2. Distinguish between Raster scan and random scan.

Also explain the architecture of

both?

A raster scan, or raster scanning, is the rectangular pattern of image capture and
reconstruction in television. By analogy, the term is used for raster graphics, the pattern
of image storage and transmission used in most computer bitmap image systems.

In random scan display the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where
the picture is to be drawn. Random Scan monitor draw one picture at a time therefore they
are also known as vector display.Refresh rate or random scan system depends on the
number of times to be displayed. Picture definition is stored in an area of memory called
refresh display file

Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ several processing units. In addition to
the CPU, a specialpurpose processor, called the video controller or display controller is used to
control the operation of the display device.
Organization of a simple raster system is shown in following figure. Here the frame buffer can be
anywhere in the system memory, and the video controller accesses the frame buffer to refresh
the screen.

Architecture of a simple raster graphics system

In addition to the video controller more sophisticated raster systems employ other processors as
coprocessors and accelerators to implement various graphics operations.
Video Controller Following figure shows a commonly used organization for raster systems. A
fixed area of the system memory is reserved for the frame buffer, and the video controller is given
direct access to the frame-buffer memory.
Frame-buffer locations, and the corresponding screen positions, are referenced in Cartesian
coordinates.
Architecture of a raster system with a fixed portion of a system memory reserved for the frame
buffer.
In the following figure the basic refresh operations of the video controller are diagrammed. Two
registers are used to store the coordinates of the screen pixels. Initially, the x register is set to 0
and the y register is set to ymax. The value stored in the frame buffer for this pixel position is then
retrieved and used to set the intensity of the CRT beam. Then the x register is incremented by 1,
and the process repeated for the next pixel on the top scan line. This procedure is repeated for
each pixel along the next line by resetting x register to 0 and decrementing the y register by 1.
Pixels along this scan line are then processed in turn, and the procedure is repeated for each
successive scan line. After cycling through all pixels along the bottom scan line y=0, the video
controller resets to the first pixel position on the top scan line and the refresh process starts over.

Basic Video Controller Refresh Operations

Since the screen must be refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, the simple procedure
illustrated in above figure cannot be accommodated by typical RAM chips. The cycle time is too
large making the process very slow. To speed up pixel processing, video controllers can retrieve
multiple pixel values from the refresh buffer on each pass. The multiple pixel intensities are then
stored in a separate register and used to control the CRT beam intensity for a group of adjacent
pixels. When that group of pixels has been processed, the next block of pixel values is retrieved
from the frame buffer.
Raster Scan Display Processor Following figure shows one way to setup the organization of a
raster system containing a separate display processor, sometimes referred to as a graphics
controller or a display coprocessor. The purpose of the display processor is to free the CPU from
the graphics chores. In addition to the system memory, a separate display processor memory
area can also be provided.
A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application
program into a set of pixel-intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This digitization
process is called scan conversion.

Architecture of a raster graphics system with a display processor

Raster-Scan Characters Graphics commands specifying straight lines and other geometric
objects are scan converted into a set of discrete intensity points. Scan converting a straight-line
segment, for example, means that we have to locate the pixel positions closest to the line path
and store the intensity for each position in the frame buffer. Similar methods are used for scan
converting curved lines and polygon outlines.
Characters can be defined with rectangular grids, as shown in following figure, or they can be
defined with curved outlines shown in the right hand side figure given below. The array size for
character grids can vary from about 5 by 7 to 9 by 12 or more for higher-quality displays. A
character grid is displayed by superimposing the rectangular grid pattern into the frame buffer at a
specified coordinate position. With characters that are defined as curve outlines, character
shapes are scan converted into the frame buffer.

9a The operation of most video monitors is based on the standard cathode-ray tube.
Explain working of CRT and various properties of video display devices.

Cathode ray tube essentially consists of an electron gun for producing a stream of electrons,
focusing and accelerating anodes for producing a narrow and sharply focused electron beam,
horizontal and vertical deflection plates for controlling the beam path and an evacuated glass
envelope with phosphorescent screen giving bright spot when struck by a high velocity electron
beam.

b) Describe the construction and working of liquid crystal display.

First of all before discussing the working of LCD it is necessary to define what is LCD. The LCD
stands for liquid crystal display, in which there are two sheets of polarized material with a liquid
crystal solution between them. This solution is very sensitive to electricity, and, in fact, when an
electric current is passed through the liquid, is causes the crystals to “group together” so that light
can’t pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter; either allowing light to pass
through or be shut out, subsequently creating the pixels (dots) on your screen. So when you turn
on your laptop, there is a device that connects from the main board to the screen that is telling
that material in every little dot when or when not to turn on and off – and which color is being
portrayed.

Most computer Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) panels are lit with built-in fluorescent tubes above,
beside and sometimes behind the LCD. A white diffusion panel behind the LCD redirects and
scatters the light evenly to ensure a uniform display. This is known as a backlight.
How LCD is bright?

A fluorescent light is most often a long straight glass tube that produces white light. Inside the
glass tube there is a low-pressure mercury vapor. When ionized, mercury vapor emits ultraviolet
light. Human eyes are not sensitive to ultraviolet light (although human skin is). The inside of a
fluorescent light is coated with phosphor. Phosphor is a substance that can accept energy in one
form and emit the energy in the form of visible light. For example, energy from a high-speed
electron in a TV tube is absorbed by the phosphors that make up the pixels. The light we see
from a fluorescent tube is the light given off by the phosphor coating the inside of the tube. The
phosphor fluoresces when energized, hence the name.

A typical laptop display uses a tiny Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp (CCFL) for the backlight.
One of these small tubes is able to provide a bright white light source that can be diffused by the
panel behind the LCD. In addition to providing ample light, CCFLs do not rise far above the
ambient temperature. This makes them ideal for LCD panels since the light source is in close
proximity to other components that could be ruined by excessive heat.

One amazing thing about these lamps is their incredible size. They are very thin and the board
that drives the lamp is very small as well. However, it is not that hard to break them, which is why
your display may go dark if you drop your laptop.

4. What is window and viewport. What is viewing transformation. Derive the composite
normalization transformation.

view port :
In computer hardware, a 'port' serves as an interface between the computer and other computers
or peripheral devices. Physically, a port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to which a
plug or cable connects. Electronically, the several conductors making up the outlet provide a
signal transfer between devices. Hardware ports may be physically male (unusual, since
protruding pins easily break, a fate best left to inexpensive matching cable ends) or female (usual
on equipment).

For Windows port :

A software port (usually just called a 'port') is a virtual data connection that can be used by
programs to exchange data directly, instead of going through a file or other temporary storage
location. The most common of these are TCP and UDP ports which are used to exchange data
between computers on the Internet.

Viewing Transformation is the mapping of coordinates of points and lines that form the picture
into appropriate coordinates on the display device.

World coordinate system (WCS) is the right handed cartesian co-ordinate system where we
define the picture to be displayed. A finite region in the WCS is called the Window. The
corresponding coordinate system on the display device where the image of the picture is
displayed is called the physical coordinate system. Mapping the window onto a subregion of the
display device called the viewportis called the Viewing Transformation. Normalized device
coordinate (NDC) is the display area of the virtual display device corresponding to a unit square.
The lower left handed corner is the origin of the coordinate system. Mapping the window in the
world coordinate space to viewport in NDC space is called the Normalization Transformation, N.

where is the scale in x and y directions, given by

5. Discuss different line categories in Cohen- Sutherland Line Clipping method with
suitable examples.

The Cohen-Sutherland line clipping algorithm quickly detects and dispenses with two common
and trivial cases. To clip a line, we need to consider only its endpoints. If both endpoints of a line
lie inside the window, the entire line lies inside the window. It is trivially accepted and needs no
clipping. On the other hand, if both endpoints of a line lie entirely to one side of the window, the
line must lie entirely outside of the window. It is trivially rejected and needs to be neither clipped
nor displayed.

Inside-Outside Window Codes

To determine whether endpoints are inside or outside a window, the algorithm sets up a half-
space code for each endpoint. Each edge of the window defines an infinite line that divides the
whole space into two half-spaces, the inside half-space and the outside half-space, as shown
below.

As you proceed around the window, extending each edge and defining an inside half-space and
an outside half-space, nine regions are created - the eight "outside" regions and the one
"inside"region. Each of the nine regions associated with the window is assigned a 4-bit code to
identify the region. Each bit in the code is set to either a 1(true) or a 0(false). If the region is to
the left of the window, the first bit of the code is set to 1. If the region is to the top of the window,
the second bit of the code is set to 1. If to the right, the third bit is set, and if to the bottom,
the fourth bit is set. The 4 bits in the code then identify each of the nine regions as shown below.
For any endpoint ( x , y ) of a line, the code can be determined that identifies which region the
endpoint lies. The code's bits are set according to the following conditions:

The sequence for reading the codes' bits is LRBT (Left, Right, Bottom, Top).

Once the codes for each endpoint of a line are determined, the logical AND operation of the
codes determines if the line is completely outside of the window. If the logical AND of the
endpoint codes is not zero, the line can be trivally rejected. For example, if an endpoint had a
code of 1001 while the other endpoint had a code of 1010, the logical AND would be 1000 which
indicates the line segment lies outside of the window. On the other hand, if the endpoints had
codes of 1001 and 0110, the logical AND would be 0000, and the line could not be trivally
rejected.

The logical OR of the endpoint codes determines if the line is completely inside the window. If the
logical OR is zero, the line can be trivally accepted. For example, if the endpoint codes are 0000
and 0000, the logical OR is 0000 - the line can be trivally accepted. If the endpoint codes are
0000 and 0110, the logical OR is 0110 and the line can not be trivally accepted.

The more efficient Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm performs initial tests on a line to

determine whether intersection calculations can be avoided.
Steps for Cohen-Sutherland algorithm

1. End-points pairs are check for trivial acceptance or trivial rejected using
the outcode.
2. If not trivial-accepance or trivial-rejected, divided into two segments at a clip
edge.
3. Iteratively clipped by testing trivial-acceptance or trivial-rejected, and divided into
two segments until completely inside or trivial-rejected.

Pseudo-code of Cohen-Sutherland Algorithm.

Trivial acceptance/reject test

To perform trivial accept and reject tests, we extend the edges of the clip rectangle to
divide the plane of the clip rectangle into nine regions. Each region is assigned a 4-bit
code deteermined by where the region lies with respect to the outside halfplanes of the
clip-rectangle edges. Each bit in the outcode is set to either 1 (true) or 0 (false); the 4 bits
in the code correspond to the following conditions:

o Bit 1 : outside halfplane of top edge, above top edge

Y > Ymax
o Bit 2 : outside halfplane of bottom edge, below bottom edge
Y < Ymin
o Bit 3 : outside halfplane of right edge, to the right of right edge
X > Xmax
o Bit 4 : outside halfplane of left edge, to the left of left edge
X < Xmin