Increasing Strength of Steel

Submitted by

Ujjwal kumar
(071030108019)
B. Tech
in
Production Engineering

Under the guidance of

Prof. Susanto Banerjee

Mechanical Engg. Deptt.
Haldia Institute of Technology, HALDIA

Department of Production Engineering

Haldia Institute of Technology

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 CERTIFICATE

I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in this project entitled, “INCREASING
STRENGTH OF STEEL ” submitted in the PRODUCTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF
HALDIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY , HALDIA, is an authentic record of work carried by me
under the guidance of Prof. S. BANERJEE , Professor , MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT , HIT, Haldia .
The matter presented in this project has not been submitted in part or full to any other
university or institute.

Dated : (UJJWAL KUMAR)

This is to certify that above declaration made by the student concerned is correct to the best of my
knowledge & belief.

PROF. S. BENERJEE
Professor , MED
Haldia Institute of Technology , Haldia
West Bengal University of Technology

Countersigned by

Dr. Bikash Bapari

Professor & Head , PED
HIT , HALDIA

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

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ABSTRACT

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1.Introduction
Steel Alloys
Steel alloys can be divided into five main groups. These are:
• Carbon Steels
• High Strength Low Alloy Steels (HSLA)
• Quenched and Tempered Steels
• Heat Treatable Low Alloy Steels
• Chromium-Molybdenum Steels

Carbon Steels
The American Iron and Steel Institute defines carbon steel as follows:

“Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or
zirconium, or any other element to be added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified
minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent; or when the maximum content specified for any
of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted: manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60,
copper 0.60….” American Iron and Steel Institute.
Carbon Steels are normally classified into the following categories:

Low-carbon steel
Low carbon steels do not contain more than 0.3 weight percent C. The majority of Carbon Steel
is made into flat-rolled products, either sheets or strips, usually cold-rolled and annealed. The weight
percentage for these steels is very low, less than 0.10 weight percent C, with up to 0.4 weight percent
Mn. This allows them to have a high formability. When making rolled steel structural plates and
sections, the carbon weight percentage may be increased to 0.3, also increasing the manganese
weight percent to 1.5.

Medium-carbon steels
Medium Carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels bar that the carbon weight percent ranges
from 0.3 to 0.6 and the manganese weight percent ranges from 0.60 to 1.65. Increasing the carbon
weight percent content to approximately 0.5 and increasing the manganese alters the carbon steel to
allow it to be used in the quenched and tempered condition.

High-carbon steels
High Carbon steels contain weight percent from 0.60 to 1.00 with manganese weight percent
content ranging from 0.30 to 0.90.

High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels

HSLA steels or micro-alloyed steels are designed to provide better mechanical properties than
normal carbon steels. They are manufactured to meet specific mechanical properties rather than a
specific chemical composition. The chemical composition may vary for different thickness and to
meet requirements. The HSLA steels generally have low carbon contents (0.50 - 0.25) weight percent
C. This ensures the steel will be easily formable and weldable, and they have manganese contents up
to 2.0 weight percent. Small quantities of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, nitrogen,
vanadium, niobium, titanium, and zirconium may be used in different combinations and quantities to
vary or change properties.

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2.Material properties
2.1 Iron-Carbon Diagram

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 Iron, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, i.e., combined with other
elements such as oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3—the form of
iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2—pyrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore
by removing oxygen and combining the ore with carbon.
Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired
properties. Nickel and Manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more
chemically stable, Chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and Vanadium also
increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue. To prevent corrosion, at least 11%
chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as
stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of Cementite, allowing Martensite to form
with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and
phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the
ore during processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually
ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 ( 0.280–0.291 lb/in3).
Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can
form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties
is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-
centered cubic (BCC) structure α-ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a
small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 °C (1,333 °F), and only 0.005% at
0 °C (32 °F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered
cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or γ-iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve
considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% carbon at 1,148 °C (2,098 °F), which reflects the upper
carbon content of steel.
When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an
austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon.
Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the
eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to
mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of
pearlite and cementite.
Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is
significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then
quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure
changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different
forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an α ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon
contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. There is no thermal activation energy for
the transformation from austenite to martensite.
Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them
results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion
generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining
ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal
stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening
and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched,
although they may not always be visible.

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2.2 Heat treatment
There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are
annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently
high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization,
and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the
constituents of the alloy.
Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then
quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure. The
steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing
(tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce
internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal.

2.2.1 Quenching and tempering

The aim of quenching and tempering (QT) is to produce a microstructure consisting mainly in
tempered martensite. Some amounts of lower bainite are also acceptable. Quenching of high strength
steels is performed after austenizing at temperatures of some 900°C. In order to suppress during
cooling, the formation of softer microstructure such as ferrite, a accelerated cooling is necessary. The
fastest cooling is obtained by exposing the plate surfaces to a rapid water stream. By such an
operation the very surface is cooled to temperature below 300°C within a few seconds. At the core of
a plate cooling is essentially slower and the cooling rate decreases with increasing plate thickness.
Table compares the average rates of cooling in still air with the ones attained by water cooling.

Table 1 : comparison of cooling rates for subsurface and mid-thickness of a plate,

Plate Air cooling Water- Water-mid

thickness subsurface thickness

20 mm 0.5 K/s 80 K/s 40 K/s

100 mm 0.1 K/s 80 K/s 2.5 K/s

2.2.2 Effect of tempering

Tempering martensite means essentially reducing the super-saturation of the matrix by the
formation of carbides leading to a relaxation and a reduction of the high dislocation density
associated with martensite formation.
If we consider the mechanical properties in the as quenched condition the strength is
considerably higher than required however, the material is too brittle for most structural applications.
A suitable tempering of the martensitic microstructure is necessary in order to get a satisfactory
combination of tensile and toughness properties.

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3. Contemporary steel
Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes. Carbon
steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. High strength low
alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5%
manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Low alloy steel is alloyed
with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to
10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. Stainless steels and surgical stainless
steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion.
Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting
edge. Other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both
a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength. Transformation Induced Plasticity
(TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room
temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the
austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat. Maraging steel is
alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This
creates a very strong but still malleable metal.
Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the
effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen
different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster
weapons. Hadfield steel or manganese steel contains 12–14% manganese which when abraded
forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade
edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life.
.
Methods of Testing by ASTM

Designation Title

Standard Test Method for Weight [Mass] of Coating on Iron

A90 / A90M - 09
and Steel Articles with Zinc or Zinc-Alloy Coatings

Standard Practice for Locating the Thinnest Spot in a Zinc

A239 - 95(2009)e1
(Galvanized) Coating on Iron or Steel Articles

Standard Test Method for Weight and Composition of Coating

A309 - 01(2007)
on Terne Sheet by the Triple-Spot Test

Standard Test Method for Weight [Mass] of Coating on

A428 / A428M - 10
Aluminum-Coated Iron or Steel Articles

Standard Test Method for Coating Weight (Mass) of Metallic

A754 / A754M - 08
Coatings on Steel by X-Ray Fluorescence

A1030 / A1030M - Standard Practice for Measuring Flatness Characteristics of

05 Steel Sheet Products

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4.Effect of Different alloying materials on of steel

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5.Effect of elements in Alloy steels:
(1)Vanadium:

• It gives steel a fine-grained structure and increase its toughness.

• It is often used in tool steels because of its increased resistance to impact.
• Increases hardenability
• Imparts strength and toughness to heat-treated steel
• Causes marked secondary hardening

It is used with chromium to make chrome-vanadium steel from which transmission parts and
gears are manufactured. This type of steel is very strong and has excellent shock resistance. Less
than 0.2% is used normally with 0.5 to 1.5% of chromium.

(2)Chromium:

• It provides corrosion resistance.

• Increase hardenability or the depth to which steel can be hardened
• Adds hardness, toughness and resistance to wear.

Gears and axles are often made of chrome-nickel steel because of its strength. Chromium less
than 0.2% can be effective in increasing hardenability.

(3)Niobium:

• Greatly increases tensile strength of steel. Only 40 lb of niobium per ton of steel will
increase the tensile strength by 10,000 to 15000 lb/in2.

(4)Tungsten in the form of tungsten carbide:

• Gives steel high hardness even at red heats.

• Promotes fine grains
• Resists heat
• Promote strength at elevated temperatures

It is used with chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, or manganese to produce high speed steel
used in cutting tools. Tungsten steel is said to be "red-hard" or hard enough to cut after it
becomes red-hot.

Titanium is a very strong, very lightweight metal that can be used alone or alloyed with steels. It
is added to steel to give them high strength at high temperatures. Modern jet engines used
titanium steels.

• It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long heating

• Prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels
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 • Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels.

(5)Phosphorus and Lead: are added to steel to increase its machinability.

Phosphorus is considered detrimental in steel but small quantities up to 0.2% in low carbon steels
increases hardness, strength and corrosion resistance. Phosphorus increases strength and
hardness to approximately to the same extent as carbon in steels which are normally used in hot-
rolled conditions. In some steels, high phosphorus content is undesirable because it decreases
ductility and impact toughness. It is undesirable in high carbon steels on account of excessive
loss of ductility. It improves machinability in lower carbon steels and improves resistance to
atmospheric corrosion.

(6)Manganese: is used in steel to produce a clean metal. If manganese exceeds 1.65 -2.10%, the
product is classed as alloy steel.

• It increase hardenability and strength.

• It also adds to the strength of the metal and helps in heat treating.
• Counteracts brittleness from sulphur
• Lower both ductility and weldability if present in high percentage with high carbon
content in steel.

Some times an excess of manganese is used for hard steel as manganese is a carbide forming
element.

(7)Silicon: is often used to increase the resiliency of steel for making springs. It increases the
strength properties especially elastic limit without loss of ductility. Silicon is an important
alloying element (0.2 - 0.7%) in certain high-yield point structural steels. If silicon exceeds 0.60-
2.2%, product is classed as alloy steel. Increasing silicon increases resiliency of steel for spring
applications. Spring raises the critical temperature for heat treatment. Increasing silicon content
promotes susceptibility of steel to decrease. It is used for magnetic circuits in electrical
equipments. It is used in spring steels which contain 2% silicon, 0.2% manganese and 0.6 %
carbon. It is the principal deoxidizing used in steel making.

• Improves oxidation resistance

• Strengthens low alloy steels
• Acts as a deoxidizer

Rimmed and capped steels contains no significant amount of silicon. Semi killed steel may
contain a moderate amount of silicon. Fully killed steels may contain various amounts of silicon
upto 0.30% maximum. It is less effective than manganese in increasing strength and hardness. In
low-carbon steels, it is usually detrimental to surface quality.

(8)Molybdenum:

• Adds toughness and higher strengths to steel.

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 • Promotes hardenability of steel
• Makes steel fine grained
• Makes steel usually tough at various hardness levels
• Counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness.
• Raises tensile and creep strength at high temperatures.
• Enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels.
• Forms abrasion resisting particles.
• It increases dynamic and high temperature characteristics.
• It is resistant to tempering and maintain their strength at elevated temperature.
• They have good creep resistance.

It is used for making high speed steels. It forms stable carbides resulting in fine grain size.

(9)Nickel:

• Increases strength and toughness.

• Helps to resist corrosion.
• Improves shock resistance
• It counteracts brittleness which develops in most pearlitic steels at subnormal
temperature.
• It lowers the critical temperature of steel and widen the temperature range for successful
heat treatment.
• Strengthens steels
• Renders high chromium iron alloys austenitic
• Lessens distortion in quenching.
• Mostly 2-5% of nickel combined with other alloying elements produce toughness.

(10)Sulphur: is not desirable in steel since it forms iron sulphide which cause brittleness and
hot-shortness - a tendency to crack during hot working. Sulphur in steel forms the weak and soft
sulphate "Fe"s which weakens the steel and promotes hot-shortness or brittleness at red heat. But
sometimes a very small amount of sulphur is left in the steel to aid machinability. Manganese
either present naturally or in small quantities added to the steel combines with small amount of
sulphur that is usually present to form manganese sulphide which does not have much effect if
not in large quantities and is well dispersed. If manganese sulphide is present in large quantities
and in the proper form, it imparts desirable mechanical properties to steel. Therefore, certain
free-machining steels which are to be machined automatically and are used for parts that will not
be subjected to impact have 0.08 to 0.15% sulphur added. It is beneficial to machinability and
the higher sulphur content of some steels reflect this useful property. It is detrimental to surface
quality in low-carbon and low manganese steel. It decreases ductility and impact resistance.
Weldability also decreases with increasing sulphur content.

(11)Copper:

• It is used in percentage of 0.1 - 0.4 to produce resistance to atmospheric corrosion.

• Acts as a strengthening agent.

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Although copper is corrosion-resistant, it is not used in steel for this purpose. Copper is
nowadays, used extensively in low-carbon sheets especially thin gauges and other structural
steels. It has minor effect on mechanical properties. It is beneficial to corrosion resistance if
amount present exceeds 0.20%. When present in appreciable amounts, it is detrimental to hot
working operations. It effects forge welding and is detrimental to surface quality. It does not
effect arc or acetylene welding.

(12)Cobalt:

• Improves mechanical properties such as tensile strengths, fatigue strength and hardness.
• Refines the graphite and pearlite
• It is a mild stabilizer of carbides
• Improves heat resistance
• Retards the transformation of austenite and thus increases hardenability and freedom
from cracking and distortion.
• Contributes to red-hardness by hardening ferrite

(13)Boron:

• It is a very powerful hardenability agent and increases hardenability or depth to which

steel will harden when quenched.

It is being 250-750 times as effective as nickel, 75- 125 times more effective than molybdenum
and about 100 times as powerful as chromium. It is expensive but used in minute quantities.

(14)Aluminum:

• It is used to deoxidize steel

• Produces fine grain size.
• It is used to obtain non-aging characteristics alone or in the presence of other elements
• Prevents recurrence of strains in sheets and strip.

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6.Analysis of materials
6.1 ASTM Standard Test Method for Tension Testing of Metallic
Materials

ASTM International's Proficiency Test Program is a statistical quality assurance (SQA) tool
enabling labs to compare, improve, and maintain performance in conducting tests per ASTM
Intl. methods E8 (Tension Test), E18 (Hardness Test), E646 (n value), and E517 (r value) on
steel sheet materials

STANDARD METHODS

E8 Tension Test (E8M method to be supported on an exception basis.

Indicate on registration form if your lab will be preparing E8M test pieces.
E18 Hardness Test (Program to suggest scales to be used)
Labs unable to follow a specific ASTM Intl. method will be required to identify those
areas where deviations occur.
E646 Standard Test Method for Tensile Strain-Hardening exponents (n-values) of metallic
sheet materials.
E517 Standard Test Method for plastic strain ration (r-value) for sheet material.

The test methods

described in the ASTM
E8 specification cover
the tension testing of
metallic materials in any
form at room temperature,
and more specifically, the
methods used to determine
yield strength, yield point,
tensile strength, elongation,
and reduction of area.

Tension tests
determine the strength
and ductility of
materials under uniaxial tensile stresses. This information may be
helpful in comparisons of materials, in the development of new alloys, for
quality control, to support structural design, and acceptance testing for

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commercial shipments.

Proper test specimen alignment, grip and face selection are

critical factors in obtaining valid test results. Test specimens must
be aligned correctly at the beginning of a test to avoid bending moments or
side loading. The specimen must also remain in this perfect alignment
throughout the duration of the test. If the specimen slips in the grips, or
becomes deformed in the grip area, the test would be invalidated. Here at
WMT&R, with the help of our Mechanical Engineering Department, and our
in-house Full Service Machine Shop, we custom design and manufacture
any specialized grips and fixturing needed.

7. Different methods of testing

7.1 Chemical Analysis of Metal

Chemical Analysis by GDS provides a fast and relatively inexpensive method for analyzing most
aluminum, brass, carbon steel, low alloy steel, cast iron, superalloy, and stainless steel materials.
XRF Analysis or EDS Analysis can also be used if there is limited sample size or if elements not
covered by GDS are required. We sub-contract for inductively coupled plasma (ICP) analysis on
samples that don't work well with our other methods.

7.2 Mechanical Testing of Metal

Tensile properties (ASTM E8) provide useful information about the strength and ductility of a
metal. Hardness testing is also useful as it can often be correlated with tensile strength and can be
done on smaller samples. There are many hardness scales to choose from depending on sample
size, uniformity, and industry practice. Brinell Hardness (ASTM E10) uses the largest sample
but is useful for materials which are non-uniform such as cast iron. Rockwell Hardness (ASTM
E18) has a range of scales covering a large hardness range and uses less material than Brinell
Hardness (ASTM E10).

7.3 Metallographic Testing of Metal

The microstructure of a metal (ASTM E407) can reveal useful information about service history
as well as processes such as heat treatment, forming, forging, extrusion, cold rolling, hot rolling,
threading, heading, and drawing. If carbon steel is heated until it is bright red then the
microstructure can be altered depending on how fast it is cooled. Quench cooling of carbon steel
will generate a hard, brittle structure called martensite which can be made less brittle using a heat
treating process called tempering. Slow cooling of carbon steel will result in a softer, more

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ductile structure of ferrite and pearlite. For cast iron samples graphite distribution (ASTM A247)
has a large effect on strength if not controlled properly.

7.4 Failure Analysis of Metal

Our decades of experience and wide range of testing instruments provide a unique advantage for
finding the probable root cause of a failure. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of a fracture
surface can often identify the fracture initiation point, mode of propagation, and speed of
propagation. A complete picture can be obtained with the addition of EDS Analysis for corrosive
elements, microstructural analysis (ASTM E407), base material composition (GDS), mechanical
properties, and a service history provided by the client. A detailed report with full documentation
of results along with pictures illustrating defective areas is included with every failure analysis
project.

8. Discussion

8.1 Mechanical Testing of Metal

Tensile testing

1. Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test in
which a sample is subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are
commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict how a
material will react under other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile
test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these
measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's
ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.

Tensile specimen

Tensile specimens made from an aluminum alloy. The left two specimens have a round cross-
section and threaded shoulders. The right two are flat specimen designed to be used with serrated
grips.
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A tensile specimen is a standardized sample crosscross-section. It has two shoulders and a gage
section in between. The shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, where as the gage
section has a smaller cross-section
section so that the deformation and failure can occur in this area. The
shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured in various ways to mate to various grips in
the testing machine (see the image below). Each system has advantages and disadvantages; for
example, shoulders designed for serrated grips are easy and cheap to manufacture, but the
alignment of the specimen is dependent on the skill of the technician. On the other hand, a
pinned grip assures good alignment. Threaded shoulders and grips also assure good alignment,
but the technician must know to thread each shoulder into the grip at least one diameter's length,
otherwise the threads can strip before the specimen fractures.

Test specimen nomenclature

Various shoulder styles for tensile specimens. Keys A through C are for round specimen, while
keys D and E are for flat specimen. Key:
A. A threaded shoulder for use with a threaded grip
B. A round shoulder for use with serrated grips
C. A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar
D. A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips
E. A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip
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Process
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and applying tension
to it until it fractures.. During the application of tension, the elongation of the gage section is
recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the
geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering
strain,, e, using the following equation
equation:

where ∆L is the change in gage length, L0 is the initial gage length, and L is the final length. The
orce measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress,, σ, using the following equation:[4]
force

where F is the force and A is the cross

cross-section
section of the gage section. The machine does these
calculations as the force is increase so that the data points can be graphed into a stress-strain
stress
curve

8.2 Metallographic Testing of Metal

EDS ANALYSIS - EDS ANALYSIS TESTING SERVICES

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 EDS or EDX is a method of identifying the major inorganic
elements in microscopic samples.
Purpose: Identify the major inorganic elements in a material.

Sample: One solid sample.

Basic Description: This instrument is one of the detectors on our scanning electron microscope
(SEM). The sample is placed under vacuum and excited to a higher energy state with an electron
beam. As each element falls back down to its original energy state it emits X-ray energy at
different wavelengths for each element. Identification of the elements is done by matching the
peak locations (on the x-axis) with known wavelengths for each element. EDS analysis is very
good at determining what elements are present in samples which are as small as one micrometer
(40 micro-inches). Results are plotted with X-ray wavelength on the X-axis and intensity on the
Y-axis with each peak labeled with its corresponding element.

Limitations: Analysis is normally not quantitative but semi-quantitative results can be provided
for some materials. Detection limits are typically 1% or higher so trace elements will not be
detected. Identifies which elements are present but not how they are connected so it cannot tell
the difference between minerals of similar composition but different crystal structure. FTIR
analysis (ASTM E1252) is required to differentiate between most organic molecules. Some
elements are hard to tell apart since they have overlapping peak locations. Sample must be non-
volatile so that it will not be evaporated within the vacuum in the test chamber. EDS analysis is
unable to detect elements with molecular weights below that of carbon.

ASTM E407

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8.3 Failure Analysis of Metal

SEM/EDS ANALYSIS - SEM TESTING SERVICES

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SEM is a method of generating images of samples at
magnifications up to 100,000X.
Purpose: Generates images of samples at magnifications up to 100,000X.

Sample: Any solid sample one cubic inch or smaller.

Basic Description: This instrument forms images with electrons instead of light allowing high
magnification photographs with excellent depth of field. At 100,000X magnification a penny is
roughly a mile in diameter. The EDS detector on this instrument allows identification of the
elements present in contamination particles as small as one micrometer (40 micro-inches) in size.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is useful for failure analysis since it can reveal where a
fracture started, how fast it propagated, and whether the fracture mode was ductile or brittle.
Cross sectional measurements of plating thickness (ASTM B748) can also be made with this
instrument. The results are in the form of black and white images with our interpretation of their
meaning.

Limitations: The images generated are black and white so differences in color are hard to detect
but differences in atomic weight are easily seen. Organic samples do not generate a lot of signal
so the images are not as clear as metals at high magnifications. In order to get good images
above 5,000X magnification the sample must be conductive or must be prepared by sputter
coating with a very thin layer of metal.

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9. Materials Failure Analysis:
9.1 Typical Root Cause Failure Mechanisms
• Fatigue failures
• Corrosion failures
• Stress corrosion cracking
• Ductile and brittle fractures
• Creep and stress rupture
It is possible for fracture to be a result of multiple failure mechanisms or root causes. A failure
analysis can provide the information to identify the appropriate root cause of the failure.

9.2 Common Causes of Failure:

• Misuse or Abuse
• Assembly errors
• Manufacturing defects
• Improper maintenance
• Fastener failure
• Design errors
• Improper material
• Improper heat treatments
• Unforeseen operating conditions
• Inadequate quality assurance
• Inadequate environmental protection/control
• Casting discontinuities

9.3 Casting failure

9.3.1 Castings
Several factors effect the quality of metal castings. Some of these factors are listed below:
• Coefficients of thermal conductivity
• Thermal expansion and contraction,
• Chemistry
• Precision of molds and dies
• Shrinkage allowances
• Dryness of molds
• Casting design
• Method of pouring liquid metal
• Design of gates and risers

9.3.2 Casting Discontinuities

Some common casting deficiencies are:
• Inclusions
• Porosity (blow holes, pinholes)
• Cold Cracking
• Hot Cracking
23
 • Cold Shuts
• Surface irregularities
• Distortion
• Improper composition
Casting failures can be due to various causes. Some castings fail due to design deficiencies,
while other castings fail due to casting deficiencies

Imperfections in castings may not be of concern for many types of service. They are commonly
referred to as casting defects sincecastings are not perfect. This is unfortunate as imperfections
beyond engineering design specifications should be considered defects, while imperfections
within engineering design specifications should not be considered defects.

Some casting imperfections may have no effect on the function or service life of castings. Many
imperfections are easily corrected by blast cleaning or grinding. Other imperfections may be
acceptable in some locations.

It is not uncommon for engineers to zone a casting drawing. Depending on the criticality of the
location or zone the same imperfection would be judged acceptable in one location while
unacceptable in another location.

9.3.3 Casting Discontinuities

Some common casting deficiencies are:

• Inclusions
• Porosity (blow holes, pinholes)
• Cold Cracking
• Hot Cracking
• Cold Shuts
• Surface irregularities
• Distortion
• Improper composition

Casting failures can be due to various causes. Some castings fail due to design deficiencies,
while other castings fail due to casting deficiencies.

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9.3.4 Casting Failure Analysis
Casting failures can be due to various causes. Improper loading or environment may
contribute to the cause of failure. Casting imperfections may or may not contribute to the cause
of failure. Some imperfections may be commonly occurring discontinuities or anomalies that are
normally expected to be present in castings. Other imperfections are casting defects that result in
failure of the casting. Failure analysis can determine the cause of the casting failure and
determine if a casting imperfections was the primary or contributing cause of failure.

10. Fatigue of steel structures

A component or structure, which is designed to carry a single monotonically increasing
application of static load, may fracture and fail if the same load or even smaller load is, applied
cyclically a large number of times. For example a thin rod bent back and forth beyond yielding
fails after a few cycles of such repeated bending. This is termed as the ‘fatigue failure’.
Examples of structures, prone to fatigue failure, are bridges, cranes, offshore structures and
slender towers, etc., which are subjected to cyclic loading. The fatigue failure is due to
progressive propagation of flaws in steel under cyclic loading. This is partially enhanced by the
stress concentration at the tip of such flaw or crack. As we can see from Fig. 1.22, the presence
of a hole in a plate or simply the presence of a notch in the plate has created stress concentrations
at the points ‘m’ and ‘n’. The stress at these points could be three or more times the average
applied stress. These stress concentrations may occur in the material due to some discontinuities
in the material itself. These stress concentrations are not serious when a ductile material like steel
is subjected to a static load, as the stresses redistribute themselves to other adjacent elements
within the structure. At the time of static failure, the average stress across the entire cross section
would be the yield stress as shown in Fig.1.23. However when the load is repeatedly applied or
the load fluctuates between tension and compression, the points m, n experience a higher range
of stress reversal than the applied average stress. These fluctuations involving higher stress
ranges, cause minute cracks at these points, which open up progressively and spread with each
application of the cyclic load and ultimately lead to rupture.

25
 Stress concentrations in the presence of notches and holes

Stress pattern at the point of static failure

The fatigue failure occurs after four different stages, namely:

1. Crack initiation at points of stress concentration
2. Crack growth
3. Crack propagation
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4. Final rupture

The development of fatigue crack growth and the various stages mentioned above are
symbolically represented in Fig. 1.24. Fatigue failure can be defined as the number of
cycles and hence time taken to reach a pre-defined or a threshold failure criterion.
Fatigue failures are classified into two categories namely the high cycle and low cycle
fatigue failures, depending upon the number of cycles necessary to create rupture. Low
cycle fatigue could be classified as the failures occurring in few cycles to a few tens of
thousands of cycles, normally under high stress/ strain ranges. High cycle fatigue
requires about several millions of cycles to initiate a failure. The type of cyclic stresses
applied on structural systems and the terminologies used in fatigue resistant design.

Crack growth and fatigue failure under cyclic load

Terminology used in fatigue resistant design of structural steel work

27
11. S-N curve

Metal fatigue is caused by repeated

cycling of of the load. It is a progressive
localized damage due to fluctuating
stresses and strains on the material. Metal
fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in
regions where the strain is most severe.

The process of fatigue consists of three

stages:

• Initial crack initiation

• Progressive crack growth across
the part
• Final sudden fracture of the
remaining cross section Schematic of S-N Curve, showing increase in fatigue
life with decreasing stresses.

Stress Ratio

The most commonly used stress ratio is R, the ratio of the minimum stress to the maximum stress
(Smin/Smax).

• If the stresses are fully reversed, then R = -1.

• If the stresses are partially reversed, R = a negative number less than 1.
• If the stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, R = zero.
• If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, R = a positive number less than 1.

Variations in the stress ratios can significantly affect fatigue life. The presence of a mean stress
component has a substantial effect on fatigue failure. When a tensile mean stress is added to the
alternating stresses, a component will fail at lower alternating stress than it does under a fully
reversed stress.

28
11.1 Preventing Fatigue Failure

The most effective method of improving fatigue performance is improvements in design:

• Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining the part

• Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching, stamping, shearing, or other
processes
• Prevent the development of surface discontinuities during processing.
• Reduce or eliminate tensile residual stresses caused by manufacturing.
• Improve the details of fabrication and fastening procedures

11.2 Fatigue Failure Analysis

Metal fatigue is a significant problem because it can occur due to repeated loads below the static
yield strength. This can result in an unexpected and catastrophic failure in use.

Because most engineering materials contain discontinuities most metal fatigue cracks initiate
from discontinuities in highly stressed regions of the component. The failure may be due the
discontinuity, design, improper maintenance or other causes. A failure analysis can determine
the cause of the failure.

29
12. Creep And Stress Analysis:
12.1 High Temperature Failure Analysis

Creep occurs under load at high temperature. Boilers, gas turbine engines, and ovens are some
of the systems that have components that experience creep. An understanding of high
temperature materials behavior is beneficial in evaluating failures in these types of systems.

Failures involving creep are usually easy to identify due to the deformation that occurs. Failures
may appear ductile or brittle. Cracking may be either transgranular or intergranular. While
creep testing is done at constant temperature and constant load actual components may
experience damage at various temperatures and loading conditions.

12.2 Creep of Metals

High temperature progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. High
temperature is a relative term that is dependent on the materials being evaluated. A typical creep
curve is shown below:

In a creep test a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at a constant

temperature. Strain is then measured over a period of time. The slope of the curve, identified in
the above figure, is the strain rate of the test during stage II or the creep rate of the material.

Primary creep, Stage I, is a period of decreasing creep rate. Primary creep is a period of
primarily transient creep. During this period deformation takes place and the resistance to creep
increases until stage II. Secondary creep, Stage II, is a period of roughly constant creep
rate. Stage II is referred to as steady state creep. Tertiary creep, Stage III, occurs when there is a
reduction in cross sectional area due to necking or effective reduction in area due to internal void
formation.
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13. Corrosion Failures :
Corrosion is chemically induced damage to a
material that results in deterioration of the
material and its properties. This may result in
failure of the component. Several factors
should be considered during a failure analysis
to determine the affect corrosion played in a
failure. Examples are listed below:

• Type of corrosion
• Corrosion rate
• The extent of the corrosion
• Interaction between corrosion and other
failure mechanisms

Corrosion is is a normal, natural

process. Corrosion can seldom be totally
prevented, but it can be minimized or controlled
by proper choice of material, design, coatings,
and occasionally by changing the
environment. Various types of metallic and
nonmetallic coatings are regularly used to
protect metal parts from corrosion.

Stress corrosion cracking necessitates a tensile stress, which may be caused by residual stresses,
and a specific environment to cause progressive fracture of a metal. Aluminum and stainless
steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However, all metals are susceptible
to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment.

31
Laboratory corrosion testing is frequently used in analysis but is difficult to correlate with actual
service conditions. Variations in service conditions are sometimes difficult to duplicate in
laboratory testing

13.1 Corrosion Failures Analysis

Identification of the metal or metals, environment the metal was subjected to, foreign matter
and/or surface layer of the metal is beneficial in failure determination. Examples of some
common types of corrosion are listed below:

• Uniform corrosion
• Pitting corrosion
• Intergranular corrosion
• Crevice corrosion
• Galvanic corrosion
• Stress corrosion cracking

Not all corrosion failures need a comprehensive failure analysis. At times a preliminary
examination will provide enough information to show a simple analysis is adequate.

13.1.1 Uniform Corrosion:

Uniform or general corrosion is typified by the rusting of steel. Other examples of uniform
corrosion are the tarnishing of silver or the green patina associated with the corrosion of copper.

General corrosion is rather predictable. The life of components can be estimated based on
relatively simple immersion test results. Allowance for general corrosion is relatively simple and
commonly employed when designing a component for a known environment.

Some common methods used to prevent or reduce general corrosion are listed below:

• Coatings
• Inhibitors
• Cathodic protection
• Proper materials selection

32
13.1.2 Pitting Corrosion:

Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting corrosion is typified by the formation of
holes or pits on the metal surface. Pitting can cause failure due to perforation while the total
corrosion, as measured by weight loss, might be rather minimal. The rate of penetration may be
10 to 100 times that by general corrosion.

Pits may be rather small and difficult to detect. In some cases pits may be masked due to general
corrosion. Pitting may take some time to initiate and develop to an easily viewable size.

Pitting occurs more readily in a stagnant environment. The

aggressiveness of the corrodent will affect the rate of
pitting. Some methods for reducing the effects of pitting
corrosion are listed below:

• Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment

• Use more pitting resistant materials
• Improve the design of the system

13.1.3 Crevice Corrosion:

Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosive attack. Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow
openings or spaces between two metal surfaces or between metals and nonmetal surfaces. A
concentration cell forms with the crevice being depleted of oxygen. This differential aeration
between the crevice (microenvironment) and the external surface (bulk environment) gives the
the crevice an anodic character. This can contribute to a highly corrosive condition in the
crevice. Some examples of crevices are listed below:

33
 • Flanges
• Deposits
• Washers
• Rolled tube ends
• Threaded joints
• O-rings
• Gaskets
• Lap joints
• Sediment

Some methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion are listed below:

• Eliminate the crevice from the design

• Select materials more resistant to crevice corrosion
• Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment

13.1.4 Stress Corrosion Cracking:

Stress corrosion cracking is a failure mechanism that is caused by environment, susceptible

material, and tensile stress. Temperature is a significant environmental factor affecting cracking.

For stress corrosion cracking to occur all three conditions must

be met simultaneously. The component needs to be in a
particular crack promoting environment, the component must
be made of a susceptible material, and there must be tensile
stresses above some minimum threshold value. An externally
applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due
to residual stresses in the material. The threshold stresses are
commonly below the yield stress of the material.

Stress Corrosion Cracking Failures

Stress corrosion cracking is an insidious type of failure as it

can occur without an externally applied load or at loads
significantly below yield stress. Thus, catastrophic failure can
occur without significant deformation or obvious deterioration
of the component. Pitting is commonly associated with stress
corrosion cracking phenomena.

34
Aluminum and stainless steel are well known for stress corrosion cracking problems. However,
all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in the right environment.

13.2 Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking

There are several methods to prevent stress corrosion cracking. One common method is
proper selection of the appropriate material. A second method is to remove the chemical species
that promotes cracking. Another method is to change the manufacturing process or design to
reduce the tensile stresses. AMC can provide engineering expertise to prevent or reduce the
likelihood of stress corrosion cracking in your components.

14. HARDENABILITY TESTING:

Hardenability of a steel is best assessed by studying the hardening response of the steel to
cooling in a standardized configuration in which a variety of cooling rates can be easily and
consistently reproduced from one test to another.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) Jominy end-quench hardenability test, (b) Typical distribution of hardness in
Jominy bars

The end-quench, or Jominy, test: It fulfills the cooling rate requirements of hardenability testing
most conveniently. The test specimen, a 1-in. (25.4 mm) dia. bar 4 in. (102 mm) in length, is
water quenched on one end face. The bar from which the specimen is made must be normalized
before the test specimen is machined. The test involves heating the test specimen to the proper
austenitizing temperature and then transferring it to a quenching fixture so designed that the
specimen is held vertically 12.7 mm above an opening through which a column of water may be
directed against the bottom face of the specimen. While the bottom end is being quenched by the
column of water, the opposite end is cooling slowly in air, and intermediate positions along the
specimen are cooling at intermediate rates. After the specimen has been quenched, parallel flats
35
1800 apart are ground 0.015 in. (0.38 mm) deep on the cylindrical surface. Rockwell C hardness
is measured at intervals of 1/16 in. (1.59 mm) for alloy steels and 1/32 in. (0.79 mm) for carbon
steels, starting from the water-quenched end. Details of the standard test method are contained in
specifications of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM Method A255) and the
Society of Automotive Engineers (Standard J406); in these specifications, dimensions are given
in inches.

15. ASTM E8

Metallographic Testing of Metal

METAL TENSILE TESTING SERVICES

APM Testing provides A2LA accredited services for metal tensile testing at a fair price, with
prompt delivery, and a detailed test report. Our laboratory also provides laboratory services for
plastic testing, metal testing, rubber testing, oil testing, paint testing, plating testing, adhesive
testing, circuit board testing, and other testing.

Purpose: Measure the strength of a metal in tension per ASTM E8.

36
Sample: One (1) bar 8 x 1 x 0.1 inches or larger is required for a standard tensile test but smaller
samples can be tested using a sub-size specimen.

Basic Description: ASTM E8 is a method of measuring tensile properties of metal by gripping

both ends of a test bar and pulling at a constant speed until it breaks. The metal is usually
machined into a dog bone shaped tensile bar before testing. During the test, the force on the bar
and how much it stretches is continuously measured. Ultimate tensile strength (stress) is
calculated by dividing the maximum force by the original cross sectional area of the test bar.
Offset yield strength (stress) is calculated by dividing the force when the test bar starts to
permanently deform (usually 0.20% deformation) by the original cross sectional area. Ultimate
elongation (strain) is calculated by dividing the amount the test bar stretched (after breaking) by
the original length of the bar. Some materials have more specific test methods such as ASTM
B557 for Aluminum Tensile Testing and ASTM A370 for Steel Tensile Testing. Tensile
properties are useful because they can be used to calculate how much load a given structure can
support without deforming or breaking. Results are reported in a table format with one tensile
test per sample. Tensile and yield strength are typically reported in units of ksi (1000 pounds per
square inch) or MPa (1,000,000 newtons per square meter). Elongation is typically reported in
units of %.

Test bar must break with a force of less than 50,000 pounds. Metals with an ASTM
Limitations:
E18 Rockwell C hardness of 40 or higher may be too hard to machine into a test bar.

16. ASTM E10

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BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING SERVICES
APM Testing provides A2LA accredited services for Brinell hardness testing at a fair price, with
prompt delivery, and a detailed test report. Our laboratory also provides laboratory services for
plastic testing, metal testing, rubber testing, oil testing, paint testing, plating testing, adhesive
testing, circuit board testing, and other testing.

Purpose: Measure the Brinell hardness of a metal sample per ASTM E10.

Sample: One block 1 x 1 x 0.4 inches (25 x 25 x 10 mm) or larger.

Smaller samples can sometimes be tested.

Basic Description: ASTM E10 is a method of determining hardness by pushing a ball into the
surface of a metal and then measuring the diameter of the indent left by the ball. Brinell hardness
gives good results for non-uniform materials such as castings since it has a large indent size.
There are multiple Brinell hardness scales such as 10/3000 which specifies a ball diameter of 10
mm under a load of 3000 kg. The result is in the form of a hardness number between 100 and
650 with a higher number indicating a harder material. Lower loads are used for small or soft
samples. Samples which are too small to measure per ASTM E10 can be measured using ASTM
E18 Rockwell Hardness or ASTM E384 Knoop Micro-Hardness. Brinell hardness is directly
related to the strength and wear resistance of a metal sample. Results are reported in a table
format with one indent per sample.

The tested surface must be relatively smooth and flat. Samples less than 0.4 inches
Limitations:
(10 mm) thick are usually too thin for accurate measurements.

17. ASTM E18

38
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING SERVICES
APM Testing provides A2LA accredited services for Rockwell hardness testing at a fair price,
with prompt delivery, and a detailed test report. Our laboratory also provides laboratory services
for plastic testing, metal testing, rubber testing, oil testing, paint testing, plating testing, adhesive
testing, circuit board testing, and other testing.

Purpose: Measure the Rockwell hardness of a metal sample per ASTM E18.

Sample: One block 1 x 1 x 0.050 inches (25 x 25 x 1 mm) or larger.

Smaller samples can sometimes be tested.

Basic Description: ASTM E18 is a method of determining hardness by measuring how deep an
indenter pushes into a metal under a given load. There are multiple different Rockwell hardness
scales with designations such as A, B, C, 30N, 30T, and more. Rockwell hardness readings can
range from 20 to 100 with a higher number indicating a harder material. Rockwell B and C are
the most common scales with B used for softer materials and C used for harder materials. The
Rockwell B scale ends at a value of 100 which is roughly equal to the beginning of the Rockwell
C scale at 20. Other scales are often used when the sample is too soft or thin to be measured by
the B and C scales. Rockwell hardness is a good indication of the strength and wear resistance of
a metal sample. Results are reported in a table as the average of 3 to 5 readings per sample.

Limitations: Samples must be prepared so that both the top and bottom surfaces are smooth or the
results will not be accurate. Samples less than 0.050 inches (1 mm) thick are usually too thin for
accurate measurements and may need to be measured by ASTM E384 Knoop Micro-Hardness.

39
Readings may not be consistent for non-uniform materials such as cast irons which are
commonly measured using ASTM E10 Brinell Hardness.

40