matrix with the b
vector equal to the mismatch power
compute ∆δand ∆V
5. Find new estimates for the voltage magnitude and angle
6. Repeat the process until the mismatch (residuals) are
less than the specified accuracy
∆Pi[ k ] ≤ε
∆Qi[ k ] ≤ε
Power Systems I
Line Flows and Losses
l After solving for bus voltages and angles, power flows
and losses on the network branches are calculated
u Transmission lines and transformers are network branches
u The direction of positive current flow are defined as follows for a
branch element (demonstrated on a medium length line)
u Power flow is defined for each end of the branch
n Example: the power leaving bus i and flowing to bus j
Bus i Bus j
Iij Vi IL yij Vj Iji
Ii0 Ij0
yi0 yj0

Power Systems I
Line Flows and Losses
l current and power flows:
i→ j j→ i
I ij = I L + I i 0 = yij (Vi − V j )+ yi 0 Vi I ji = − I L + I j 0 = yij (V j − Vi )+ y j 0 V j
Sij = Vi I ij* = Vi 2 ( yij + yi 0 ) − Vi yij* V j* S ji = V j I *ji = V j2 ( yij + y j 0 ) − V j yij* Vi *
* *

l power loss: S Loss ij = Sij + S ji

Bus i Bus j
Iij Vi IL yij Vj Iji
Ii0 Ij0
yi0 yj0

Power Systems I
Example
l Using N-R method, find the
phasor voltages at buses 2
and 3
l Find the slack bus real Slack Bus
and reactive power 1 V1 = 1.05∠0°
l Calculate line flows j0.02 j0.04
and line losses j0.025
u 100 MVA base 3 2

138.6 MW 256.6 MW
45.2 MVAR 110.2 MVAR

Power Systems I