f

Ill"

1111

e de

-

-

" - I

-

-

2

'Ii

I

II I

....

-

I

-

-

e r

_._LII:

each of h etal

and unita~ DFf of real images exhibit

or

O ~,~- I c -. """"'""

._.... A..,. . -- '

(5.13)

From this, i" can be shown that ,,(k. I)' as only NZindependent teal elements. FDr e .. mp e, the' amp.es.b . shaded region of .. 'lg. 5.8 determl'_. the ,complete DR

or unitanl OFT (see probl m 5.10.).

Basis im:ges. The llasis images are given by definnoD [see (5.16) and (5.53~1~

_ ~ ..... 1i 1 JW' _,Il.~, l:\ I = ~'I: ~I == N'l. .... '. ,..... n" t

T:o~dln ion ~ I ei cui " con o luti a _ . h T~ fJ

~oremll' me .... , of lhe .' o-

.dimensional. Clr .ul,~-r conv~lu'ion of to" r:rQS " the p~duct oj "heir . . .....-, l\vOadlmenslonal CIrcular convolution of to···

u((m,. n)1 is ,defined as

BE ays him, n) and

Os

< .', -

- '

where

h I(m. n)r =:' h ~'n modulo N n modulo _ '. )

NI2'

(NI2', - 1 N/2

1·8

ImeT ranl"-"'f:Q

Q :...rm,s

Chap 5

(5.12)

~S.l~~ ents, For

II

•

•

•

lIb".n) • 0

M-l

,N -1

•

'"

"

rl, Arr-v. h(m, nl. (b] C reu r. GOnvolut 0 0

him, nl wltl1 u (ml' nl

over N X N reg10n.

, ' pre .9 lWo-dimensional clrculu con olution.

."

JI)

ngure 5.9 shaws the mea I g of clrcul ·f CODVO U· 0 t' t e 5 m en anoere

cxtensi6D of Ii (m •. n) is con olved over: an Ii x regie 'tb u.(m, n~, 'Th two-

d' eoslonaJ. DF1t of h ~m - m ' I" - n ')c for fixed m ' , n' is given by

IJ-

-

-

-

5) a d using tlie

re we have used ~S.7.6). aking tJie D - ~receding esult, e. ob ain'

DFE{ (m ) =

•

•

I •

. aluatin the circLllllir c n oluticn f Ii (tt" n) nd ff,(Ill, 11) C n be s '11' ith the id f .' 5.9 h

(5~82)

P rf e in

I --- 2 .

his mean the two·dlm sional hnar.onvo tit on 0 (5.1·) ·2n o (/Vl log .) operation. ,

lac erreu n or tlo 0' id· ~ both id sc (5 77) .~

the definition 0 . Kro eek r prcdu t. e c bta n

(F ® )96 = 0 ( j ® )

d u ~

. doubly cir ulant and g; is diago I [0] I •.. ,~dld":·· t (m,n)} ,

Eqn .. (5.83) can be v,,~iten as =M

ose lem nts Sire given by

I --

, here.

(5.85)

Ih t is a . 0 bl blo k eireulan a ix i ia 0 liz .. (. 0 .' . nsiDnal unitary D· . From (5.84) and the f . t ransfor . p operry (pag 142.), e conclud that a doub]y block eirculan matrix can be dlagonalized in O(N1 log2 N) opera-

ion, Th eig nvalue of $ gi 'en by the o- ime nsion D· of h (m" ar til

me as opr t ng on the firs lu f " is b . use the elements oft .

first column of 9Cacle th elemen h (,n, n) m by I· xic -r g.

di .. lin '- convolution implies
ur '£11 uon 0 ~r
. :pe d ~ doub' .
I I()
-
. [ o· ed •
I rn Imp 'h t o· ,BI,Qc,k oep,ntz op r h tan d au I block I 0 .

block e ir In' p e . t ,

d1me'nslo'nal unitali)' DFT.

The N x N co ine tran form rnatri ~ J (k )} 1

=\[ ,.'1 ,~ ,0 caned th '. discrete casin·

,rallSfo,:;" (D' ), is d· fin d as

1

k=O 7Sn:=;

c(k, Ii) _ . '~·'IN ....

. '2 co m(21z i)k

.. N 2 - )

(56)

'S'l<N-t

. he 0 e-di

nsion J D

q nee U 1 0 <= n <:

lJt.' -

vet) = cx(k) Lu(n) cos[1T(2n. + I)k: ]

~-o 2'

O-k_N-]

(. )

here

0:(0) ~

. {2 (Ie) = "Ai N

-50

s

C.h p.:

The basis vectors of th c 8 x 8 D" are shaw.n in Fig. 5 .1.igu e ,.10 show, the cosine iran:£: rm oft 1 images, an Ii,' e I own in ' i,g. 5. , DE,e that _ an- trans" m c,efficient a -,' smaUb:t is m st olf the curgy of th data i pack d in a fe '_ra,osIom1 coeffieien IS~

The 'wo-dimensional eosine tr.ansform pair is obtained by substi uting ,=,. == ,', u tS.ll) and ~5.12).· e basi "mig of t e 8 x ,o-dlm=nsion I

10'· in S.2~ l,ilg,ji'S._ shows e·,amp:r' . .to'ft,:-Co_.I-_oe

iges,

150

age: ,can lin','

The inverseransiO' mati.on is given by

-. I' -, ~,' _ N~ 1 lk) ('k-)", , [T(l" +. l)k]

-'.1 '}: - ~ '''\;'' ,'11.1 '. cos ~~2-~

, 0'" , '

~ "-1

(S S91'.'

I. I', e cosi 'e trasform is rea, and orthogon I that i ~ :;> -1 = Cf

"

SeI15 •• 8

1(0,) CD.,s~n'e Iransfo'rm eHBmp~es,of monocnrOml£l lmages;

..• The cosine transtorm IS a fast (Ian· form ... he ·0 ine tram form a·f a ector af N

ilements ca _ . e cal _ J ~_ t· d in Oll( _ IOg2 ) op atiens 18 In .. -poim IT:

[19]. To .. ho thl . de i e a ne e uene u b . re rdermg t .0 and

odd elements ,elf II (II) as

u ~ . ) == f' (211)

Ii ( . - n - ) - I 1(2 +)

Nlow, \1&1 split the uimmation t erm in (5~87) into even and odd terms and use (5" 91)1 to obtain

,'12 + ] .

v(k) ~ .. It) ! u(2·) cos[-'_~' ~~

.... ·10

t5.9t)

Ch :_nging the inde . 0 su mation m tho

Icolmbinin,g t rrns. . obtain

~ I

v(k~=aCk) 2: u(n) eo f1l'(4n+ l)k]

n::O t 2N I

C '12) - 1

+ E u(

n~O

- 1 -I

~mag __ Tran

", ,- 11) ~ - j n' ] =:

N t

, {u (n)J ]

which pr v th _ p ....

- ['1 t, (_ .' I -)'~ Ii

ted sit·

- ,U I":, ' or I,n' ,

,

~' (2n)1 ;: U (2n) ~ Re .. '. rll( Ie) V k)eJ1Tkl2NJ,f' 2,.k/

k=O

The odd data points ar ~ obtam·. d by noting that

Therefore, if we c,alculate the . -point in erse FFr of rhequence o.(k)v(k) ·.'.p(j'R'k/2 ), we can ,al. obtain the in, e_' __ in 0,·' Ig)

o era 'on'. Dire, t.al .orithm tha not r UI- -. a, intermediate 1

..... tha cemnlex arithm tie: I· " vid . , , ar "1·· . pos Ibl-, [1']. 1111- '. omput .

tienal complei ity of. th .. direct as w II as the - based methods is about the

same,

'. 1lli. cosi ietr nsfo m l as excelh rr nerat com ae ion 0- hih·· , J t .. data, . his is due to th . fellowmg p 0 zertie

c. 'The l'ia<'s vectors of the cosine transform (th ,t is, rows of') a. he eigen-

, ecton 0 'th~1 sym _ etric trrid!,, " an -I( ma"ri:,.: -:'fin'"

1 a ....... ,(1

(5~9.5)

.. 1,,·· ..

, '~

-,

-a

o

1""

,

- - - - -- - - -

\ .

•

110 ...

ft,gurf! s~ 13 Examples Q~ Hadamard Iran forms,

un ges 0 tb . ad' . arc t ·anform ,8 e ShO'D n igs. 5.· ,ndS,.2. Eampls of

t o-dll11enional Hdamard i ranstonns ot ims .... are shown i Fig t:'

2. The - I adamard n ansform I a fast transform Th one-dimensional trans-

orma ion ,o'S.lU)iI::an be impl nentec i O( og addi In a d I ub

tractions

Since the Hadamard trans orm contain.s onl ±, alue no multipbca-

tioncre req ired in the tr. nsfann calculation. ,oeD '. I, the number 0 add'ions or . traction re ired can b _educe· om ... 1 to about .... 101:2 · This is due otbe act tha an b ."'. i.'· 0- a p oduct of: n .. parse matric ..

tb,at IS"

c _ ) H - dame OJ Irn_ form af monochram

The

H=

1 1
0 01 t
• • ~
• I ~
II! '"'
1
_- V'2 -----
1 --1 0
0 10 1
• • '"
I
I II
I 0 0 _ T - ·-1

...... -

(5. 1 )

(5.115

0
1 0 0
..
•
•
• 1 f!!! • •

.......

. ~

'1 1

Since ~ co , ins ani wo nonzerc terms t the t

, :: H~ - - fiB ~ . ~ H, n - le'82 '

11'1 '7 #"

4.

(5.U1)

,

can be accomplished I. operating n times on u, Due to .'!. s rue only _ additions or subtraction -_ are required each time - - operate on a vector, giving atotal of Nn ~ /\, ~Dg2 N additions OIJi subtractions.

3. The natural order of the Hadamard transform coefficient turns out to b equal to the bit re' ersed gray code epresentation of its·· qu ncy z ] th sequency s has the bina epres n arion b; bl11-] ••• b, and i the corre pond .. ing gray code is gil g'l I··· I: I , then the bit-reversed representation gl g2 ... 8~ gives the natura- order. Table 5.1 shows: the conversion of sequeney s to natural order h, an . ice versa, for -= 8i ne .. rat,

g, = b.~)b~ I It - 1 , , ,r 1
, . •
g - bPi
1:1-
h = gnl- . t I
and
g.= h,.-k i
b ;;;;:,g ffib _n - 1
.... f - .
, ,. . . (5-118)

f .119)

6,. == Cn

give t~e forward and reve'r:se conversion formulas for (he sequ - ncy and natural ordenng.

4. ~e Hadamard transfo rn ras good to /er - good energ compaction for

highly correlated image. Lei {u (n), 0 s 11!£ - I} be a stationary random

TABLE 5.1 Na ural' Ordering ~ersus Sequ neV Ol'deri1ng of Hadama d Transform, Cae Jelents lOlr N = B

(iray code of. oS or

rev r. e binary epre ntation

" 8281 - hi hth]

Seque cy biry repr senlatl'on bJ lh 6.

~ latu' al order h

A

r· present on

III h 11.

Sequeney s

u 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

000 OOJ 010 01 100 1101

110 Ill]

000 100 010

110 001 101 Oll 111

000 111 011 100 001 1110

0101 1 -,I

n 7 J 4 1 Ii

158

_._. - --. --

~=--- - -

.'

- ,

~' . L

'e ofjj S IOn' . - a

to be [f the po d.

atural

n for "ndodl

..

• •

Ii. •

..

•

I '"

, .

sequence wi.t.n autocorrelation l' en), 0 s n s N - I. The '. ".~ f h- "._ pected. ener~y p:8cked in . the first Nt1J sequency ordered Ha~::::d ~ a~s~o:'

coefficients IS given b¥ [23] _

(NI2I- I) v'

k DI,

1:=0

1JJ A.' [HRH~]

I Q .:

i == _ . ,'. -~ _ k, k ,

1(5.120)

~S.121)

where fJt are the fir.st Nf.1} sequency ordered elements D". Note that the V, are simpl~ the mean square values of 'the transform coefficients [Hu Ii! ~ The si,gnifican'ce o~ 'this result is 'th,at C. C~12/) depends on the first 2! autocorrelations onl.~ .. Fo~ j == I"~ the fractional energ,~ pa.cKed in l'll,e first Nl2 s.eque,ncy. ordered coefficients will be (1 + r·fl)/lr(O)t2 and dep·end, onl~ u.pon the one-step correlation p ~ 1\'(:I)/r(O).. 'fbus for p= 0.9S, 97.5% of the total e'Defgy 'is conce,n'lrated in hair ,of the transform coefficients. T:he result of (5.120) is useful in ca'iculati'ngthe e'nerg~ compaction effi~ienc¥' of the' Hadamard t'f8Dsfo~m ,.

ExampleS.]

Conside~f the covariance matri ., R of (2 68) fon N = 4~ Using the definition of Hz we' obtain

Sequency o

3

o

. - ~

·D di 1 [8 RH- ~ Jj

. = I. lagona . - '2,", 2J - 4"

1 2

5 .•. THE H~A TRANSFORM

Th. -.' .' . . . 'ontinuous inter:val ~ ,e [0, 1], and for

te Haan functions h1c(tx) are define.d,on a C . be t~nue v decomposed as

It == 0 . a,1J, _ 1, . here N·· = 1:l1n' rphe I,oteger It·can e un,. '/I,' .

, · · · ,n· ..L I W, '. _ . ~ , . ..5. 22)

k=W+q-l .

F_gtlfl 5.,1,4, Haar transform of the 2561 X 256 image S.hD in Fig. 5.,16 . .

I. 1'1 -, e. la' r transform is real and orthogo _,I. Therefore

Ht=H-,-

, )

o

)

5 '0-'1 YH ,- "S"· A,INT TR'A"I - '5 '0- 'R--

111 . III . - " ~ IL-H II: 111""_' - -- . -, ..

~. ' r - 5. 5 Sla I trans'orm, Df. th' 156)( . 16 Un , shown 10 'Ig .. 5.6a.

101 11 0 I

I 0 I I 0

b I I -fA b I

an n I~ I' If - '. ,n I

I _- ----'r--

-~-r~m-2 r- 0 ~ 1'.(1)-2

I I I

,~~--:-J----l-O- -=1;:-1"---

o I I l.f I

I I I

....... b n I ~ Ibn a" I

I 'n Wg

___ ,,"---, I ,--,-~---

o II: 112) :I I 0 ! -It

~5~126)

2. The -' aar trans nrm is a er.y fast transterm .. 1,-"0 an -, xl· ctor It can be

implc'mented i IQI ( . operatic ..

,II The 'basis vectors, of the Haar matFi.· are sequeney ordered. 4. The a at transform has poor cner.gy compaction for images.

TheN x Sla t trans.foml matnce ' are defined by, . be recursion

1

III '" ,c;,

v'2