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II. OFFSHORE WIND INTEGRATION – BACKGROUND In order to minimize the capacitive charging current of cable,
compensation units have to be installed along the cable length
A. Introduction at defined points. If the length of the AC-cable is not long
The integration of wind energy into the power system is an (under approx. 50-90 km) it is enough to install the
issue that has been investigated very intensively in recent compensation units only at both ends of the cable. However,
years. Different national studies, as e.g. DENA Study [5] in for longer cables it is also necessary to install compensating
Germany, have been performed in order to point out the units between both cable ends. Therefore, in an offshore
possible problems with the integration of bulk wind power application this solution would require construction of
and to find out the necessary remedial measures, like intermediate offshore platforms with reactive power
reinforcement of the existing power grid or construction of compensation units, if wind farms are placed far from the
shore, which would lead to a significant cost increase. Since
new lines. Apart from the national activities there also were
such a situation would take place in the case of many planned
several international studies that cover all of Europe, e.g.
wind farms, the application of DC connection approaches has
TradeWind [6], EWIS [7], IEA Wind Task 25 [8]. Each of been greatly discussed and will quite likely be used due to the
these studies has its own focus and covers a specific time problems and limitations with long AC cables. The costs
horizon. Some of these studies include already the first analysis showed that the break even point for the application
concepts for the offshore power system, as for example the of the DC interconnection systems instead of AC cables
TradeWind study, which focuses on the estimation of results at distances to the shore of between 50 km and 90 km,
necessary interconnector capacities between European depending on water depths, the power level to be transmitted,
countries. rated voltage of cable and the used components, see Fig. 2.
Nevertheless, investigation of such complex systems Hence, for longer distances to the shore the high voltage direct
requires adequate models that can cover the energy trading current (HVDC) technology has to be applied. The HVDC
issues as well as the technical issues related to the electrical transmission is characterized by a high complexity grade of
grids. The former models are significant in the first phase of the overall system due to the presence of some additional
the analysis since they deliver information about required elements as compared to the AC transmission, like converter
reference values that have to be employed for setting up the stations on both line ends, requirement for sophisticated
later model. control and protection systems and high investment costs.
However, the HVDC transmission is more advantageous than
the AC transmission for longer underwater cable
B. Available Transmission Technologies interconnection, since long AC cables are problematic due to
Generally, there are two main technologies that can be reactive power losses.
applied for integration of the offshore wind farms, namely The HVDC transmission systems can be generally divided
AC- and DC-transmission, see Fig. 1 [9]. The decision with into two categories:
regard to which technology to apply is mainly based on the classic line commutated converter HVDC (LCC
economical analysis and technical feasibility study. The most HVDC),
common and proven is the underground AC cable voltage source converter HVDC (VSC HVDC).
transmission technology, which, however, has some The LCC HVDC transmission system is a fully mature
limitations especially in the offshore applications due to the technology that has been in use for more than 50 years and
necessity for reactive power compensation, since the capacity numbers over 70 large installations globally, including
of cable increases significantly with its length and rated overhead lines and submarine cables. In comparison the VSC
voltage. HVDC is a relatively new technology that was introduced in
the 1990s.
Both HVDC technologies have their advantages and possibility of reactive power control is especially important in
disadvantages, but generally for the offshore wind weak systems or islanded systems, where the reactive power
applications, especially multi-terminal systems, the VSC contribution from the converter station can be employed to
technology is more suitable due to the several operational keep the voltage level in an allowable range and through the
features that will be discussed in a further section. minimization of the reactive power flow within the AC grid
Furthermore, the application of GIL (Gas Insulated Line) the minimization of the overall system losses can be obtained.
systems in the high voltage transmission has also been The capability of four quadrant operation in the VSC HVDC
discussed. However, due to economic reasons as well as a lack systems also makes it possible to instantaneously change the
of operational experience it has not at the moment been direction of active power flow in the link by adjusting the
chosen as an advantageous solution according to [11]. reference values in the control system. This causes change in
the direction of the DC current flow without changing the
C. VSC HVDC – General Characteristics
polarity of the DC link voltage or without reconfiguration of
In comparison to the classic HVDC the VSC technology has a the converter station topology by the means of power
number of technical features that make it more advantageous switches, as is necessary in the case of power flow reversal in
than LCC HVDC technology for applications such as: LCC HVDC systems (multi-terminal systems). This feature
supply of passive networks, concerning active power flow control is very advantageous,
interconnection to the weak AC systems, since on the one hand the change of voltage polarity is not
supply of offshore loads, preferable especially for extruded XLPE DC cables because of
interconnection of offshore wind farms, increased stress for the insulation and on the other hand, the
in-feed to the city centers, topology reconfiguration requires special station arrangements
multi-terminal systems. with additional power switches, which lead to increased costs
Currently, the power ranges of the VSC based HVDC systems and more complex system structure. Additionally, due to the
reach up to 1200 MW at a voltage level of ± 320 kV [12]. fact that the control system of VSC HVDC units is very fast,
Comparing the structure and components of the LCC-based an excellent dynamic behavior is provided, especially in the
systems and VSC-based HVDC systems it can be noticed that case of faults and disturbances.
the main difference lies on the type of valves, which has also a
significant influence on the operational characteristics. The D. Offshore Power System - Concepts
voltage sourced converter is based on fully controllable In the last few years various concepts dealing with the
semiconductor valves IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar offshore power system have been developed, as summarized
Transistor), which allow for not only switching-on the valve in [3]. These concepts have different detailing grades and
with an external gate signal, like in the case of thyristors, but some of them cover not only the North Sea but also the other
also for switching it off at the required time point and European waters, such as the Baltic Sea, Irish Sea, English
independently on the grid current profile. This feature is the Channel or even the Mediterranean Sea. In Fig. 3 and Fig. 4
main advantage of the VSC converters over the LCC two concepts that were recently introduced by EWEA in 2009
converters and allows for the connection to power systems and Greenpeace in 2008 are presented.
with very low short circuit ratios or even to passive grids.
Furthermore, because the VSC converters are self-
commutated units they are not sensitive to commutation
failures due to the distortions of the AC voltage, as is the case
with conventional LCC converters. Moreover, since the main
operational scheme of the VSC converters is based on the
PWM technique (pulse width modulation), which can switch
on and switch off the valves several times during one period
of the grid voltage, the power quality can be significantly
improved through the reduction of the lower frequency
harmonics in the resulting wave shape. At the same time with
the increase of the valve switching frequency the resulting
power losses also increase, and this is the main disadvantage
of this technology. At full load of the VSC converter the
power losses equal about 2 % of the rated converter power per
each end of the HVDC link, whereas the losses in a
conventional LCC HVDC equals typically to 0.8 % of the
transmitted power per each link end [13]. However, due to the
independency of the commutation process on the AC grid
voltage in the voltage source converters as well as due to the
possibility of conducting current in both directions by the
valve modules, the other crucial advantage of these systems is
that the active and reactive power can be controlled Fig. 3. Offshore power system concept according to [14]
independently of each other in all four quadrants. The
4
Beside the presented concepts of the offshore power system Horns Rev I 1 2010 DK 160 AC
there are also several other proposals as, for example, Horns Rev II 1 2010 DK 209 AC
introduced by Airtricity, TradeWind or Mainstream, which Horns Rev A 1 2020 DK 200 AC
Horns Rev B 1 2020 DK 200 AC
also played an important role in the development of the two Horns Rev C 1 2020 DK 200 AC
main concepts. Global Tech 1 1 2015 DE 360 DC
Global Tech 1 2 2020 DE 440 DC
III. BENCHMARK DEVELOPMENT BARD Offshore 1 1 2010 DE 400 DC
BARD Offshore 1 2 2020 DE 400 DC
He dreiht 1 2015 DE 400 DC
A. Assumptions
Nordsee 1 2015 DE 400 DC
The benchmark proposed within this paper is a test system Nordsee 2 2020 DE 400 DC
representing some chosen part of the planned offshore Austerngrund 1 2015 DE 400 DC
installations in the North Sea in the time horizon until the year Deutsche Bucht 1 2015 DE 250 DC
Deutsche Bucht 2 2020 DE 150 DC
2030 including Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. The Ventotec Nord 1 I+II 1 2015 DE 600 DC
goal of development of this test system is to provide a Ventotec Nord 2 I+II 1 2015 DE 600 DC
comprehensive model with defined parameters that is Tromp Binnen 1 2015 NL 295 AC
necessary for analysis of various issues as already discussed in Hemveld 1 2020 NL 300 AC
Den Helder 1 1 2020 NL 468 AC
the previous sections. As the basis for the development of this Brown Ridge Oost 1 2015 NL 282 AC
test system the two aforementioned concepts – of Greenpeace Callanstoog-Noord 1 2015 NL 303 AC
as well as of EWEA – have been employed.
5
the second step the whole system was adapted to the voltage TABLE 4
PARAMETERS FOR THE DANISH AND THE DUTCH PART OF THE TEST SYSTEM
level of ±320 kV as discussed in the previous section. The TERMINAL i TERMINAL j L UNOM R‘ X‘ C' IRAT PAR.
estimated system parameters for the situation with ±150 kV BUSBAR BUSBAR km kV Ω/km Ω/km μF/km kA LIN.
rated voltage are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4. It can be DE_HUB-A DC_DK_Hub-A 174 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 3
HR_2-150 EDR_Offshore 18 150 0,0283 0,1288 0,155 0,648 1
observed that in most cases several parallel DC cables (even EDR_Offshore EDR 20 150 0,0283 0,1288 0,155 0,648 1
up to 4) are necessary to guarantee the required transfer DK2 HR_1-150 29 150 0,0283 0,1288 0,155 0,648 1
capacity. The number of required cables can be significantly DK1 HR_2-150 12 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
DK5 HR_A-150 11 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
reduced by introducing the higher voltage level. HR_A-150 HR_C-150 22 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
TABLE 3 DK4 HR_B-150 15 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
PARAMETERS FOR THE GERMAN PART OF THE TEST SYSTEM HR_B-150 HR_C-150 12 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
TERMINAL i TERMINAL j L UNOM R‘ X‘ C' IRAT PAR. DK3 HR_C-150 12 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
BUSBAR BUSBAR km kV Ω/km Ω/km μF/km kA LIN. EDR2_Offshore EDR 39 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 3
DE1 DE2 33 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 2 HR_C-150 EDR2_Offshore 36 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
DE11 DE12 26 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 HR_1-150 KAE_Offshore 35 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
DE13 DE14 19 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 KAE_Offshore KAE 25 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
DE15 DE16 19 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 NL1_TR NL1 69 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE17 DE18 16 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 NL2 NL2_TR 88 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE19 DE20 16 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 NL3 NL3_TR 89 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 1
DE_HUB-A DE21 193 ±150 0,0129 0,1665 0,180 1,070 2 NL4 NL4_TR 84 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2
DE_HUB-A DE22 193 ±150 0,0129 0,1665 0,180 1,070 2 NL5 NL5_TR 58 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE_HUB-A DE23 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 NL1 NL6 27 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE_HUB-A DE24 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 NL2 NL7 23 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE_HUB-A DE25 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 NL3 NL8 28 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE_HUB-A DE26 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 NL4 NL9 15 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2
DE_HUB-A DE27 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 NL5 NL10 17 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 1
DE_HUB-A DE28 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 DC_DIELE NRL_JUN 305 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 4
DE_HUB-A DE29 193 ±150 0,0176 0,1759 0,156 0,938 2 COB_JUN DC_DK_Cobra 61 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 2
DE3 DE4 23 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 COB_JUN DC_DK_Hub-A 71 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 3
DE5 DE6 13 150 0,0113 0,1634 0,260 1,201 2 DC_DK_Hub-A NRL_JUN 39 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 4
DE7 DE8 14 150 0,0176 0,1759 0,215 0,989 2 DC_Hoogkerk COB_JUN 251 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 2
DC_NL_HUB-A DE_HUB-A 247 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 3 DC_Nor_Nor1 NRL_JUN 264 ±150 0,0101 0,1602 0,201 1,168 4
NORWAY DENMARK
WF
DK4
1400 MW HR 4
A 1000 MW
C D D DK3
C A WF
C
C DK5
NOR1 HR 5
WF
NRL_JUN DC DK HR 3
UW HUB-A DK2
Arrie
WF
DK1
HR 1 KAE
AC DK
HUB-A
WF
HR 2 EDR
700 MW
D
C A
C
COB_JUN COBRA
DK
GERMANY
NETHERLANDS 1400 MW
D
C A
C
DC DE Diele
700 MW HUB-A
A DC UW
C D DIELE
C
AC NL DC NL
UW HUB-A
Hoogkerk HUB-A
Callanstoog 600 MW 600 MW
WF Noord A D
303 MW VentoTec
Nord I WF C D C A
600 MW C
DE5 DE6 DE21 C
NL1 NL6
WF
Tromp Binnen 600 MW 600 MW
295 MW
A D
VentoTec
Nord II WF C D C A
600 MW C
NL2 NL7 DE1 DE2 DE22 C
Brown Ridge 1000 MW
WF Oost
A 400 MW
282 MW 400 MW
C D A D
C
Austerngrund
WF C D C A
NL3 NL8 400 MW
C C
Den Helder 1
DE3 DE4 DE23
WF 468 MW
UW 400 MW 400 MW
Beverwijk A D
He dreiht
WF C D C A
NL4 NL9 400 MW
C C
Hemveld DE7 DE8 DE24
WF 300 MW 400 MW 400 MW
A D
Deutsche
Bucht WF C D C A
NL5 NL10 400 MW C C
DE11 DE12 DE25
400 MW 400 MW
A D
Global Tech 1
Ph.1 WF C D C A
360 MW C
DE13 DE14 DE26 C
400 MW 400 MW
A D
Global Tech 1
Ph. 2 WF C D C A
400 MW C UW
DE15 DE16 DE27 C
CONNEFORDE
400 MW 400 MW
A D
Legend: Hochsee WP
Nordsee Ph.1
400 MW
WF C D C A
C C
DE17 DE18 DE28
VSC HVDC Offshore Grid Inerconnecting Wind Farms and Hubs 400 MW 400 MW
VSC HVDC Direct Country Interconnectors Hochsee WP
A D
C D C A
AC Offshore Grid Nordsee Ph.2
400 MW
WF
C
DE19 DE20 DE29 C
Fig. 7. Scheme of the benchmark test system for implementation into system simulator
7
1,006
1,002
A. Scenario Definition
DC Voltage [pu]
1,000
Using a simplified version of the benchmark test system as
0,998
shown in Fig. 8, which corresponds to the development stage
0,996 DK_HUB-A
in 2011, an exemplary simulation was performed. This NL_HUB-A
0,994 DE_HUB-A
simulation corresponds to the network planning scenario, DE28
onshore power system with each DC hub and current wind 0,2
Modulation Index
0,86 DE_DE28
DK_HUB-A1
The simulation was performed for a time period of 24 hours. 0,85 NL_HUB-A
The chosen results are summarized in Fig. 10. It shows the 0,84
0,81
factors of the chosen Danish lines. It can be noticed that the 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Dutch terminal is operated in the DC voltage control mode Time [h]