SWRK1002 2009

Child Welfare Services - SWRK 1002
CHILD WELFARE SERVICES

SWRK 1002
SUPPORT MATERIALS
GEE module
Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
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CONTRIBUTORS
CHILD WELFARE SERVICES - SWRK 1002 was prepared for the Centre for Professional
Development and Lifelong Learning, University of Mauritius. The Pro-Vice Chancellor – Teaching
and Learning acknowledges the contribution of the following persons:
Course Author : Mrs Satinder Ragobur, Associate Professor, Faculty of Social Studies and
Humanities.
Course Reviewers : Professor Anne-Marie Mawhiney and Professor Sheila Hardy, from the
School of Social Work, Laurentian University, Canada. The course was
developed under the CIDA-Laurentian-UOM link project.
The University of Mauritius is also very grateful to all institutions and publishing companies who
allowed the course author to reprint materials for use in this manual. The University is especially
thankful to those local institutions who granted the permission gratis.
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All rights reserved. No part of the work may be reproduced in any form, without the
written permission from the University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
About the Course
Unit 1 Introduction to Key Concepts
Unit 2 International Perspectives
Unit 3 The Situation of Children in Mauritius
Unit 4 Professional Roles and Interventions
Unit 5 Child Poverty
Unit6 Child Abuse and Neglect
Unit 7 Child Protection
Unit 8 Overview of Children in Special Circumstances
Unit 9 Children with Disabilities/Special Needs
Unit 10 Direct Intervention
Unit 11 Indirect Intervention
Unit 12 Comparative Studies in Social Work with Children-

Mauritius and Elsewhere
Readings File
Assignment File
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ABOUT THE COURSE
CHILD WELFARE SERVICES - SWRK 1002, is a general elective module.
The aim of this module is to strengthen your knowledge of those concepts and components
related to child welfare services.
This module informs you on concepts of childhood, needs of children and social response. We
also learn about the importance of children in society and how social workers and other
professionals are striving for their well-being in society. Both international and local contexts
are used to enhance your understanding of those concepts and components related to child
welfare.
The material in this course is presented in a way that is intended to enable you to understand the
importance of child welfare from a multi-sectoral perspective and role of the average citizen in
producing welfare.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THE COURSE

By the end of the course, you will be able to do the following:
Unit 1 • Explain key concepts related to childhood.

• Outline the developmental needs of children.
• Outline how cultural and gender differences affect families.
Unit 2 • Analyse the situation of children in the following: Industrial countries, Newly
Industrialised countries and, Developing countries.
• Outline the measures adopted by various international organisations towards child
welfare.
Unit 3 • Evaluate the progress made in Mauritius regarding child welfare.

• Analyse where the country is moving and what could be done in the future to further
improve the situation of the Mauritian child.
Unit 4 • Outline the tasks and functions of social work practice as it relates to children.
• Identify the role of individuals, families, organisations and the community in
working with children.
• Identify the professions that are mandated to intervene in the development of child
welfare services and child well-being.
Unit 5 • Examine the socio-economic factors that result in child poverty in

Mauritius.
• Identify programmes and services that can be developed to
assist children in poverty.
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Unit 6 • Identify key concepts related to child abuse and neglect.

• List the causes and symptoms of child abuse in Mauritius.
Unit 7 • Outline the philosophy and aims of child protection.

• Examine various strategies for risk assessment, planning and intervention.
• Identify cases of children in special circumstances.

Unit 8 • Assess the skills, knowledge and methods that are needed in social work with
children in special circumstances.
Unit 9 • Identify the specialised services that are needed to assist children with special needs,
including physical and emotional disabilities.
• Identify ways through which services are channelled to children.
Unit 10 • Identify direct intervention techniques for working with high risk children.
• Identify direct social work intervention strategies that are appropriate for the
Mauritian context that will provide culturally-sensitive services for children and their
families living in Mauritius.
Unit 11 • Identify indirect intervention techniques for working with organisations, communities
and society.
Unit 12 • Review key issues related to children in Mauritius and compare various settings and
services that are presently offered in Mauritius.
• Suggest possible kinds of services that could be developed in Mauritius, including
prevention and advocacy programmes, to improve conditions for children and their
families.
HOW TO PROCEED
COURSE MATERIALS
The manual is self-contained and readings from most of the articles and journals are in the
READINGS FILE.
When the manual indicates that the readings are not included, get organised to have the readings
handy for the respective lecture at the very beginning of the course. The manual will inform you
whether these readings are available at the University of Mauritius Library.
During the class, your lecturer will also suggest additional readings. Make sure you have access
to these information and that you do not rely solely on the readings included in the manual.
Though we have ensured that the activities are not based directly on readings not included in the
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manual, reading additional materials will help you get a more complete view of certain problems
and hence approach the activities better equipped. The readings will also be useful when
preparing for the assignments.
Some of the books from which certain chapters and articles are borrowed are available in the
library. Feel free to consult these books to deepen your knowledge about social work with
children and also to prepare assignments.
So, do not restrict yourself to the Readings File and use materials suggested by your lecturer and
available either in the library or with your lecturer to complete the course more effectively.
HOW DO I USE THE COURSE MANUAL?
Take a few minutes now to glance through the entire manual to get an idea of its structure.
Notice that the format of the different units is fairly consistent throughout the manual. For
example, each unit begins with a UNIT STRUCTURE, an OVERVIEW and a list of
LEARNING OBJECTIVES.
The UNIT STRUCTURE identifies the main topics in the Unit.
The OVERVIEW provides a brief introduction of the unit, where the course author “talks
about” the unit.
You should then read the LEARNING OBJECTIVES. These objectives identify the
knowledge and skills you will have acquired once you have successfully completed the study of
a particular unit. They also show the steps that will eventually lead to the successful completion
of the course. The learning objectives also provide a useful guide for review.
WHERE DO I BEGIN?
You should begin by taking a look at the TABLE OF CONTENTS in the MANUAL. The
table provides you with a framework for the entire course and outlines the organisation and
structure of the material you will be covering. The Course Map indicates how you should
allocate your workload and what you should be working on in each week to be ready for the
respective lecture. As far as possible, stick to the Course Map to ensure that you are working at a
steady space and that your workload does not pile up.
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COURSE MAP
Week Unit Topic Submission of

Assignment
1 1 Overview of Course &
Introduction to Key Concepts
2 2 International Perspectives
3 3 The Situation of Children in Mauritius
4 4 Professional Roles and Interventions
5 5 Child Poverty
6 6 Child Abuse and Neglect
7 7 Child Protection
8 8 Children in Special Circumstances
9 9 Children with Disabilities/Special Needs Assignment 1
10 10 Direct intervention
11 11 Indirect intervention
12 12 Comparative Studies in Social Work with Children-
Mauritius and Elsewhere
13-15 Wrap- up/Revision
ASSESSMENT
→ COURSE GRADING SCHEME:
Continuous Assessment: 30 marks

Examinations: 70 marks
→ CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT:
Assignment 1 - Refer to Assignment File at the end of the binder.
→ FINAL EXAMINATIONS:
Q Scheduled and administered by the Registrar’s Office
Q A two-hour paper at the end of the Semester.
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STUDY TIPS
Much of your time in the course will be spent reading. Your comprehension and assessment of
what you read are likely to be best if you heed the following tips:
1. Organise your time. It is best to complete each assigned reading in one sitting. The
logical progression of thought in a chapter/unit can be lost if it is interrupted.
2. Be an active reader. Use question marks to flag difficult or confusing passages. Put
exclamation marks beside passages you find particularly important. Write short
comments in the margins as you go. For example, if you disagree with an author’s
argument or if you think of examples which counter the position presented, note your
opinions in the margin.
If you prefer to leave your book pages unmarked, you can make your notations on “post-
it-notes”.
3. Read critically. You must evaluate, as well as appreciate and understand, what you
read. Ask questions. Is the author’s argument logical? Are there alternatives to the
author’s explanations or to the conclusions drawn? Does the information fit with your
experience?
4. Take notes. If you make notes on an article or chapter right after finishing it, you reap a
number of benefits. First, note-taking allows you an immediate review of what you have
just read. (You will find that this review helps you recall information). Second, it gives
you an opportunity to reassess your flagged or margin comments. Finally, it gives you a
second shot at deciphering any confusing passages.
5. Review your scribbling! Whether or not you make separate notes on your readings,
review your flags, underlining and marginalia. Study closely those passages you
considered significant or difficult.
6. Write down your ideas in a course journal. As you progress through the course, the
new information you absorb will stimulate new thoughts, questions, ideas, and insights.
These may not be directly related to the subject matter, but may be of great interest to
you. Use these ideas to focus your personal involvement in this and other courses.
7. Your ability to explain the subject matter to others is a good test of your true
comprehension of the material. Try explaining the material you are learning to others,
classmates or friends, without resorting to jargon. Even if some of them are not directly
involved with the techniques discussed in this course, many of the concepts may be of
interest to them.
8. Activities found in units will not be marked. We strongly recommend that you do not
skip any of them. They will help you prepare for the graded assignments.
Now, it’s time to get to work. Good luck and enjoy the course!
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UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS
Unit Structure
1.0 Overview
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 “Children”
1.2.1 Child Population
1.2.2 Children, the Family and the State
1.3 Child Development Theory
1.4 Child Welfare and Developmental Needs of Children
1.4.1 The Philosophical Issues in Child Welfare
1.5 Diversity in Status and Well-being of Children
1.6 Review Questions
1.7 Summary
1.0 OVERVIEW
Unit 1 explains key concepts related to children and child welfare, such as childhood, child
development process, and needs of children. This unit provides the basic framework for your
understanding of the role of ‘professionals in child welfare’. We also discuss how gender and
culture affect the conditions of children.
Issues, such as are children the sole responsibility of the parents and the degree of state
intervention in child care are raised. These issues are still ongoing debates. This unit only
brushes on them and does not really go into the depth of the debates. But they are important
debates to keep in mind as you work through this course.
Definition of these key concepts are useful for the application of welfare policies to children;
applications will be discussed in the other units.
You will notice that the readings in this unit tend to be based on works of European and
American theorists. As far as possible, the concepts are put in a more general perspective so that
their applications become more universal. Examples from the Mauritian context have been
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included to provide for a deeper understanding of the concepts.
1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit, you will be able to do the following:
1. Define “Children”.
2. Identify the trend in child population.
3. Explain the link between the degree of state intervention and the status of children in
society.
4. Explain how developmental theory has shaped our notion of childhood.
5. List the main differences between the child and the adult.
6. List the developmental needs of children.
7. Relate the concept “in the best interest of the child” to child welfare policies.
8. Explain the relationship between family problems and child welfare services.
9. Outline how gender and cultural differences affect children and hence, child welfae
services.
WARM UP ACTIVITY
(1) How would you define childhood?

(2) What do you believe children require for satisfactory growth and development?
(3) What is the mission of child welfare?
(4) Why should society be concerned with promoting child welfare?
(5) Do you feel that the needs of children are given enough priority in our society?
Record your answers on a separate sheet of paper. During your lecture, you will be asked to
compare your response before and after you have gone through Unit 1.
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1.2 “CHILDREN”
There is no one single perspective for understanding child and childhood. We can try to
understand the concept of Child/Children in terms of age, social roles, status, physical attributes,
psychological, and development contexts. The following explanations provide some insights.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child defines the child as “every human being below the
age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.”
“Children” are defined as “ youngsters who are under the legal age of responsibility or
emancipation: in most states, this age is 18 years”.
R L Barker - Social Work Dictionary, 2nd Edition. NASW Press. 1991.
Mayall, B. (2002: P:20) has proposed that “children are best regarded as a minority social
group”. Childhood is a time of dependency and subordination. The sociology of children seeks
to understand the experiences of children, commonality between children and children as a social
group. Sociologists are now focussing on the study of sociology of childhood. (Refer to
additional reading).
In Mauritius, individuals below the age of 18 years (but 20 years, if they are still at school) are
considered to be children.
Childhood is defined as “the early stage in the human life span, characterised by rapid physical
growth and efforts to learn how to assume adult roles and responsibilities, mostly through play
and formal education”. Many developmental psychologists say this stage occurs after infancy
and lasts until puberty (that is from approximately 18-24 months to 12-14 years) or until
adulthood (18-24 years). This stage is sometimes divided into early childhood (from end of
infancy to about age 6) and middle or late childhood (from 6 years to, or through, adolescence).
R L Barker - Social Work Dictionary, 2nd Edition. NASW Press. 1991.
Explanations about childhood tend to focus on when childhood ends. For example, once
individuals attain the age of 18, they are no longer children. Definitions about childhood refrain
from addressing the start of childhood. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC
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hereafter) intentionally avoids addressing the question of the moment when childhood begins so
as to avoid getting into debates on abortion and pre-built issues. Article 1 of CRC in Argentina
declares that it must be interpreted from moment of conception to 18 years: (Implementation
Handbook from the CRC Unicef 1998, P: 3)
Sociological Perspectives: The Sociology of childhood is concerned with understanding how

children experience childhood, how it is enacted and childhood as a permanent social category,
(Reference Mayall – B. 2002)
Usually, children are raised by their biologically parent/parents. Some children may be adopted
by adults who may or may not have biological links with the child. In Mauritius, sterile couples
in the past are known to have adopted the child of their close relatives. Children living in
orphanages may also get adopted. However, it is not the policy of some child care institutions
(orphanages) to give children for adoption. Example, the Policy of the SOS children Village, a
global child care organisation which also has a branch in Mauritius does not give children for
adoption.
1.2.1 Child Population
Children below fifteen years represent about 32% of the world population. However, variations
exist among countries, as reflected by Table 1.1 that follows:
Table 1.1: Child Population

REGIONS % OF POPULATION
AGED LESS THAN 15
YEARS
More developed regions: include
Western Europe, North America, 19
Australia and Japan
Less developed regions: include
regions in Africa, Asia and 35
Caribbean
Least developed regions: include
48 countries, 33 of which is in 45
Africa, 9 in Asia and Latin
America
Source: http/www.undp.org/popin/wd trends/pop/hpopawld.htm.
The more developed regions are experiencing low population growth and thus low fertility,
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whereas in the least developed regions which comprise the world’s poorest regions, fertility is
high and children represent a larger percentage of the total populations. Some societies today
have views and policies concerning limiting population growth and the number of children per
couple. China for example, has a “one child per one couple” policy. There are some regions in
Europe where the population growth is below replacement level. Such societies may therefore
need to develop social policies that encourage couples to have more children.
In Mauritius, birth rates were high during the first half of the century, but population grew
slowly because infant mortality was high. However, from the 1950’s, with control of malaria
and other infectious diseases, child population grew rapidly and Mauritius experienced what
demographics refer to as ‘ the Baby Boom’.
Thus when population grows rapidly, children represent a greater proportion of the population
and as population growth stabilises, the percentage of child population to total population
decreases. Table 1.2A and 12B contains data on the age composition of the population in
Mauritius.
Table 1.2A
AGE COMPOSITION POPULATION
Age 1972 1983 1990 2000

Grou Male Female B.Sexe Male Female B.Sexe Male Female B.Sexe Male Female B.Sexe
s s s s
p
0-4 12.6 12.4 12.4 11.9 11.6 11.7 9.3 9.1 9.2 8.2 7.9 8
5-14 28.2 27.7 28 21.1 20.5 20.8 20.8 20.3 20.5 17.5 16.9 17.2
15-44 42.7 42.7 42.7 49.9 49.2 49.6 52 50.3 51.1 51.5 50 50.8
45-59 11.4 10.6 11 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.6 11.1 10.9 14.8 15 14.9
60+ 5.2 6.6 5.9 6.2 7.8 7.0 7.3 9.2 8.3 8 10.2 9.1
Source: Housing and Population Census Data: CSO, Government of Mauritius.
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Table 1.2 B
CHILD POPULATION (REPUBLIC OF MAURITIUS)

CENSUS YEARS 1962-1990
CENSUS MALE FEMALE TOTAL SEX

DATE RATIO
1962 179842 177698 357540 98.8

1972 205014 201584 406598 98.3
1983 199123 195210 394333 98
1990 488789 184474 373263 97.7
2000 183027 179018 362045 97.8
Activity 1
i. Write down 3 aspects of children and child population which you have learned in this
section and which you did not know before.
ii. Is there anything you disagree with from this section? Explain your answer.
Activity 2
i. Where does Mauritius fit in Table 1.1? (Use data from Table 1.2.)
ii. Using Table 1.2A and 1.2B, identify the changes that occurred in the proportion of child
population between 1962 and 2000.
1.2.2 Children, the Family and the State
Most children are born in families and live in families with their biological parents or with
adopted, step or foster families. Some children live in “homes” for children traditionally referred
as orphanages. In contemporary society the terminology “child care institutions” is used instead
of orphanage. However both the terms orphanage and institution carry some stigma. “Home” is
a better term.
Parents understand childhood as a social status characterised by the need to protect children and
parental duty to provide for the safety of the child. (Mayall B. P:60)
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Children’s identities are dependent on their parents and it is the parents’ responsibility to look
after the welfare, and developmental needs of their children. Interventions by the State through
professionals like social work, police, teachers and doctors occur mainly when parents do not
seem to be able to ensure the well being or welfare of their children. This may happen due to
illness, dysfunctioning of the parental role, poverty and lack of resources, etc.
Sociologists also speak of the ‘Scholarisation of childhood’. Children spend a lot of time at
school and bring schoolwork home.
The issues to bear in mind for the rest of the course are:
• Is the child the responsibility of the parents only? Should they be? Why?
• What is parental responsibility? What rights do parents have?
• Under what circumstances is state intervention appropriate and when is it an unwanted
intrusion into the privacy of the home?
• How far should social institutions ‘intrude’?
• What is the relevance of the above questions to the importance of child welfare services?
Activity 3
i. What is parental responsibility?
ii. What rights do parents have?
1.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Development theories highlight the idea that children are ‘different at different ages’ and that
they are not ‘miniature adults’. Psychologists seek to understand how individuals learn and
develop as a child in interaction with others.
Childhood is a series of crucial phases or stages in the developmental process of all children. In
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order to develop fully as healthy and well-integrated adults, children have special needs that we
have to pay attention to, such as survival and physical well being, love and security, a safe and
healthy environment, opportunities for learning and positive experiences. Denial of needs,
particularly in the first three years of the child’s life, can have negative effects on the physical
growth and personality of the child and the effects may be irreversible.
The “Developmental needs’ of children are raised in the next section.
Activity 4
Identify the several differences between children and adults.
Activity 5
i. From what you have read on the development perspectives, what constitute the
developmental needs of childhood?
ii. What did you learn from the readings you did not know before? Is there anything in the
readings you disagree with?
1.4 CHILD WELFARE AND DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN
Theories about human growth and development confirm that childhood experiences affect the
quality of adult life. Therefore, it is logical that society should create and provide positive
experiences for children. Paradoxically, concerns over the needs of children and their welfare
are often relegated to a secondary position for various reasons. But society needs to change this
existing state of affairs by educating parents and communities at large. Concern for the well
being of children has been promoted by the United Nations through the convention on the Rights
of the Child
The needs of children are the concern for social and family policy.
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Laws and legislation support the intervention of professionals at the level of the community and
the family. In most cases, professionals like psychologists and social workers work with both
the child and the family (natural or adopted) and the intervention is always based on the principle
of “ in the best interest of the child’.
Definition of Child Welfare:
‘Child welfare is that part of human services and social welfare programmes and
ideologies oriented towards the protection, care and healthy development of
children. Child welfare measures are found in national, state and local
programmes and are usually designed to prevent conditions that interfere with
the healthy and positive development of children.”
R L Barker - Dictionary of Social Work, 2nd Edition. NASW Press. 1991.
Key Concerns of Child Welfare are based on:
Promoting child survival, health and nutrition, day care, and support to family,
education, safe environment and access to healthy physical activity. The
Convention on the Rights of the Child provides guidelines for society for promoting
child welfare. These concerns safeguard gratification of developmental needs.
Children develop along a range of developmental dimensions. These include health,

education, family, social relations, emotional and psychological development, self care
and behaviour. Inadequacy or dysfunction of any of these dimensions can cause a child
to be in need.
Some Fields of Practice in Child Welfare:
Adoption services, foster care, residential care, family support services, child
protection services, organised leisure, school social work, day care support, family
counselling, family life education and child health care support services (Children
in Hospitals, Children and AIDS, Substance Abuse, etc).
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The welfare of children is a multidisciplinary undertaking involving key sectors like health,
education, social security, media, environment and welfare services. Each sector may view the
child from its specific perspective; e.g., for the correctional services, differences are drawn
between the child and the juvenile.
1.4.1 The Philosophical Issues in Child Welfare
“Children and grown-ups are not natural enemies. But grown-ups themselves have
little real control over their lives. They often feel trapped by the economic and
political forces. Children suffer as a result of this. Co-operation is possible when
grown-ups have realised this and have started to do something about it.”
The Little Red School Book, 1971,
as quoted in ‘The Politics of Child Welfare, Inequality, Power and
Change’.
p128, N. Frost & M. Stein. (1989). Harvester Wheatsheaf.
All policies and interventions designed to promote the welfare of children must relate to the
social, economic and cultural environment as well as incorporate philosophical considerations.
The first stand is that every child has a right to a family and to grow up in a loving and nurturing
environment. To mature and develop a well-balanced personality, the child needs to experience
(positive) parenting from both parents (mother and father). Therefore, if this is true, then every
effort must be made to provide children with a nurturing and protective family environment.
This view legitimises the need to strengthen effective parenting and mandates intervention in
family matters. Hence, policies must be designed to promote and strengthen the families.
The law in Mauritius recognises the right of the parents to raise and educate their child according
to their belief. Parental authority is shared by husband and wife. The child is under the
responsibility of parents/legal guardian until age eighteen.
Decisions about the needs of children and families, therefore, must be based upon what is “in the
best interests of children”. It is also argued that rights of both the children and the parents
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should be considered. In determining what is best for the child, the least detrimental alternative
should be considered. For example, if the family is not functioning properly because there is a
continuous risk of violence from an alcoholic parent, then it is not in the interest of the child to
remain in the family and be exposed to violence. It could be less detrimental for the child to live
in a boarding school or with grandparents/foster parents.
Under what circumstances should the state intervene into family matters? The family is
considered to be a very private institution and globally, state intervention into family matters is
not welcome and is considered to be an intrusion. When state intervention occurs, it is based on
the doctrine of paren patriae. This doctrine refers to the role of the state as the guardian of
people who are unable to care for themselves. This concept is often used in court settings in
deciding to intervene in family matters such as custody of children, divorce, disputes, removal of
children from family home. In using this authority, what is being said is that a child is not the
absolute property of a parent and the state relies on the parents to look after the child. In other
words, paren patriae refers to the responsibility of the court to act as a parent to the child if the
parents fail to provide proper care for the child. So ‘parenthood” is a ‘trust granted to the
parent by the state and society’. Thus, when families or institutions fail, the state steps in to
safeguard the interests and well being of children. Some views maintain that state intervention
should only become mandated if parents request for it. Other views advocate that the child is a
vulnerable citizen and if parents fail to provide proper care and nurture, their children should be
removed from their care.
In Mauritius children who become unmanageable may be removed from parental authority and
placed in a home. Similarly, parents who neglect or abuse children, can have their children
taken from them and placed in a home or other foster care.
However, to what extent should parents be held responsible for the welfare of their child? What
should be done to a mother who fails to protect her young child from injury inflicted by her
drunken partner? Parents may be experiencing difficulties which have consequences on their
children. Parental responsibility includes provision of adequate nutrition, shelter, safety and
protection from emotional and physical harm, play and exercise, education and development
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experiences for developing social skills and moral and spiritual guidance. Parents must be able
to provide role models for their children.
The philosophical considerations provide direction for the development of policies and
intervention for child development and welfare.
Best Interests
• The best interests of the child to be a Primary Consideration in “All Actions concurring
(concerning) children.
• Support a Child-Centred Approach in Actions & Decisions
• Mediating principle to resolve confusion between rights
• Base for evaluating Laws & Practices of States Parties
Ref. UNICEF
References
1. Social Work and Social Welfare An Introduction. (1992). Heffernan, Shuttlesworth &
Ambrosino. West Pub. USA
2. Dictionary of Social Work. (1991). Barker R.L. NASW Press
3. The Essentials of Child Welfare (2003) Rodney, A.E. et al. John Wihey & Sons.
The reading for this section covers some basic philosophical issues. The literature is from North
America but the concepts introduced are universal. Most societies accord the highest priority to
children in their development programmes, although the impact may not always be
commensurate with inputs. One big challenge is to bring abrupt change in attitude and thinking
concerning children. Children are dependants, and have few legal rights on their own. Parents
and caretakers must be continually empowered with knowledge related to child survival and
development. When adults intervene or take decisions for children, these interventions must
always be based on what is in the best interest of the child, as opposed to the interest of parents
or institutions.
Reading 1
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(a) The Best Interests of the Child- Social Work and Social Welfare An Introduction.
Heffernan, Shuttlesworth, Ambrosino. West Publishing, USA (1992), pp 216-217.
(b) Best Interests of the Child – By James R. Himes, Director, UNICEF International,
Child Development Centre. Published jointly by the UNICEF International Child
Development Centre and Clarendon Press. Permission to reprint from UNICEF,
MAURITIUS.
Reading 2
Mission Statement and Objectives – Extract from National Children’s Policy (Mauritius, 2003).
Activity 6
In your own words, define the term “child welfare”.
Activity 7
Identify some of the circumstances that may require child welfare services.
Activity 8
Give some examples of how the concept “best interest of the child” gets translated into action in
our society.
1.5 DIVERSITY IN STATUS AND WELL BEING OF CHILDREN
The well being of children requires assessing the status of children using indicators of health,
safety, poverty, law breaking and crime, psychological and emotional well being, living
conditions, safety, education and training, leisure and so forth. Above all, children need to be
wanted and loved.
Childhood is a universal human condition but is experienced differently due to variations in

family situations as well as the influence of class, culture, and gender. These factors affect the
definition and experience of childhood. The patriarchal system that operates in most societies
relegates women, and thus the girl-child, to an inferior position whereby girls may be denied
certain legal rights and social privileges. In some societies, girls are considered as a burden (e.g.
August 2009 13
because of customs of dowry/marriage expenses). The birth of a female child is thus viewed as a
sad event. Female infanticide is still practised covertly in some societies even though it may not
be legally sanctioned.
In contemporary societies, it has been reported that the preference for a male child explains the
high incidence of abortion of the female foetus (for example, in India and China). There is a
global movement emanating from the Fourth World Conference on Women to end
discrimination against the girl child. The profession of social work is committed to promote
gender equality and to end negative cultural practices, like circumcision of the female child.
Activity 9
Identify some differences in the conditions of children which emanate from the social class of
their parents.
Activity 10
Identify some reasons as to why girls may be considered a burden by parents and society.
Readings 3
1. The Girl Child - Beijing’s Fourth World Conference on Women

2. Basic Fact Sheet on the Girl Child In Mauritius. The Situation of the Girl Child (1-4) in
the Republic of Mauritius. The Women Advisory Panel, MFPA.
3. A Statistical Profile on children in the Republic of Mauritius. Ministry of Women,
Family Welfare and Child Development, June 2000.
4. Disabled Resident Population by sex, age, marital status and type of disability (Republic
of Mauritius, Year 2000).
Activity 11
Make a summary presentation on the profile of the child population of Mauritius, based on
Readings 3. What has happened between 1990 and 2000?
1.6 REVIEW QUESTIONS
August 2009 14
1. Summarise how children are different from adults biologically, socially and legally.
2. What are the essential ingredients that parents must provide to children to achieve healthy
maturation and development? Is the average parent in Mauritius aware of the inputs?
Discuss your answer.
3. What changes are evident in Mauritius with respect to girls?
1.7 SUMMARY
1. Children are different from adults biologically, socially and legally. Children are
dependent on parents/guardians who are responsible for their development and welfare.
2. Child development is a sequential process. Growth achieved at a given stage is
dependent on the achievements and success of the previous stage. For a successful
growth experience, children need nurturing, protection, guidance, encouragement and lots
of love.
3. The fundamental needs of children must be satisfied. ‘Family’ is the most important and
significant institution for children. Children are born into families and grow up in
families. The more the family fails, or performs poorly its child care responsibilities, the
greater the burden on society for child care and protection, and for addressing the
consequences of child neglect, deprivation and abuse. But the conditions of children are
not to be determined by the parents only as we must consider the social contexts in which
the child/parent relationship operate. Moreover, there seems to be resentment about state
intervention into the privacy of the family, through child welfare services.
4. Child care services are intended to help children and their families. Social workers seek
to create conditions that foster the interests and welfare of children, by supporting and
strengthening the family in relation to child care functions. Social workers may also
work directly with children. All social work/collective interventions operate on the
principle ‘in the best interest of the child’.
5. Cultural norms and practices shape child rearing and socialisation process. The
patriarchal system of social organisation tends to look down upon the girl-child. Social
workers need to mobilise social change to promote attitudes and practices that facilitate
August 2009 15
equal treatment for both boys and girls with respect to developmental needs.
Additional Readings
(These will not be included in the manual. You must use the Reserve Section).
Mayall, B. (2002). Towards a Sociology of Childhood. Open University Press P: 5-25.
August 2009 16
UNIT 2 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
Unit Structure
2.0 Overview
2.2 “First Call for Children”
2.3 International Mandate
1.4 Application and Regional Realities
2.6 Summary
2.0 OVERVIEW
Unit 2 presents the global concern and consensus on child welfare. This unit familiarises you
with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the World Summit Goals. This
international commitment lends direction and support for regional and national policies and
action in Mauritius as well as throughout other parts of the world. Normally, this commitment is
very significant for welfare services for children.
We also study how local realities and constraints can limit the full application of the
international mandate.
1. Explain the proposition ‘first call for children’.
2. Explain why societies need to address child welfare issues.
3. Analyse the objectives of the following:

(a) World Summit Goals for Children,
(b) the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child,
August 2009 17
(c) the African Charter on the Rights & Welfare of Children.
4. Evaluate how the goals of the following get translated into reality:
(a) World Summit Goals for Children,
(b) the UN Convention on the Rights & Children.
5. Analyse how the situation of children differ in industrialised, newly industrialised and
industrialising societies, with respect to survival, nutrition, education, development and
protection.
WARM UP ACTIVITY
1. In what ways is it possible to have a global objective for child welfare? What are the
problems or limitations of the idea of a global objective?
2. Based on your own knowledge, list some action/activities which the UN has undertaken to
improve the welfare and conditions of children.
• Record your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Be prepared to discuss your answers with
your peers during the lecture.
2.2 “FIRST CALL FOR CHILDREN”
Reading 1
• First Call for Children - UNICEF.
It is universally acknowledged that children require protection, nurturing, care and guidance.
These basic requirements should be the right of all children. Unfortunately, many children the
world over are denied adequate nurturing and protection. Poverty, war, inadequate parenting,
racism and consumer culture (characterised by the pursuit of adult consumption priorities and
August 2009 18
economic development priorities) relegate children’s needs to a secondary consideration. “First

call for children” demands putting the children and their needs as the first priority.
Activity 1
What ideas are central to the proposition “First Call for Children”?
Activity 2
Based on your present knowledge, what are two urgent priorities for children in Mauritius?
Activity 3
What could be some of the obstacles to “first call for children”?
2.3 INTERNATIONAL MANDATE
The Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 20th
November, 1989. It is to be recalled that in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the UN
has proclaimed that children are entitled to special care and assistance and that for the full and
harmonious development of the personality, children should be reared in a “family environment
in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding”. The preamble to the Convention
stresses that “the child, by reason of physical and mental immaturity, needs special safeguards
and care, including legal protection before, as well as, after birth”.
When world leaders met at the World Summit for Children in New York in 1990, they
committed themselves to promote the welfare of children through the translation of the principle
“first call for children” to guide policy and action.
This global commitment needs to be strengthened at regional and national levels. In many
countries of Europe, once an international convention is signed, it automatically becomes part of
national policy and legislation. However, in most countries including Mauritius, this is not the
case. Therefore, the commitment to “first call for children” needs to be strengthened and it is by
August 2009 19
analysing the way other countries are integrating this principle into child care policy that we can
establish better ways of doing the same here.
Ever since its creation, the UN and its agencies like the UNICEF, UNESCO, UNFPA and WHO,
along with the various International conferences (for instance, the International Conference on
Population and Development, World Summit for Social Development and the Beijing
Conference) have striven to improve the conditions of children.
These organisations act as global mechanisms for advocacy and support services to the different
societies of the world, by drawing attention to children’s needs and their entitlement. The
strength of having a global agenda and supportive mechanisms is that global thinking allows for
integrated, collaborative and co-operative action in order to meet basic needs of children, with
sensitivity to continuity and sustainability. For example, in Mauritius, the World Food
Programme provided food supplements (cheese, bread milk and dry fruits) to primary school
children. The programme is being phased out in Mauritius because Mauritius has improved its
child health standards. The programme is still operational in Rodrigues. The World Food
Programme is thus able to give support to more needy and poorer nations in the African Regions.
Activity 4
Explain what you understand by international policies on children. Make a list of at least three
international policies.
Reading 2
1. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989.
2. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1998, Unicef (Full
Report).
3. United Nations Standard minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice (Beijing
Rules), 1985.
Reading 3
• African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990.
August 2009 20
Reading 4
• World Summit Goals for Children, 1990.
Activity 5
What is the difference between “UN Convention on the Rights of the Child” and “the World
Summit Goals for Children”?
Activity 6
Briefly compare and contrast the African Charter on the Rights of the Child, 1990 and the UN
convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989. Which ideas seem most relevant to the Mauritian
context?
Activity 7
What key issues in the World Summit Goals for Children, 1990 regarding child survival and
protection, are pertinent to Mauritius?
August 2009 21
2.4 APPLICATION AND REGIONAL REALITIES
The global perspective on child welfare shows that the UN system has spearheaded thinking on
children’s issues to make societies conscious that basic needs of children must be met and that
children are individuals entitled to rights.
This thinking needs to be translated in a widely acceptable and popular fashion in all societies so
that the concern for children does not go down in history as a ‘passing event’. Basically,
children are the same the world over. Their needs are the same and therefore they must be given
equal opportunities to maximise their growth potential.
The UN system must continue to sustain its advocacy and support so that differences in child
survival, nutritional status, and access to education etc., do not discriminate against children
living in societies less well off.
Thus, though it is acknowledged that basic needs of children are universal, the social and
economic resources required to meet the needs are not universally available. They vary from
society to society, depending on, among other things, the level of economic growth achieved by
the countries.
Obviously, poorer and less developed countries have fewer means to promote child welfare
through investment in health, food availability, education and environmental infrastructures. As
a result, less developed countries tend to have higher rates of infant and child mortality, poor
growth, higher levels of child illiteracy and child labour. These problems are further exacerbated
by class and gender factors (for example, working class families may not be convinced about
higher education for their children; girls may be denied education because they are needed at
home; the belief that education is less essential for girls).
However, higher economic growth (i.e. upward mobility) does not automatically mean better
standards of living for children. There are some problems that crop up because of economic
development. For instance, family and community networks are weaker in developed countries
when compared with less developed countries. Children in developed countries are more prone
August 2009 22
to neglect and isolation, thus placing them more at risk emotionally and also physically (for
example, ‘Latch Key’ children). Table 2.1 (from Reading 5) shows some very basic differences
with respect to children in developing, newly industrialised and industrialised societies.
In 1997, UNICEF reported that there are 140 million children over the world who are not
attending schooling. Although 80% of the world’s children have been immunised, 20% are still
are not adequately covered. Around 1,000 children around the world die of AIDS every day.
Millions of children work and live in conditions that have negative effects on their health and
development. In many countries, there is still no separate legal provision to deal with children
who get in conflict with law. The CRC is very clear with respect to capital punishment - no
capital punishment for individuals below the age of 18 years and no recruitment of children into
armed forces and participation of individuals under 15 years in hostilities.
Reading 5
• Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
INDICATOR DEVELOPING MAURITIUS INDUSTRIALSIED

COUNTRIES (NEWLY COUNTRIES
(Poorest nations) INDUSTRIALISED
COUNTRY)
Life Expectancy 62.8 69.3 76
Infant Mortality 74 18.6 09
(per 1,000 live births)
Under-five Mortality 112 21.4 11
Low Birth Weight 19% 9% 6%
Maternal mortality 420 40 26
*% Underweight (moderate and 33 24 0-Not Available
severe, 1980-1989)
*Child Literacy-Primary Male Female Male Female Male Female
Enrolments 1989-1990 52 38 94 95 97 97
*Economic Growth: GNP per capita -1.1 5.3 1.9
(average annual growth,1980-1989
Source: Situation Analysis of Women and Children, 1994, UNICEF, Mauritius.
* State of the World’s Children, UNICEF. Oxford Press, 1992.
August 2009 23
Additional Data on Children:
Under five mortality: Some facts
1. There are some 38 countries that have very high under 5 years mortality rates(U5MR) of
over 140 per 1000 live births. The majority of the countries in this group belong to
Africa, India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The economic growth in
these countries range from minus to 3.2 %.
2. There are around thirty countries which have U5MR of 71-140/1000.
3. There are some thirty countries in the middle range of 21-70 U5MR.
4. In the low U5MR, i.e., less than 20/1000, there are some 35 countries involved and
Mauritius is found in that group. Most of the European countries, Japan, Singapore,
Kuwait, Israel, Trinidad and Jamaica are found in this category.
Activity 8
Table 2.1 shows differences in the situation of children with respect to child survival. Identify
how some of the differences between industrialised and developing societies could be narrowed.
Be prepared to discuss your views during the lecture.
Activity 9
“The time is ripe to develop a global policy in order to formulate child-centred strategies and
programmes which are geared towards creating the necessary conditions for enhancing the
child’s overall development.”
Forward by Minister Sheila Bappoo, NPA for Children, Government of Mauritius, 1992.
Give some examples of “child-centred development strategies”.
Activity 10
August 2009 24
You would have gathered that the situation of children in developing countries is less favourable
than that of children living in developed countries. Think of some of the needs and difficulties
faced by children who live in developed countries.
1. Discuss the utility of the CRC as a global guideline in child welfare. Discuss some needs
of children which you think require global approach.
2. What is the responsibility of your profession to promote such actions?
3. Do child rights entail that children also have duties? Make a list of duties children have.
2.6 SUMMARY
1. The Convention on the Rights of the Child contains guidelines and directives for
safeguarding the welfare of children and for promotion of welfare. Basic needs of
children are the same all over the world.
2. Despite a lot of progress achieved since the UN system became operational on children’s
issues, greater concerted effort is needed on the part of the global community to address
the basic needs and entitlements of children. Healthcare, access to balanced food intake
and universal education are not available to millions of children across the world. There
is a wide gap between the industrialised and poorer nations.
3. The world community’s vision for the 21st century is that of an era of progress and
upward mobility both material, social and spiritual. This demands that the UN system
continues with its advocacy and supportive interventions to improve the living conditions
of children and their families.
4. Development process must incorporate strategies and programmes that are child friendly
and facilitate prioritising and safeguarding the welfare of children.
August 2009 25
UNIT 3 THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN IN MAURITIUS
Unit Structure
3.0 Overview
3.2 Understanding the Socio-economic Context
3.3 Application of International Mandate in Mauritius
3.4 Local Constraints
3.5 New Challenges
3.7 Summary
3.0 OVERVIEW
This unit provides you with a situational analysis of children in Mauritius, the specific child care
issues pertinent to Mauritian children, the evolution of policies and the programmes aimed at
meeting the needs of children and their entitlements.
The Unit also develops insights into unmet needs and future policy and action.
1. Assess the situation of children in Mauritius, with respect to health, nutrition, education
and demographic data, basing yourself on the evolution of the socio-economic context in
Mauritius.
2. Analyse the translation and application of the International Mandate in Mauritius.
3. Evaluate the policies and interventions in relation to child welfare.
4. Recognise emerging issues in child well-being and future orientations for social work
with children in Mauritius.
August 2009 26
WARM UP ACTIVITY
1. What are some main problems children face in Mauritius?
2. How would you promote/strengthen the commitment “first call for children” in Mauritius?
* Record your answers on a separate sheet of paper. You will be asked to discuss your answers
with your peers during thelecture.
3.2 UNDERSTANDING THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT
For child welfare and the “first call for children” to become a reality, both commitment (right
attitude) and sustainable economic growth and development are required.
The socio-economic history of Mauritius during the 1950’s and 1960’s reveals that poor
economic growth and large scale unemployment were further aggravated by unsustainable (high)
population growth. Large family size placed the family and the children at greater risk of
poverty and its undesirable effects.
Although it was a struggle to provide resources for social welfare, the commitment to welfare
paved the way for sustained improvements in child health, family planning and education. For
instance, the infant mortality rates which were high during the sixties (over 60 per 1000 live
birth) came down to 19.6 in 1995. Unfortunately, it has risen again to 22.2 in 1996. The cause
for this setback is attributed to an increase in the number of low-birth-weight babies which the
doctors believe is related to fatigue and poor nutritional status of the mother during pregnancy.
The rapid growth of the Mauritian economy during the 1980’s and the start of 1990’s
transformed the economy to a full employment situation with large numbers of women entering
the formal work sectors. The rising economic opportunities and prosperity have improved the
economic situation of the Mauritian families (and presumably the children) and sustained the
welfare services, though not without some costs to the family.
August 2009 27
However, though large scale absolute poverty does not exist now, the recent social and economic
transformation has not totally been conducive to child-centred development. The large scale
employment of women has upset the stability of the family. Traditionally, the care of young
children was under the total responsibility of women. Modern economic development has
required women to move away from the home base. By failing to cater for early day-care for
young children and care for the elderly, stress has been put on the family’s capacity to provide
adequate care is heavily stressed, thereby increasing instability within the family as families
strive to cope with limited resources and capacities.
Rising consumerism (with emphasis on adult priorities), fast food culture, lack of organised and
meaningful leisure activities, media’s influence, growing alcoholism, and excessive educational
competition at primary level are some of the undesired outcomes of social and economic
development. All these now seriously threaten the welfare of the Mauritian society, that is, the
families and the children.
Unemployment in Mauritius now stands at around 6%. It is expected to increase slightly due to
fluctuation in the demand for jobs in traditional sectors and the impact of globalisation. For the
time being (data for 2000) 57% of unemployed were in the age group 15-29 years. Increasing
unemployment could threaten the welfare of children.
Reading 1
Chapter I Socio - Economic Context -Situation Analysis of Women and Children - 1994,
UNICEF, Mauritius 1998. Also refer to the 1998 version of the Report, located
after the readings for unit 12, Readings file.
Reading 2
Chapter II. Mauritian Women and Children in the 1990’s - Situation Analysis of Women
and Children - 1994, UNICEF, Mauritius.
August 2009 28
Activity 1
Explain the factors that have led to

i. improvement achieved in infant mortality.
ii improvement achieved in child mortality.
3.3 APPLICATION OF INTERNATIONAL MANDATE IN MAURITIUS
Mauritius was represented at the World Summit for Children, 1990 and is a signatory of the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Convention on the Rights of the Child was adopted
by the General Assembly of the UN on 20th November 1989.One of the immediate actions
undertaken was the creation of the Child Protection Unit within the Ministry for Women. Shortly
thereafter, work began on the National Plan of Action for Children. More women were also
recruited in the Police Service to deal with child protection and handle cases of domestic
violence. Both male and female police officers were sensitised to the problem of child abuse.
Although a national mechanism exists in the form of the Ministry of Women, Child
Development and Family Welfare, the staff need to be trained to develop a professional approach
to child and family services.
Reading 3
• National Plan of Action for the Survival Development and Protection of Children in
Mauritius. Ministry of Women’s Rights, Child Development & Family Welfare. 1992.
Available at the Mauritiana Section, UOM Library and not included in binder.
Note: Students are required to read the full report.
Reading 4
National Children’s Policy – Plan of Actions – March 2004. (Draft in Mauritiana Section).
August 2009 29
Reading 5
• Child Protection Act 1994.
Activity 2
i. List the services provided for children by the Ministry for Women, Family Welfare and
Child Development.
ii. In what ways are these services intended to help address the concerns you mentioned in
Activity 2?
Activity 3
Summarise the main provisions of the Child Protection Act 1994.
3.4 LOCAL CONSTRAINTS
The Mission for Child welfare demands that all children in Mauritius should experience a happy
childhood and grow up as healthy and competent individuals. Great improvements have been
made with respect to child survival and health and, universal access to basic education. During
the decades 1960’s and 70’s, many children were living in poor families. Economic growth and
welfare support have been instrumental in achieving this transformation. Mauritius of today
reflects the rising prosperity of families.
However, the reality is that there are many areas where progress has been slow and the goals
stated in the National Plan of Action have not been achieved due to constraints. The Score Card
on the following page indicates that there are at least 10 goals which have not been achieved.
Some of the constraints emanate from the work overload of women. Economic progress can
have negative impact on the family and child rearing. For example many women fail to give
proper attention to their nutrition and health care and suffer from fatigue which can have
negative effects on the unborn child.
August 2009 30
Reading 6
Score card - Evaluation of the World Summit Goals set up under the National Programme
Action for the Republic of Mauritius (1997).
August 2009 31
SCORE CARD - E VALUATION OF THE WORLD SUMMIT GOALS SET UP UNDER THE NATIONAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR THE REPUBLIC OF MAURITIUS,
1997
World Summit for Children - Goals Already Will be Difficult to achieve

Achieved achieved /extra effort will be
by 2000 necessary
HEALTH
WSC Goal - 1
Reduction of infant mortality rate in the 1990-2000 decade by 1/3 or to 50/1000 live births whichever is less x
Supporting WSC Goal 1A
Special attention to be given to the health and nutrition of the female child and to pregnant and lactating women x
Supporting WSC Goal 1B
Reduction in rate of low birth weight to less than ten per cent x
Supporting WSC Goal 1C
Eradication to poliomyelitis by the year 2000 x
Supporting WSC Goal 1E
Expansion of Early childhood development activities x
WSC Goal - 2
Reduction of under five child mortality by 1/3 or to 30/1000 live births whichever is less x
Access by all couples to family planning x
Empowerment of women to exclusively breast feed their children for three months and to prolong breast feeding x
for nine months
Elimination of neo-natal deaths due to tetanus by 1995 x
WSC Goal - 3
Between 1990 and the year 2000 reduction by half of severe and moderate malnutrition among children under x
five
Access by all pregnant women to antenatal care and trained attendants at birth x
Growth promotion and its regular monitoring to be institutionalised in all countries x
Reduction of deaths due to measles (over 95% reduction) x
High level of immunisation over 90% of children under 1 year of age x
Supporting WSC Goal - 5 x
Reduction of maternal mortality rate
WSC Goal - 5C x
1. 50% reduction of deaths due to diarrhoea in children under 5 x
2. 25% reduction in incidence of diarrhoea x
3. Reduction by 1/3 of deaths due to acute respiratory infections
EDUCATION AND OTHERS:
Supporting WSC Goal 1F
Equality in education and full integration of disabled children in society x
WSC Goal - 6
Universal access to basic education by at least 80% of primary school age children by the year 2000 x
WSC Goal - 7
Reduction of adult illiteracy x

Protection of children living in poverty x
Reduction of child labour and protection of children in employment
WSC Goal – 4
Universal access to safe drinking water & to sanitary means of excreta disposal X
WSC Goal - 8 and Supporting WSC Goal 5F X
Improved protection of children in especially difficult circumstances
August 2009 32
Activity 4
Based on your analysis of the Score Card – Reading 6, identify areas where Mauritian
performance can be rated:
Good Average/Satisfactory Poor/Unsatisfactory
Activity 5
i. What reasons/explanations can be given for (a), (b) and (c) in Activity 4?
ii. How would you go about addressing those areas where we need more attention?
3.5 NEW CHALLENGES
The agenda for child welfare is far from complete. New problems and needs are emanating from
the social and economic changes.
Examples of new needs are: working mothers and the need for day care services, changes in
eating habits, the threat of HIV/AIDS, effects of excessive competition and stress due to
competitive education, awareness of abuse and neglect, and teen sexuality among other issues.
Professional Social Work is a profession that is mandated to intervene in child welfare and
promote the welfare of children. It is noticed that Mauritian social workers have functioned in a
manner which is primarily reactive, and less proactive.
August 2009 33
Activity 6
Distinguish between reactive and proactive child welfare. Support your answer with examples in
the local context.
Professional social work practice has not fully entrenched itself into many sectors - for example,
education, parental support and child guidance, children and family breakdown and
dysfunctioning, physical growth and health monitoring.
As Mauritius continues to grow, social workers need to be prepared to deal with new and very
challenging issues as well as continue to cope with existing issues and problems that still persist.
These include infant and child mortality rates which are still relatively high for a newly
industrialised country like Mauritius. Needs and rights of children are inter-linked; it is
superfluous to talk of children’s rights if basic needs remain unmet.
Reading 7
Conclusion: Situation Analysis of Women and Children, 1994, UNICEF, Mauritius.
Activity 7
What new roles and tasks can you identify for social workers in child care services in Mauritius?
Explain what you understand by the ‘child rights entitlement approach to child welfare.’
Activity 8
Current policies of economic growth and development demand that the Mauritian labour force
should be able to compete with the global situation of constantly rising productivity of the labour
force.
How can we achieve this economic objective without jeopardising the quality of the future
labour force, that is, the children of today?
August 2009 34
Activity 9
There are high failure rates at the CPE level and on the average, about 40% children fall out of
the education of system. A recent study on the exclusion found that almost all the school
dropouts belong to families with low incomes.
In a 1-2 page paper (use separate sheets), discuss how school social services could help children
at risk for failure and dropout.
1. Analyse how rising unemployment could be a threat to the welfare of children.

2. Discuss the possible consequences for child welfare in Mauritius with the closure of
UNICEF and UNFPA offices in Mauritius.
3. What information on children and their well-being is revealed through the study on
“Work and Family”, CASR. September 2002?
3.7 SUMMARY
1. A national machinery now exists, in the form of the Ministry for Women, Family Affairs
and Child Development. However, the staff capacity for professional approach to
intervention needs to be strengthened.
2. Mauritius supports the international agenda on child welfare. It is a signatory of the UN
Convention on the Rights of Children and has initiated necessary follow-up action.
3. Mauritius has made great progress with respect to child survival, healthcare, and
education and has achieved at least seven of the goals set out in the World Summit.
4. Changing economic and social conditions present new challenges and agenda for social
work with children.
Additional Reading
UNDP – Common Country Assessment – II. Mauritius December 2003 (readings attached).
August 2009 35
UNIT 4 PROFESSIONAL ROLES AND INTERVENTIONS
Unit Structure
4.0 Overview
4.2 Child Welfare: Professional Roles
4.3 Interventions and the Family
4.4 Services for the Care of Children Away from Home
4.5 Social Policy for Child Welfare
4.7 Summary
4.0 OVERVIEW
Unit 4 explains the term child welfare and multisectoral nature of child welfare services. This
unit helps you to define the boundaries of work with children. Professionals like social workers,
psychologists, teachers, doctors and others are concerned with the promotion of child welfare.
Welfare professionals engage in a multiple of roles as they intervene to empower and strengthen
the community and the family to care for their children and also develop and manage services to
care for children away from/deprived of their home/family. At macro level, social workers help
to develop policies and programmes which are collective manifestations to promote the well
being of children. These include poverty eradication, elimination of discrimination, child
protection, advocacy and policy contribution in educational and health promotion.

1. Explain child welfare and the rationale for a multisectoral approach to services for
children.
2. Identify the range of services and interventions aimed at child well being by empowering
August 2009 36
and strengthening families.

3. Describe the different services and role of welfare professionals to care for children away
from home and supporting children within their homes.
4.2 CHILD WELFARE: PROFESSIONAL ROLES
Many professions have a stake in child welfare. It includes doctors, educationists, law makers
and social workers. The profession of social work, since its origins, has played a strong
advocacy, educational and change agent role to promote ideas and thinking about welfare of
children. Examples include care of orphans, advocacy and concern for children living in
poverty, action to prevent cruelty against children, and fight against child labour. Educationists
have sought to promote and universalise education. Medical profession brought out the problem
of non-accidental injury to children.
Among the professions, the profession of social work has a role to play in promoting child and
family welfare, and protection of the children in difficult circumstances. The services social
workers provide include support to working children, programmes to aid poor families and
children, protect children from abuse and neglect, support to disabled children, intervene in order
to eliminate discrimination based on gender, race or culture, provision for adoptions and foster
care, support educational and health institutions and a better environment and public health for
children.
When families and children experience stress (due to lack of resources or capacity to meet the
demands made upon them), social service mechanisms step in to correct, support, heal and
empower the child and its care system.
The social work role and function would be to eliminate the ‘stressful situation’, through
provision of support at macro and micro level information, linking with resources, creating
opportunities, correcting maladaptive responses through counselling, therapy and developing
preventive action to reduce and/or eliminate maladaptation and distress.
Normally, child welfare services are provided as part of family social work. The current social
work stand is that children and family should not be considered separate practice settings.
August 2009 37
Family discord and dysfunction is a risk factor in child development.

Writers Kadusin, A and Martin G, state
“Child Welfare, broadly defined, has to do with the general well being of all children
and with any and all measures designed to promote the optimal development of the
child’s bio-psycho-social potential in harmony with the needs of the community”.
From the above explanation, you will note that no single profession can possibly cover all
aspects of child development – the “bio-psycho and social”. Professional social workers
dominate the field of child welfare. However, they work in collaboration with other
professionals like educationalists, (school) psychologists, doctors, nutritionists, day care service,
providers and also the police. Many social and economic sectors of a country deal with services
for children. For example, the educational, economic and health sanitation and environment
sectors. This is why we say child welfare goals involve a multisectoral approach. Child welfare
emphasises that all children have the opportunity to develop their full potential and have a fair
start in life.
Reading 1
• The Function of Social Work in Services for Families and Children - Social Work in
Contemporary Society, Garvin C D and Tropman J E, Prenctice Hall, (1992), pp334-336.
Activity 1
Explain briefly how the following sectors contribute to child welfare.

(i) Housing
(ii) Environment
(iii) Education
(iv) Media and TV
August 2009 38
Activity 2
Give some reasons to support
i. Why the child and the family should be considered together as one practice area.
ii. Why the child and the family should be considered as separate practice areas.
4.3 INTERVENTIONS AND THE FAMILY
Children are usually born into families. The family ideally acts as the protector and nurturer. It
is also widely accepted that the well being of children is best served when children are looked
after by their biological parents in families which are strong and stable.
Thus, the welfare of children is influenced by the welfare of their family. It is also a reality that
many families face difficulties for a variety of reasons. These difficulties may overwhelm the
family, adding stress on the family. As a result, the family may become dysfunctional, resulting
in a multitude of problems within the family. This situation naturally affects both the adults and
the children.
Logically, therefore, certain families need to be protected and strengthened so that the interests
and well-being of children are safeguarded. Families may also require interventions to restore
and ameliorate its functioning. At times, social intervention may be required to protect the
children. However, Human Services Professionals like nurses, teachers and social workers need
to be aware that families are very private institutions and state institutions and policies are
intended to influence the family while still allowing families to retain its private characteristics.
Some of the problems and difficulties children may encounter in families:
- Alcohol and Substance Abuse (parent/s, sibling)

- Abuse and neglect
- Ill health, (mental and physical)
- Poor nutrition.
- Divorce/abandonment by a parent
- Marital conflict
August 2009 39
- Poverty and bankruptcy / unemployment

- Violence - spouse abuse
- Behaviour problems
- Illiteracy / lack of information
- Teenage pregnancy / unwanted pregnancy.
Services provided by human services professionals to strengthen and support family

capacity to promote well being of children:
- Financial assistance - grants / family allowance / social benefits

- Health care support - ante-natal / postnatal care and follow up
- Day care services
- Education - developing parenting skills
- Food aid
- Counselling and therapy
- Supervision and support for Child Welfare.
- Measures to strengthen families in a proactive manner.
- Advocacy for change in policy.
Activity 3
To what extent do you agree with the statement that “ The well being of children is best
served when children are looked after by their biological parents”?
Is there an implicit cultural belief in your answer? Explain.
Activity 4
List some difficulties children living in dysfunctioning families may face.
Activity 5
What could be the effect of an alcoholic parent on a child’s well-being?
August 2009 40
Activity 6
Discuss some proactive interventions to strengthen the family in Mauritius.
4.4 SERVICES FOR THE CARE OF CHILDREN AWAY FROM HOME
Sometimes the problems and difficulties of families are so severe that it is not possible to let the
child continue to live in the family because of risk to gross neglect, abuse and threat to life.
Professional interventions then need to provide for alternate care, away from the biological or
adoptive family. Other children may be placed in special care institutions because of loss of
family through death, divorce or abandonment. In the past, children were normally cared through
public provision if they were orphans. The table provided in Reading 2 provides data on orphan
children.
The services to care for children away from home include:
(1) Adoption and foster care.

(2) (a) Institutional residential care for children who cannot be adopted or
fostered but are in need of a home.
(b) Institutional care for children who are deviant and cannot live with their families.
(c) Care of children with special needs.
(3) Care of children who are abused and neglected.
(4) Health care for children terminally ill or chronically ill.
(5) Supporting educational and health care institutions to promote adaptation and integration
of children into system or to help change the institutions.
August 2009 41
Activity 7
Explain what you understand by
- Adoption
- Foster care
Activity 8
List some of the institutions that provide residential care for children in Mauritius.
Reading 2
(Page 8) A Statistical Profile on Children in the Republic of Mauritius, Ministry of Women,

Family Welfare and Child Development, June 2000.
4.5 SOCIAL POLICY FOR CHILD WELFARE
By now, you will have realised that children are vulnerable, dependant and have multiple needs
which keep changing in accordance with the stages of growth. These needs have to be met to
enable children to become functional and competent.
Political and social factors affect the way children are perceived and how their needs are to be
met. There is little consensus on how many rights should be accorded to children. Children’s
rights do not make headlines in the media and children have to depend on the goodwill and
wisdom of their caretakers. There is however a general consensus that the family is the best
environment for raising children. Therefore, social policies need to focus on supporting the
family to enable it to take proper care of the children and to help the family make the children’s
issue a public debate. The state assumed the parenting role for orphan children in the past. It had
to do so because, as life expectancy was much lower and adult mortality rate was high, many
children became orphans. The children had to be cared also because of society’s need to protect
August 2009 42
itself against vagrancy to which the orphans were vulnerable. So something had to be done, even
if the policy and action were more social-oriented that child-centred.
Social policy focus has now shifted to the overall welfare and well being of children, and
incorporates safeguarding the growth and promoting optimum development of the child’s
biological and social capacity. This can be achieved through focus on ensuring that basic needs
are met. The newer approach focuses on meeting the rights of children which emphasise on what
children are entitled to. This approach is more comprehensive as it covers economic, social,
cultural, political and civil rights. It includes basic needs.
Modern social policies for child welfare aim to provide the following:
a. Supportive services to families and children.
b. Supplementary services to meet special needs. (For example, special education facility).
c. Substitute care.
Activity 9
i. Formulate the principles you would use to develop a social policy to better serve the needs
of children at risk of abuse and neglect.
ii. Make a list of basic needs of children.
Reading 3
Chapter 14: Social Work in Contemporary Society, Garvin C D and Tropman J E, Prenctice
Hall, (1992).
Activity 10
List some of the ways in which police/teachers/legal persons/doctors for social workers in
Mauritius can contribute to strengthen the family institution
August 2009 43

1. Make a presentation on the effect of separating children from parents. Consider
alternatives
2. Are social attitudes towards children raised in residential homes changing? Discuss.
3. Most child welfare programs focus on protection. Consider an alternative approach.
4.7 SUMMARY
1. Child welfare is one key concern of social work. Social workers undertake a variety of roles
and functions ranging from policy development, administration and management to working
with children and the family and mediating to resolve conflicts and deprivations.
2. Supportive services aim to strengthen the family’s capacity to meet the requirements of
children because the family is the best environment to raise children, despite the limitations
of the family.
3. When families fail to carry out its responsibilities, social workers, guided by policy,
intervene into the family and it may have to provide substitute care for the children. In other
instances, family may have broken down and substitute care may be required.
4. Social workers need to continue their focus on advocacy because children do not have the
same powers as adults to lobby for their needs and assert their rights.
August 2009 44
UNIT 5 CHILD POVERTY
Unit Structure
5.0 Overview
5.2 Definition, Causes and Effects of Child Poverty
5.3 Child Poverty in Mauritius
5.4 Programmes and Policies to Combat Child Poverty in Mauritius
5.6 Summary
5.0 OVERVIEW
The Unit provides some explanations of child poverty and analyses what constitutes “poverty”.
The focus of this unit is on children living in poor families and examines ways to help the child
and family. This unit examines socio-economic factors that cause poverty and suggests
programmes and services that can be developed to help children in poverty.
Note that this unit focuses on Mauritius but we need to bear in mind that poverty also prevails in
developed countries. Child poverty is thus not an issue that is pertinent to developing countries
only but is a source for concern to newly industrialised and industrialised countries as well.
However, the degree of poverty in developed countries is of course, not on the same large scale
as in developing countries, that also have inadequate means to counteract this problem. Family
living below poverty line or just above poverty line face major crises in the family if they need to
buy any additional item for children, for example a pair of new shoes, uniforms or if the child
falls ill and needs special diet and care.
August 2009 45
1. Explain the concept of ‘child poverty’.

2. Identify who are ‘the poor’ in Mauritius.
3. Analyse the effects of poverty on the child.
4. Analyse the social and economic conditions which result in child poverty and relate these
conditions to the Mauritian context.
5. Identify policies and programmes to combat child poverty.
WARM- UP ACTIVITY
(1) What do you think are the conditions that create poverty among children?
(2) List some of the ways in which poor children are different from poor adults.
Write down your answers on a separate sheet of paper. Be prepared to discuss your
answers during the lecture.
5.2 DEFINITION, CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF CHILD POVERTY
Explaining what constitutes poverty is complex. Poverty reflects the condition of being poor in
money or means of subsistence (dictionary explanation). There are many causes of poverty but
the main reason is structural – the unequal distribution of power and resources globally and
nationally which impacts upon society at micro level, i.e. – families and individuals. Modern
development process tends to exclude many individuals from mainstream economic growth and
progress.
Children can be seen to be the poorest of all citizens because they have no income of their own
and are dependent on their parents. Children living in poor families are more vulnerable to
deprivation, ill health and inadequate schooling than children from economically secure families.
However, children from well-to-do families can also suffer from the consequences of poverty if
August 2009 46
family incomes are wrongly spent on adult priorities for example, for alcohol consumption.
Globally, the number of children living in poverty is increasing. According to UNICEF, more
than a billion people in developing countries are poor, about a third of them being children.
Child poverty also exists in developed countries. There are over five million children living in
poverty in the USA. While this unit focuses on children, it must be remembered that children,
disabled people, women and the elderly are the most vulnerable of the poor in all societies.
Social work, more than any other profession, is very strongly committed to fighting poverty at
all levels and especially, child poverty. To combat child poverty, we need to know what are the
causes of poverty. However the causes of child poverty are varied. Thus the yardsticks to
measure poverty are also different. Poverty line is a measure used to determine minimum
standards of living. Poverty may also be experienced subjectively, involving feelings and
experiences of deprivation and exclusion.
Family poverty is the main cause of child labour. Children from poor families may be initiated
to work at a very early age. However, even when children work, they are poor because they are
usually exploited and paid lower wages. These wages are moreover given to their families to
meet very basic survival needs like food and shelter. Fatherless families are known to be at risk
to poverty. A family may be fatherless because of death (indeed in the past this was the main
reason for family poverty) or abandonment. A father can be physically present but may be
dysfunctional due to ill-health, unemployment, unresolved personal issues etc. Single parent
women headed households are at greater risk to poverty. There are also non-family/household
factors such as access to schooling and its quality; demand for child labour and socio-economic
realities of society.
Jensen, T.R. (2000), in his report on Development of Indicators on child Labour (p:8 ILO) has
identified the following factors as affecting child labour:
(1) Household Level

(a) Income and wealth
(b) The volatility of family income
(c) Debt
(d) Fertility
August 2009 47
(e) Family structure and migration

(f) Perception and attitudes of parents.
(2) The factors outside the family/household which influence child labour are
(a) Access/availability of schooling
(b) The demand for child labour
(c) Social and economic realities
(from Development of Indicators on Child Labour. ILO. By Robert T. Jensen p:8-16.)
Reading 1
• Who are the poor? - Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur
Activity 1
Make a list of factors that you think cause poverty in a family.
Activity 2
i. Discuss the effect of poverty on children.

ii. Present some measures that can act as safety nets for alleviating poverty in families with
children.
Reading 2
Jensen, R. T (2000). Development of Indicators on Child Labour. ILO (pp8-16). Not provided in
manual, but available in the Reserve Section of the UOM Library (sample available in Readings
File).
August 2009 48
5.3 CHILD POVERTY IN MAURITIUS
Child poverty was one of the social problems of the 1960’s decade. Prof. Richard Titmuss
recommended a system of family allowances, maintenance of the health services and family
planning to support children and poor families.
Although birth rates declined and infant mortality (an indicator of child poverty) started to
improve from the 1970’s, problems of unemployment affected many families and children
during most of the 1970’s, even though there was an economic boom in the mid 1970’s due to
high sugar prices.
As from 1983, the economy improved and by the end of the 1980’s decade, unemployment was
virtually wiped out. More women took up paid employment in formal sectors and family
incomes improved with more than one income earner in the average Mauritian family. Children
thus seemed to have benefited from the rising household income too. When there is a pooling of
incomes in families like in extended families, there occurs some positive redistribution of
resources from the stronger to the more vulnerable.
However, children can experience poverty even if family incomes are adequate, due to neglect,
ignorance, domestic violence and alcoholism. Desertion and family breakdown also contribute
to child poverty. The risks of child poverty are therefore increasing as more families become
dysfunctional. The majority of social aid recipients in Mauritius comprise of women-headed
households.
But we can say that the tremendous economic progress achieved by Mauritius over the last
decades had meant that family incomes have been improving steadily. Some people even argue
that absolute poverty does not exist and children are thus saved from the harsh effects of poverty
on child growth and development. Research is needed to provide a better understanding of the
effects of poverty on children in Mauritius. Many countries, particularly the industrialised ones
have action groups to eliminate child poverty. There is no parallel to this in Mauritius of groups
which focus specifically on child poverty. Norway and Sweden have family policy which
includes elimination of poverty in families with children.
August 2009 49
Readings 3
2 (a) Children in Vulnerable Circumstances in Mauritius- Situation Analysis of Women

and Children in Mauritius, 1994, UNICEF, Mauritius, pp 24 - 27.
2 (b) Also refer to updated version of 2(a) located after Readings, pages 62-63 for unit 12.
2 (c) Summary of Household Budget Survey – 1997 & 2001/02-CSO. Government of
Mauritius. Key table provided – http://ncb.intnet.mu/gov/house/htm.
Household Income and Expenditure

Household Budget Survey
1986/87 1991/92 1996/97 2001/02
Household Income
Average household size 4.7 4.3 4.1 3.9
Income earners per household 1.5 1.6 1.9 1.9
Average monthly income (rupees) 3,496 6,503 10,179 14,232
Median monthly income (rupees) 2,663 5,300 7,870 11,017
½ median monthly income (rupees) 1,332 2,650 3,935 5,509
% of households with less than ½ median monthly income 15.7 13.7 14.2 13.6
Gini coefficient 0.396 0.379 0.387 0.371
Income Share
% of total income going to:
Lowest 20% of households 5.6 6.4 5.9 6.2
Highest 20% of households 44.2 43.5 46.2 44.8
Ratio of highest 20% to lowest 20% 7.9 6.8 7.8 7.2
Household Consumption Expenditure
Average monthly expenditure (rupees) 3,035 5,225 7,846 10,129
Median monthly expenditure (rupees) 2,531 4,136 6,136 8,058
½ median monthly expenditure (rupees) 1,266 2,068 3,068 4,029
% of households with less than ½ median monthly expenditure 16.6 11.9 13.3 12.4
August 2009 50
Activity 3
i. What is the impact of child labour
(a) on the child?

(b) on the family?
(c) on society?
ii. Provide up to three reasons to show how children in families undergoing

divorce/separation are at risk to poverty.
Activity 4
From the data in Readings 2, describe
(i) the number of households living above the average monthly income.
(ii) the number of households living below the average monthly income.
(iii) explain what the data states with respect to households having less than half of median
expenditures.
Activity 5
i. Identify why children work in Mauritius.
ii. What kind of employment is available for children?
August 2009 51
5.4 PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES TO COMBAT CHILD POVERTY IN

MAURITIUS
The programmes and policies to combat child poverty involve a multi-sectoral approach
comprising many different government departments and non-government organisations. The
Ministry for Women, through the Child Protection and Child Development units, is responsible
for monitoring the situation of children and also poor children. The Ministry of Social Security
provides for a system of family allowances and social security. Also, the allowances for children
through income tax, need to be readjusted in favour of the child. The food supplement
programme implemented through the schools helps poor children in Rodrigues.
Child welfare organisations need to strengthen their advocacy for addressing needs of “poor”
children. Mauritius has several initiatives designed to address the problem of poverty and
deprivation. It includes the Trust Fund for Poverty Alleviation, SOS Pauvreté, Anou Diboute
Ensemble, Leve Dibout and the President’s Trust Fund, the micro-projects aimed at improving
the physical environment such as improving housing, providing equipment to families and
communities and help poor children.
Activity 6
Based on your readings, what evidence can you give to show that a Mauritian policy statement
exists to eliminate child poverty? What suggestion can you make to strengthen the national
commitment to eliminate child poverty?
Activity 7
Compare and contrast the Government’s and NGO’s mechanisms to combat child poverty.
August 2009 52
1. Identify causes and effects of child poverty in Mauritius which have been neglected or
inadequately covered in this unit.
2. Consider how the belief in “Garçon premier lot, tifi deuxième lot #” could place the girl child
more at risk to poverty.
# Refers to a popular saying in Mauritius that having a boy baby child is better than a girl
baby child.
5.6 SUMMARY
1. Child Poverty is one key concern of social work ever since the profession evolved.
2. Children are the most vulnerable of citizens. They suffer most from the effects of poverty
and poverty can have a negative impact upon their growth and development.
3. Children in both poor and well-to-do societies are vulnerable to poverty and its harsh
effects.
4. Mauritius has made great improvements in its economic conditions and large scale
absolute poverty conditions have been eliminated. But we have inadequate evidence to
reflect on child poverty. There is a lack of both qualitative and quantitative data.
5. The main reasons for child poverty in Mauritius are unemployment, low incomes,
dysfunctional/absent-father families. Even if the child supplements the family income by
working, poverty persists because children are poorly paid.
6. Human Service Professionals dealing with the problem of child poverty realise that
family poverty occurs due to reasons beyond the control of the family. Society needs to
have responsibility for family poverty and not simply blame the poor families for the
conditions of their children.
August 2009 53
UNIT 6 CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT
Unit Structure
6.0 Overview
6.2 Historical Perspectives
6.3 Child Abuse
6.3.1 Various Definitions of Child Abuse
6.3.2 Physical Abuse
6.3.3 Sexual Abuse
6.3.4 Emotional Abuse
6.4 Child Neglect
6.4.1 Emotional Neglect
6.5 Causes of Child Abuse and Neglect
6.7 Summary
6.0 OVERVIEW
This Unit focuses on the nature, definitions and causes of child abuse and neglect. In Unit 7, we
look at the effects of abuse and neglect and why professional intervention becomes necessary
and operational.
Child abuse and neglect are key concerns in almost all societies. The growing awareness of the
problem and society’s recognition of child abuse and neglect have paved the way for developing
interventions. This Unit provides explanations on the nature and causes of different forms of
abuse and neglect and discusses the effect of abuse and neglect on children.
August 2009 54
1. Define and differentiate
(i) Physical Abuse

(ii) Sexual Abuse
(iii) Emotional Abuse
(iv) Child Neglect
2. Identify the causes of child abuse.
3. Identify the causes of child neglect.
Warm Up Activity
(1) Outline your views regarding the use of corporal (physical) punishment as a means of
correcting children? What personal and cultural values influence your views?
(2) List the conditions that constitute ill treatment of children.
• Record your answers on a separate sheet of paper. You will be asked to discuss your
answers with your peers.
6.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES
Awareness of child abuse and neglect as a social problem is recent. But child abuse is not a
modern condition which developed in contemporary societies. The writings and research on the
history of childhood seem to be too limited and sketchy to be able to draw conclusions about the
incidence and prevalence of child abuse. There are however, references in literature, history and
religious documents that point out to the existence of child sacrifice, child infanticide,
August 2009 55
abandonment of children, child labour and other forms of neglect and abuse. Child neglect and
abuse have thus existed in diverse forms in most societies over centuries.
One Western writer, Lloyd DeMause, in an article titled ‘Our Forebears made Childhood a
Nightmare’ (1975) states that historically, the records on raising children and childhood are
‘bloody, dirty and mean’. DeMause argues that ‘a child’s life prior to modern times was bleak’
and not only child abuse existed, but that it was overt and was accepted in society. Slavery and
child labour have existed in society for ages. Female infanticide was known to the Middle East
and the Indian Sub-continent right up to modern times. However, over the last hundred years,
both in Western and other societies of the world, concern about children, their rights and welfare
have evolved, slowly (sometimes too slowly) but steadily. There are cultures that have
recognised the needs of children for love, protection and care. Nevertheless, history shows that
for most part, the belief that one can do what one wants to one’s children has been widely
upheld.
In our contemporary societies the world over, the state has stepped in to provide many forms of
collective provision for the protection of children. Despite these developments, many children
still continue to be victims of abuse and neglect at the hands of their caretakers and/or natural
parents, the very people who are supposed to provide care and protection.
Modern health technology has helped to uncover physical abuse of children. Dr Henry Kempe
published an article in 1962, titled the “Battered Child Syndrome’‘, in the Journal of American
Medical Association, USA. Kempe conducted a survey of eighty eight hospitals in which he
identified ‘302’ children whose injuries were non-accidental – and who had been “battered”.
The “battered child syndrome” was defined for the first time. Kempe `stated that the Battered
Child Syndrome should be considered in any child showing evidence of bone fracture, skin
bruising, swelling or sudden death. Through research publications, Dr Kempe and his associates
made the society aware that in many cases, parents were the cause of the injury of their children.
This revelation led to the development of legislation to protect children and mandated the
reporting of the ‘Battered Child Syndrome’ - i.e. physical injuries resulting from the action of
parents/caretakers.
Reference: DeMause, Lloyd, Our Forebears Made Childhood a Nightmare, Psychology Today
- 1975
August 2009 56
In the contemporary context, the concept of childhood is better understood and there is greater
awareness of the needs and the well being of children. This concern for child well-being
automatically means that abuse and neglect of children is not acceptable in today’s society.
Mauritius, despite its relatively recent history, has known systems of slavery and indentured
labour, so we can make some assumptions about the well being of children during the last
century and the prevalence of abuse and neglect. Conditions of slavery can represent one of the
worst forms of child abuse and neglect. You may have learnt from Social History that there was
a very high mortality rate among the slave population in Mauritius and this included infant
mortality.
There is considerable debate over what constitutes abuse and neglect, for example, the difficulty
in classifying physical (corporal) punishment as a form of child abuse. Many societies permit
the use of corporal punishment (for example, in Japan), whereas other countries, like Sweden, do
not accept any form of corporal punishment. If it is all right to hit a child in a ‘reasonable’ way,
then the problem is to identify and define what constitutes ‘reasonable’.
According to research and writings of Wolock and Hozowitz (1984, USA), child neglect is seen
as a less important social problem. Other more recent research on American society (Hallett and
Binchall, 1992) state that cases of neglect and emotional abuse are less likely to be reported.
In Mauritian context, we have insufficient material from research and data. It can be concluded
that what constitute abuse and neglect is not very well understood in society at this point of time.
6.3 CHILD ABUSE
6.3.1 Various Definitions of Child Abuse
Definition 1 Source: Dictionary of Social Work
‘The recurrent infliction of physical or emotional injury on a dependent minor,

through intentional beatings, uncontrolled corporal punishment, persistent ridicule
and degradation, or sexual abuse, usually committed by parents or others in
charge of the child’s care’.
August 2009 57
Definition 2 David Gil (1970)
‘Any act of commission or omission by individuals, institutions or society as a

whole, and any conditions resulting from such acts or inaction, which deprive
children of equal rights and liberties, and/or interfere with their optimal
development, constitute, by definition, abusive or neglectful acts or conditions.
Note, however that the terms physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect are difficult to define
very precisely.
Evidence shows that child abuse is usually committed by parents or those responsible for the
care of the child; some current theories attribute much to the parental quality and environment,
particularly maternal psycho-pathology, emanating from the oppressive system of patriarchal
society. Strangers may also abuse children, but its incidence is lower. Child abuse, as the
definitions reflect, is intentional and an act of commission.
Activity 1
Discuss some of the problems associated with defining child abuse.
6.3.2 Physical Abuse
Physical abuse involves hitting a child and causing some damage.
Activity 2
i. Differentiate between discipline and physical abuse.

ii. Go back to the Child Protection Act, Reading in Unit 3, and identify how physical abuse is
defined legally.
August 2009 58
6.3.3 Sexual Abuse
Sexual abuse of children has become an issue of global concern.
Definition: In the U.S.A, the term ‘sexual abuse’ includes
(i) the employment, use, persuasion, inducement, enticement or coercion of any child to
engage in any sexually explicit conduct (or any stimulation of such conduct) for the
purpose of producing any visual depiction of such conduct, or,
(ii) the rape, molestation, prostitution or other forms of sexual exploitation of children, or
incest with children, under circumstances which indicate the child’s health or welfare is
harmed or threatened.
From: Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act 1984, USA.
The Child Protection Act 1994 of Mauritius states under Section 14
1. Any person who causes, incites or allows any child

(a) to be sexually abused by him or by another person
(b) to have access to a brothel
(c) to engage in prostitution
should commit an offence.
Under Mauritian Law, “a child shall be deemed to be sexually abused where he/she has taken
part whether as a willing or unwilling participant or observer in any act which is sexual in nature
for the purpose of:
(a) another person’s gratification

(b) any activity of pornographic, obscene, or indecent nature
(c) any other period of exploitation by any person”.
From: Child Protection Act 1994, Act No. 30 of 1994, Government of Mauritius.
August 2009 59
Activity 3
i. What agencies in Mauritius deal with the problem of child sexual abuse?
ii. Identify the similarities and differences between:

- Physical Abuse
- Emotional Abuse
- Sexual Abuse
Activity 4
Why may it be difficult to report and document child abuse in Mauritius? Give at least two
reasons?
Activity 5
“Girls are more prone to being sexually abused than boys”. Do you agree/disagree with this
statement? Explain your answer, including your own ideas about why this might not be the case.
Activity 6
How far could you agree with the statement that sexual abuse of children is being
institutionalised by the demand of the tourism industry? Discuss your answer.
6.3.4 Emotional Abuse
Emotional abuse is also referred to as psychological abuse. Professionals working with children
are aware of the existence of emotional abuse and neglect. There is some difficulty in providing
a universal definition of emotional abuse and its diagnosis is also complex. The difficulties arise
from a general lack of awareness about this problem and also the fact that there is no consistent
criteria to determine emotional abuse. Two definitions are provided below to guide your
understanding:
August 2009 60
(a) “A chronic attitude or act on the part of a parent on caretaker that is detrimental to, or
prevents the development of a positive self image in the child”.
Reference: Dorothy Dean, Emotional Abuse, Children Today, 1979.
(b) “Emotional abuse is a deliberate behaviour that seriously undermines the development of
competence. Operationally, this means punishing an infant’s operant social behaviour
(including attachment), punishing a child’s manifestation of self-esteem and punishing
behaviour needed for normal interaction in extra-familial settings”.
Reference: James Garbarino, The Elusive Crime of Emotional Abuse, Child Abuse And
Neglect. 1978. Pergamon Press.
Activity 7
(i) Identify the difference and similarities between the two definitions of emotional abuse
presented in sub-section 6.3.4.
(ii) Give an example to show how emotional abuse occurs in the following:
• An act that is detrimental to the self-image of the child.
• Punishing an infant’s operative behaviour.
• Punishing a child’s manifestation of self-esteem.
Activity 8
i. Identify some causes of emotional abuse.

ii. Identify the perpetrators of emotional abuse.
(Be prepared to discuss these issues in the lecture)
Activity 9
i. List the conditions which can be considered to constitute neglect of children in Mauritius.
ii. Review your list to (1) above to determine those conditions that are linked to class, gender,
culture (ethnicity) or ability (that is, handicap or not).
August 2009 61
Activity 10
How can we differentiate between wilful neglect of children and neglect resulting from poverty
caused by the unequal distribution of wealth?
Activity 11
“All parents abuse or neglect their children some of the time”. Discuss.
6.4 CHILD NEGLECT
Norman Polansky has defined neglect as –
“A condition in which a caretaker responsible for a child either deliberately or by

extraordinary unattentiveness, permits a child to experience avoidable present
suffering and/or fails to provide one or more of the ingredients generally deemed
essential for developing a person’s physical, intellectual and emotional capacities”.
(1981, p. 15)
What constitutes neglect is influenced by moral values and culture. Neglect may occur either
because of ignorance or some wilful action, for example, by the inability to feel love for the
child, which then leads to inaction concerning certain physical or emotional needs of the child.
Neglectful parents/caretakers fail to provide the essential conditions for normal living. Neglect
may be emotional, nutritional, educational, health, hygienic, lack of supervision, inadequate
clothing and care.
Daro 1988 (reference - http://www.aifs.org.au/External/nch) mentioned on the website is

referred to as having drawn attention to the fact that physical neglect of children is the “most
forgotten form of maltreatment”.
6.4.1 Emotional Neglect
Emotional needs of children (such as love and affection) are as important for the growth and
August 2009 62
development of the child as is physical care.
Emotional neglect is an ambiguous term and is difficult to define. Failure by parents/caretakers

to provide emotional support and nurturing necessary for the healthy personality development
constitutes emotional neglect.
It is a reality that children suffer from emotional neglect even if they are well cared for
physically. Acts like rejection, hostility, anger and tension may impact negatively on the child.
However, all parents may be guilty at some time or the other of such acts.
Activity 12
How would you define emotional neglect?
Activity 13
Consider some of the ways emotional neglect can harm the child.
6.5 CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE AND NEGLECT
No single factor adequately explains child abuse and neglect. Vernon R. Wiehe has identified
three categories of factors in connection with child abuse and neglect. These are:
Category I: The individual-related factors
(1) Under this category, research evidence of Berg (1976), Kravit Z. and Driscoll is used by
Wiehe to explain that “unrealistic expectations of themselves and their children” may end
up in physical abuse of the children.
(2) Inadequate financial resources, marital problems and negative life experiences may place
the individual under stress and affect parenting.
(3) The parent as individual/individuals may have inadequate parenting knowledge and skills
and also lack empathy towards the child. Wiehe uses the conclusion from his own
research and that of Frodi and Lamb 1980, Mehrabian and Epstein, 1972.
August 2009 63
(4) Alcohol abuse is related significantly with physical and sexual abuse.
(5) Mother’s age – research evidence is used by Wiehe, stating that immaturity, poor
education and poor income place the mother at risk for inability to handle stress of being
a parent.
Category II: The Family Related Factors
Under this category, Wiehe identifies the following factors:
(1) Absence of father – the absence of a father means lower income for the family and lack
of emotional support from a partner/caring adult. This can place the child/children at risk
to neglect.
(2) Role reversal – parents’ expectations that children fulfil emotional needs and when
frustrated, parents may become abusive or neglectful.
(3) Dysfunctional parent–child relations: using the evidence from research of Reid (1978)
and others, Wiehe concludes that in families where neglect occurred, such families
showed less positive contacts to each other. Parents may disengage from parenting.
Stress and crises may result in parents becoming detached from family/child, losing focus
and concern for the child’s needs. In some families, disengagement of family members
may represent a generational pattern of family living.
Gil, D (Violence Against Children, 1970. Harvard University Press) considered socio-
economic problems to be a major cause of child ill-treatment in the USA. Other
researchers in the USA (Coulton, korbin, Suand Chow in 1995) found that poverty,
unemployment, social degradation (exclusion) poor housing and women headed
households were associated with higher incidence of child ill-treatment.
It is also assumed that there is more abuse in step families. American studies note that
presence of a step father produced greater risk. Mauritian data of reported cases includes
many step fathers.
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Category III: Social and Cultural Factors
The society can be another cause of abuse and neglect. Many children suffer as a consequence
of war and racism. Research of Kotch et al (1995) indicates that poverty is an important factor
in child neglect. Social isolation and exclusion, racism, discrimination, religious and cultural
values concerning physical punishment affect abuse and neglect of children. For example, the
belief that children should be severely punished or children should be deprived, otherwise they
will get spoilt.
(Reference: Vernon R. Wiehe, Working with Child Abuse and Neglect, Chapter 4. Sage
Publication. 1996).
Although abuse of children occurs in all social classes, it is difficult to get data for upper and
middle class families because such families are less likely to get reported and they have
resources for expensive lawyers and psychiatrists. Also, they can send their “unwanted, unloved
children to ‘Boarding Schools’.
It is also noticed that women tend to be blamed even when the factor is not personal pathology of
women, but action that emanates from oppressive nature of patriarchal society.
So, the reality is that no single factor adequately explains what causes child abuse and neglect. It
is stated that children in poor families are more likely to be abused and neglected than children
in non-poor families. Other views indicate that child abuse and neglect are to be found in all
socio-economic sections of society and afflict all communities, irrespective of race, religion or
economic status.
The article from the website http://www.aifs.org.an/External /nch/issues states that:
(a) Child neglect is commonly associated with low income, larger, multi-problem families.
(b) In the UK (Farmer and Owen, 1995) found that one third of cases of neglect also
involved physical abuse. Neglect was also present in one fourth of sexual abuse cases.
(c) Australian date findings show that 15% of all neglect cases and 25% of emotional abuse
cases involved also physical abuse.
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(d) Table 6.5 provides data on cases registered with the Child Protection Unit, Mauritius.
Child Development Unit

No of cases registered at the Child Development Unit by nature of problem & year
Jan-
Aug
Nature of Problem 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Abandoned child 128 77 114 72 68 97 84 102 31
Battered by parents/other 367 205 290 406 377 268 353 448 194
Battered by teachers 25 14 18 24 12 15 14 17 8
Child beyond 273 130 123 189 121 457 518 516 440
control/behavioural
problem
Child labour 17 5 9 7 6 15 5 7 1
Child mendacity 25 10 12 6 12 21 14 3 4
Child not attending school 134 29 65 103 78 77 110 123 113
Child prostitution … … 20 22 12 11 16 1 3
Child with psychological 37 74 184 525 681 654 703 837 485
problem
Custody of child 201 156 229 315 413 256 456 437 256
Incest 5 6 12 15 11 33 26 24 26
Neglected 254 132 176 297 440 247 309 269 174
Sexual harassment 13 27 27 43 21 7 7 2 4
Teenage pregnancy 7 4 14 30 39 41 52 59 45
Undeclared child … … 46 33 51 69 163 117 5
Victim of sexual 62 52 96 102 90 102 86 87 73
abuse/rape
Other 200 229 698 708 918 492 542 669 496
TOTAL CASES
REGISTERED 1,748 1,150 2,133 2,897 3,350 2,832 3,458 3,718 2,358
Some Additional Readings
Chapter 4: Wiehe, V R, Working with Child Abuse and Neglect, Page Publications. 1996. Use
the UOM library. You will not be given a copy of this article.
August 2009 66
Activity 14
i. After obtaining data from the Child Protection Unit (Mauritius), indicate how many children
are ill-treated and analyse their background.
ii. From the above data, can you see a correlation between socio-economic background and the
ill-treated of children?
1. Lloyd Demause has stated that the human record of child raising is “bloody, dirty and
mean.” Critically appraise this statement and its application to the Mauritian society.
2. Discuss the possibility of a historical perspective of childhood which presents a more
optimistic perspective of childhood than what is presented by Demause.
3. Are step fathers a risk to the girl child in Mauritius? Discuss.
6.7 SUMMARY
1. This unit focused on providing explanations of child abuse and neglect. Different forms
of abuse and neglect have been considered. Child abuse and neglect have taken
prominence as issues of social concern relatively recently.
2. There is a difference between abuse and neglect. Abuse is almost always wilful, but
neglect can occur as a result of ignorance, lack of resources and may not be wilful.
3. Both neglect and abuse have harmful effects on children. They should thus be prevented.
4. Causes of child abuse and neglect may lie in individual, family circumstances and
society: no single factor by itself adequately explains the cause of abuse and neglect.
5. Mothers, who themselves are victims of unfair and oppressive social systems, get blamed
for causing abuse and neglect. To blame the victim is social injustice.
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UNIT 7 CHILD PROTECTION
Unit Structure
7.0 Overview
7.2 Effects of Abuse and Neglect on Children
7.3 Child Protection
7.3.1 Philosophy of Child Protection
7.3.2 Child Protection in Action
7.4 Understanding the Symptoms of Abuse and Neglect
7.4.1 The Challenges and Obstacles
7.4.2 The Symptoms
7.4.3 Disclosure
7.5 Intervention
7.7 Summary
7.0 OVERVIEW
This unit discusses the effects of child abuse and neglect on children and the implications for
professional intervention at primary, secondary and tertiary levels.
The philosophy and aims of child protection are considered. You will also be introduced to the
strategies for risk assessment, planning and intervention, to help and support children in need of
protective care services.
This unit is a follow-up to Unit 6 where you were introduced to the concepts of child abuse and
neglect and learned about some outcome effects of abuse. In this unit, we look at the effects of
child abuse and neglect and the need for social work intervention into child protection services.
Child protection is a very important function of social work, though other professionals may also
be involved.
August 2009 68

1. Identify the symptoms of the following on the child:
(i) Physical abuse and neglect
(ii) Emotional abuse and neglect
(iii) Sexual abuse
2. Explain the philosophy underlying child protection services.
3. Identify the aims and objectives of child protection.
4. Analyse the process of disclosure of abuse.
7.2 EFFECTS OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT ON CHILDREN
Let’s start the discussion by looking at the several beliefs about abuse and neglect. One popular
statement is “spare the rod and spoil the child”. If we agree with this statement, then the
inference is that some ‘good’ may be derived from physical punishment. The complexity here is
drawing the line between what constitutes punishment and where abuse begins.
Other beliefs about the effects of abuse and neglect include:
(a) Individuals who are abused and neglected as children will repeat the same treatment on
their own children.
(b) Children who are abused and neglected turn deviant and become self destructive. (Abuse
of alcohol and other substances).
It is also argued that the damage caused by abuse and neglect on the child is irreversible.
There are some more optimistic theorists who talk about human resilience and assert that the
effects of abuse and neglect are not necessarily irreversible. Michael Benjamin (from ‘Abused
as a Child, Abusive as a Parent: Practitioners Beware’, 1984, p. 189) states that
“in no instance, however, has any investigator reported a sample of abusive parents
100 per cent positive for early childhood abuse”.
August 2009 69
Benjamin concludes that there is no guarantee that physically abused children will become
abusers themselves.
Other writers and researchers such as Miller and Challas also state that not all parents who were
abused, abuse their children. Moreover, many parents who are guilty of child abuse and neglect
were not abused as children. Miller and Challas go on to conclude that “poverty, ignorance and
unstable parental career may influence abusive action”. (from Pagelow, Miller and Challas).
It is very complex and difficult to predict the outcomes of abuse and neglect in simple linear
causal relationships. The outcomes may appear in later life and affect later growth and
development. It is also acknowledged that life opportunities and environmental influences can
work to overcome the early negative childhood experiences of abuse and neglect.
As the above discussions show, the different beliefs about child abuse and neglect make it
difficult to identify the impact of abuse and neglect on children clearly. The works of David
Finkelhor and Angela Browne, however, provide some useful insights. Their conclusions are
that the effects of abuse and neglect are determined by the following:
1. Duration and frequency

2. Relationship of victim and abuser
3. The types of acts committed in sexual abuse
4. Age of the victim
5. The sex of the offender (males create greater trauma for the victim than female
abusers)
6. Parental reactions
7. Institutional responses (the process intervention)
Browne and Finkelhor conclude that there seems to be no one contributing factor which can be
consistently linked to outcome. But certain trends can be identified.
These trends include:

(a) Presence of force - the greater the force, the greater the trauma and therefore the greater
the effect.
(b) Abusive acts by fathers and stepfathers on children result in more trauma than abuse by
strangers and other relatives.
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(c) If families are unsupportive and the victims are removed from home, the trauma is
greater.
Ray E. Helfer, paediatrician and therapist, asserts that abused and neglected children who are
reared in abnormal manner, such as abused and neglected children, fail to learn skills that enable
them to gratify needs appropriately. They have poor ability to delay gratification, are unable to
separate action from feelings, fail to develop responsible attitudes and find it difficult to take
decision. The acronym WAR (World of Abnormal Rearing) is used to describe the rearing of
abused/neglected children.
Other effects of neglect include effects on the personality which are reflected in adulthood by the
inability to develop trust in others and the inability to trust the self.
C.C. Tower (Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, Allyn & Bacon Pub., 1989) speaks of
residual effects of family maltreatment which include:
1. Physical abuse: the effects include low self-esteem, anxiety and fear, anger,
internalisation of hurt and aggression, depression, difficulty in play and developing
relationships, vulnerability to drugs and substance abuse and development of a sense of
powerlessness.
2. Outcomes of neglect include difficulty to trust, low self-esteem, anger, impaired object
relations, poor parental capacity, poor development and growth and vulnerability to
alcohol and substance abuse.
3. The effects of sexual abuse are similar as in (1) and (2) above but also include shame and
guilt, physical problems, difficulty with touching, distorted perception of the body, self
abuse and the child may develop a premature indulgence in sexual activity.
Finkelhor and Browne also conclude that sexual abuse can result in serious mental health
problems for the victim.
Other findings on neglect support that neglect produces long term detrimental effects on the
child Polansky’s research gave evidence that cognitive development of neglected children is
retarded.
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Research in Child Abuse and Delinquency by PT Howing et al, (1990) suggest that the
“relationship between child abuse and later delinquency is bi-directional”.” Rather than viewing
aggression and delinquency as resulting from abuse, it may be more accurate to conceptualise
both as products of reciprocal interactions among the child’s emerging personality, potential
inadequacies and a broad range of setting events”.
Readings that will be suggested by your lecturer are based on research works conducted in
industrialised countries. However, we have no studies locally (longitudinal or non-sectional) to
show what happens to abuse children in Mauritius. But given that there is a certain universality
about the needs of children and their development, we can use the research findings from other
societies to understand the effects of child abuse and neglect.
Activity 1
i. What are some commonly held myths in Mauritius about adults who were neglected and
ill-treated as children?
ii. “Abused as a child, abusive as a parent.” Discuss this quote in the light of what you have
learnt about causes of child abuse and neglect.
iii. “All types of child ill-treatment leave scars.” Discuss.
iv. Identify some of the reasons why people who have experienced abuse and neglect
express anger and mistrust.
v. What are the factors that influence long-term impact of child abuse and neglect?
Activity 2
Children may be sexually abused by either the family or non-family members. Is there a
difference between the effects on the abused child? Discuss your answer.
August 2009 72
7.3 CHILD PROTECTION
7.3.1 Philosophy of Child Protection
Child abuse and neglect is acknowledged as a very serious problem in most societies of the
world, including Mauritius. A national mechanism, the National Children’s Council (NCC) and
the Child Development Unit, located within the Ministry for Women, Child Development and
Family Welfare address the child protection issues and provide data on reported cases of child
abuse and neglect. Overall, there is an increase in the number of cases reported and such a
situation is causing concern and demands intervention.
What can be noticed is that our contemporary societies are full of contradictions. On the one
hand, child abuse and neglect is condemned and on the other, child labour, child pornography,
latch key children and consumer culture focusing on gratification of adult needs, flourish side by
side.
Nevertheless, the child protection movement is gathering more strength and we hope that a day
will come when some uniform standards become applicable for protection of children all over
the world. Family violence is a problem and the culture of silence which helps to sustain abuse,
neglect and ill-treatment must be broken. The social and economic costs of abuse, violence and
neglect are too big to be neglected any more and societies have realised that abuse and neglect of
children must be eliminated.
The philosophy behind intervention is that abuse and neglect breed violence and infringe upon
human rights and the well-being of society itself. Our understanding about the purpose of life is
linked to our concepts of what constitutes ‘good’ and what constitutes ‘bad’. Our concepts
about ‘good’ lead us towards truth, justice and kindness. Viewing ourselves (the human race)
in social Darwinism context, that is, the survival of the fittest, makes human beings vulnerable to
untruth, cruelty and injustice. As we evolve to higher levels of thinking, it has to be the finer
values and qualities of living that must predominate.
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Activity 3
i. Give some reasons to explain why you think that there is an increase in the number of
reported cases of child abuse
ii. Explain what you understand by economic costs of child abuse and neglect to society.
iii. Discuss at least two ‘social costs’ of child abuse and neglect to society.
7.3.2 Child Protection in Action
The broad objective of child protection is simply to stop the abuse and neglect of the
child/children. The focus is obviously on both the immediate situation and the future safety and
well being of children. We can consider protection services in terms of primary, secondary and
tertiary interventions.
Child protection services are fairly young but it is growing in terms of knowledge, techniques
and skills as a practice setting.
How and when to intervene become focal concerns. The approaches to intervention are varied
and linked to aetiology, that is, intervention approaches depend on the cause s of abuse and
neglect. The law in Mauritius (as elsewhere in most societies) mandates provision of child
protection services. Understanding of child protection requires understanding of the agencies
that make up the child protection system. In the Mauritian context it would include primarily the
Ministry for Women’s Right’s, Child Development & Family Welfare, the Police, the Courts and
may include Health Care & Education.
Some approaches to Child Protection used include:
1. Socio-environmental approach: Based on eliminating the environmental factors that

cause stress and lead to child abuse and neglect. Example: eliminating child poverty,
supporting families to become strong and stable.
2. The medical-psychiatric approach: The abuser’s personality is the focus of change
because the personality of the abuser is seen to be the causative factor. The target is
August 2009 74
individual or family change. This can also include proactive measures to improve mental
health.
3. Another approach focuses on the role of the child: The neglect and maltreatment is
attributed to some characteristics in the child which need to be treated. Interventions
aimed at ameliorating and restoring normal functioning are very important in combating
child abuse and neglect. Focus will be in empowering parents with right knowledge and
skills to manage a difficult child, for example, a baby that cries a lot.
4. However, prevention of abuse and neglect are equally important. These include services
to parents to support and strengthen parenting capacity. More controversial is the
screening of parents to ascertain that they have acceptable parenting qualities.
Some views assert that “the child welfare system is the epitome of the residual model. To
receive services, the child must be reported for neglect or abuse”. Child welfare systems steps in
usually after harm has been done. “Virtually nothing is done to prevent children from being
harmed”. http://www.childwelfare.com.
In Mauritius, the early child protection services focused on child survival, for example, the
maternity and child welfare society. Later on, the maternity and child care services provided by
the public sector aimed to promote knowledge and provide service backup (food/milk
supplement to expectant mothers and nursing mothers and their babies). Courses and talks on
child care aimed to sensitise mothers on needs of children and care and safety requirements were
also provided. During the 1950s and 1960s, there was widespread poverty in Mauritius and as a
measure, the system of family allowance was introduced to help combat child neglect (and
parental stress) emanating from poverty.
Awareness of physical and psychological ill-treatment of children is recent. Moreover, the

family has been considered as a very private institution, thus making intervention into family
matters difficult. However, the establishment of the National Children’s Council in 1990
(referred to as NCC) mandated state intervention into family affairs, even to the extent of
removing the child from the custody of parents. The problem of physical and sexual abuse of
children surfaced during the 1980’s and 1990’s in a prominent way. As a result of collective
action, legislation was developed to intervene in cases of child abuse and neglect. The Child
Protection Act is included in the readings for this manual.
August 2009 75
The NCC also encourages the public to report cases of child abuse and neglect and has set up a
telephone hot line to facilitate reporting and emergency assistance.
The philosophy behind intervention is to enable all children to experience a happy childhood
through the prevention of abuse and neglect and to ‘heal’ children who experienced abuse,
neglect and exploitation. Children are also the citizens and are thus entitled to basic rights.
7.4 UNDERSTANDING THE SYMPTOMS OF ABUSE AND NEGLECT
7.4.1 The Challenges and Obstacles
Understanding and recognising abuse and neglect is very important and challenging because
denial and silence have clouded the abuse and neglect of children, particularly when it occurred
within the family. Physical injuries caused by abuse often are covered up as accidents and may
not be visible. For example, welt marks on the back and thighs. Rodney, et al remind that
professionals dealing with child protection need to focus on four dimensions of ill treatment -
physical, psychological, relational and environmental.
Social workers need to be knowledgeable about the following realities and symptoms of child
maltreatment.
(a) Children rarely tell about the abuse because of fear of the perpetrator’s reaction, shame
and the belief that no one will believe or protect them.
(b) Children fear family breakup. For example, fear that the offender (who is a family
member) will be sent to jail.
(c) Children experience ambivalent feelings towards the perpetrator. They want the sexual
abuse/beatings to stop. The sexual abuse is NEVER the fault of the child although
children tend to think this way.
(d) Abused children tend to develop negative feelings about themselves. For example,
believing that they are bad and deserve the abusive treatment.
(e) The offenders of sexual abuse are usually male. In father/daughter incest, the mother is
usually unaware of the situation and even when she becomes aware, in most cases she
August 2009 76
may be unable to protect the child because of her own disempowered position in the
family.
(f) Physical abuse is symptomised by injuries, burns, bruises and fractures. Behaviour
indicators include hypervigilance, regression, poor bladder control, verbal inhibition,
excessive desire to please, adapt poor peer relations.
(g) Neglect involves failure to provide adequate resources to protect child from harm.
Neglect is often difficult to detect.
(h) Abandonment is also a form of child maltreatment – the child is left somewhere.
7.4.2 The Symptoms
If children (the victims) do not complain or talk, how can the problem be identified or
uncovered?
“Sexual Abuse is so traumatic that distress signals will escape even from someone who cannot
remember the abuse. Children depend on adults to read and understand these signals.”
Remember: (1) As a rule, children do not invent stories about sexual abuse.
(2) Child Protection has to be given top priority - the principle is to always err on
the side of child.
The nature of the distress signals are as follows:
These focus on the child.
(a) Physical Symptoms
♦ Injury to breasts, lower abdomen or thighs.

♦ Infections. In cases of sexual abuse, it can be venereal disease, urinary tract
infections.
♦ Psychosomatic manifestation - headaches, stomach aches, body pains.
♦ Sudden weight gain and loss.
♦ Menstruation difficulties and pregnancy.
♦ Wearing too much clothing or wearing very revealing clothes.
♦ Rocking and defensive body language.
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(b) Psychological and Emotional Symptoms. These are powerful indicators and
some become more valid when there is physical evidence.
♦ Child over anxious to please.

♦ Too much feelings of anger, hostility or defiance.
♦ Anxiety and helplessness.
♦ Fear of going back home.
♦ Fear of going to bed.
♦ Crying and depression.
♦ Confusion.
♦ Isolation, feelings of guilt and shame.
♦ Withdrawal and or detachment.
♦ Seeking attention.
(c) Sexual Behaviour
♦ In very young children, indications can be through drawings that are

inappropriate.
♦ Acting out of sexual behaviour with other children.
♦ Masturbation and unusual interest in genitals.
♦ Confusing normal behaviour with sexual advance.
♦ Indulging in early sex and promiscuity.
♦ Prostitution.
(d) Social Behaviour
♦ Withdrawal or hyperactive.
♦ Regression - very childlike behaviour - including bedwetting.
♦ Constant good behaviour - very obedient and perfect.
♦ Emotionally inappropriate reactions. E.g. laughing during a sad event.
♦ Fatigue and sleeplessness.
♦ Appears old for age.
♦ Lots of pocket money.
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♦ Unable to relate to children of same age.

♦ Social isolate - passive or aggressive.
(e) Self Abuse Behaviour
♦ Suicide attempts.
♦ Use of drugs, alcohol.
♦ Eating disorders.
♦ Cruelty to animals, toys.
♦ Theft.
♦ Running away from home.
(f) School Behaviour
♦ Difficulties with school - daydreaming, easily distracted, poor concentration.

♦ Difficulty in expressing opinion.
♦ Pretends to be incapable.
♦ Super achievement or model student.
♦ Frequent absence from school
♦ Inappropriate reference to sexuality.
(g) Environmental evidence of neglect, maltreatment or risk to child well being,

include unsafe building structures, dirty living conditions, exposure to dangerous
substances, infestation by pests, absence of food and access to harm by
perpetrators. (Ref. Rodney et al. Essentials of Child Welfare. Page 39 & 40 (2003)
Wiley).
Indicators may also be reflected in parental/sibling/caretaker behaviour – such as

hostility, fear, denial, over eager to please, bizarre explanations, disregard or lack of
concern for child.
August 2009 79
7.4.3 Disclosure
Disclosure can happen suddenly in some cases but it is usually a process. Children test out the
adult to see if it is safe to disclose and generally tend to disclose little by little. Children may not
also easily remember and may be confused and forgetful about abusive events.
A supportive response to the child is characterised by the following:
⇒ Convey that you believe what the child is saying.

⇒ Refrain from blaming the child in any way.
⇒ Convey concern and sympathy.
⇒ Convey your desire to help but don’t make promises you cannot keep (e.g. ‘I will not tell
anyone else’ - this is not possible).
⇒ Be calm and do not overact.
⇒ Do not let the press/media publicise the situation. It is preferable to avoid contact with
press.
Now once the symptoms are confirmed as indicators of child abuse, intervention must be
initiated. The process of change begins once the abuse is uncovered. For the child protection
worker, this presents many challenges as we confront the offender and other adults who may
have different views or may disagree. The non-offending parent/family have to be involved.
Police action may have to be initiated, involving civil and/or criminal court system.
Planning involves developing a plan of action for the healing process, which takes time.
Remember, human nature is resilient so the action plan must focus on factors that create the
working environment for change and healing to occur.
The social worker needs to help the abused child with the following:
• Deal with factors that block resilience (e.g. guilt),

• Eliminate misinformation about sex,
• Provide the right information on reproductive health,
• Help the child deal with inferiority feelings and low self esteem, anger, hostility, and
depression,
August 2009 80
• Deal with mistrust and develop trust,

• Try and restore as much as possible, the loss of childhood by strengthening peer relations
and child-centred activities appropriate for the age of the child.
Reference: Mameen MCEVOY, Let the Healing Begin, Nicola Valley Institute of Technology,
Merrit - BC - Canada, 1990
7.5 INTERVENTION
The agency mandated to intervene and investigate Child Maltreatment may be a public or
private/NGO organisation. The reporting may be done through a hotline, by a neighbour or a
person who provides care and service to the child. Investigation requires completing the
substantiality of allegation i.e., responding to where, who and evidence of maltreatment. Then it
involves a physical visit to one or more sites, interviewing the child, look for cause, application
and completion of removal procedures if needed, initiating measures to protect child from further
harm.
In planning intervention, the knowledge of the multi-causability factors (i.e. individual related,
family related, social and cultural factors) must be utilised in any intervention plan.
The intervention process must include eliminating the causative factors and facilitating healing
and return to normalcy. The intervention strategies may involve preventive action - in which
case, due consideration must be given to primary, secondary and tertiary levels of prevention.
Direct intervention may occur as a result of S.O.S. call, referral, report made to Child Protective
Services and sometimes even self refusal by a parent who may be concerned about not being
able to manage the child/children in an appropriate way.
The social worker needs to formulate a diagnostic summary and use it as a base for identifying
goals to be accomplished and tasks and activities required in the treatment process.
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Whenever a situation of child abuse and neglect is identified and confirmed, a process of
intervention follows.
Intervention will involve

• further investigation report on the situation presented,
• assessment of the situation (the social worker should be able to assess the degree of risk from
abuse and neglect and understand the causes) and,
• involvement in the helping process, which may involve working in collaboration with the
victim, the perpetrator and the criminal and or civil court systems.
The social worker should be knowledgeable about the legal framework and the resource system
to support the victim and the family. He/she must be able to give evidence and testify, be
knowledgeable about treatment modalities and be able to provide therapy to parents and
children. Play therapy is a very helpful technique utilised in the treatment of children. Lack of
sensitivity to individuality and cultural factors can be an obstacle for effective treatment.
As in all social work interventions, evaluation is very important to assess the success and utility
of treatment/interventions. Very often, social workers and other professionals may be hesitant to
take recourse to legal provisions. But failure to use the law can increase the risk to the child and
make the intervention a failure. Constructive use of Authority must be made appropriately.
Finally – Reunification with family must be considered in the treatment plan. To ensure that
reunification is successful, it has to be feasible and the criteria for reunification are met.
Intervention may end in permanent rupture with parent/graduation with resort to adoption, foster
care or institutional care.
Activity 4
i. Give examples of intervention to address cultural factors in child abuse.
ii. You become aware of a case of child abuse in your community. The victim is a 13 year-
old boy, total orphan, working as a mechanic in a garage. You learn that he is not only
beaten by his employer, but is also sexually abused. Develop an intervention plan.
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Additional Readings
1. Chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 in Working with Child Abuse and Neglect, Wiehe, Vernor R.,
Page, 1996
2. Chapters 9 and 10, Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, Tower, Cynthia Crosson,
Allyn and Bacon, 1989
The above readings have not been provided in the binder. Consult the UOM Library for the
above readings.
1. Identify the philosophy of child protection services.
2. There is much debate on the effect of child abuse and neglect. Can the damage be
undone? Is the damage of a temporary, short-term nature or is it permanent, creating
cultures of neglect, abuse and violence? Discuss.
3. Make your own list of factors that determine the impact of abuse and neglect.
4. Children who have been removed from abusive homes are always grateful to escape from
their homes. Discuss.
7.7 SUMMARY
(1) Child protection services are intended to protect children from harm. The interventions
can be at primary, secondary and tertiary level.
(2) Social workers are guided by Child Protection Legislation which mandates intervention
into family matters. The intervention involves working with other professionals - police,
lawyers, psychologists, etc.
(3) Children rarely come over to disclose abuse. Social workers and other professionals can
identify abuse by symptoms. The process of investigation begins tentatively and
demands a lot of caution and skills.
(4) It is very important to heal the abuse through therapy and assistance and develop
competency in children and parents.
UNIT 8 OVERVIEW OF CHILDREN IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES
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Unit Structure
8.0 Overview
8.2 Definition
8.2.1 Identifying Needs of Children in Special Circumstances
8.3 Intervention Strategies
8.5 Summary
8.0 OVERVIEW
This unit focuses on children in special circumstances. We identify cases of special

circumstances in Mauritius and assess the knowledge, methods and resources needed to work
with children in special circumstances.
1. Explain the concept of children in special circumstances.
2. Identify cases of special circumstances.
3. Understand the needs of children in special circumstances in Mauritius.
4. Assess intervention options and processes.
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8.2 DEFINITION
The term “children in special circumstances” refers to children who because of some special
condition, problem, talent, disorder or other qualities, are constrained in their participation in
society and use of social resources. Some examples include school dropouts, street children,
abused and neglect children, children in trouble with law, children with disabilities, refugee
children.
Children found in special circumstances require professional intervention (from social workers
and others) to be able to integrate themselves in family and social institutions (for instance,
schools). The family may require support to care for children in special circumstances, for
example, abandoned children, working children, street children, juvenile delinquents, children
living in poor or dysfunctional families, etc.
Activity 1
Based on your understanding of the explanation of children in special circumstances, list some
reasons why some children in Mauritius may find their circumstances described as “special”.
8.2.1 Identifying Needs of Children in Special Circumstances
Reading 1 provides information on children in special circumstances. As a child welfare

professional, you are expected to analyse the conditions and needs of these children, based on
the special circumstance situation.
Reading 1
(i) Identifying Needs Of Children In Special Circumstances, compiled by S.

Ragobur.
(ii) Juvenile Delinquency, compiled by S. Ragobur.
Reading 2
Page 56-59 - Invest in Children: Securing Rights in a changing Society, an Updated

Situation Analysis of Children and Women in the Republic of Mauritius, October 1998,
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UNICEF, Mauritius.
Reading 3
Pages 61 – 62 - Situation Analysis of Women and Children, UNICEF, Mauritius

(1994)
Activity 2
i. Explain the term developmental disabilities and identify some of the causes of developmental
disabilities.
ii. What do the data state about disabilities in age groups 0-19 years (from Reading 1)?
Iii What are the characteristics of ‘street children’? Are the street children in Mauritius, South
Africa and India comparable? Explain your answer.
Activity 3
i. Describe Juvenile Delinquency.
ii. List causative factors that are associated with juvenile delinquency.
iii. Based on your readings and data, explain the nature of juvenile offences in Mauritius.
8.3 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
The intervention strategies for helping children must begin with a definition and an
understanding of the “special circumstances” situation in order to implement the right action.
Even then, the risk exists that many options for action may have the potential to harm the
child/children even while trying to help them. For instance, stopping a child from working
because of the child’s tender age may be even more harmful to the child because of the situation
of increased poverty the child will have to face in the absence of any other income support and
other supportive measures to the family.
After understanding and analysing the difficult situation, planning and implementation of action
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are effected, followed by evaluation and impact of the programme. In certain cases, intervention
provisions are specified under law. For example, Probation and After Care Services and
Juvenile Offenders Treatment.
Some strategies and levels of intervention which could be considered to help children in special
circumstances include the following:
(a) Advocacy
Advocacy action may be targeted at government, community, family or a powerful

individual. The overall objective would be to raise awareness about the “special
circumstances” situation. Advocacy is also used to convince policy makers for the need
for change and the development of services by allocating national resources for special
needs group.
(b) Development of Legal Framework and Social Policy
The intervention would focus on teaching children and educating families and the
community about the laws and, creating mechanisms for reporting and action. This
strategy may require creating new laws or amending old ones so that the legal provision
covers children adequately. Many countries still do not have separate legal provisions to
deal with children who are offenders.
(c) Development of Support Services
These include services to support the child and family through income support, access to
education (including special needs), healthcare, vocational training and safe employment.
The intervention may target services to children and to the family by informing and
educating the family on special circumstances and services available, creating community
care networks and referring to government’s and NGOs’ services so that the programmes
meet the special needs in an appropriate and nurturing manner. Counselling and therapy
support for both the child and the interacting systems may be called for. New resources
may need to be created, for example, to help those infected with HIV/AIDS.
(d) Improvement by Intervening at the Level of the Child, Family and Community.
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The strategy refers to the improvement being effected through the provision of
information and opportunities for child/children in relation to special needs and help
provided to the family unit to facilitate access to information so that it can function in a
cohesive and supportive manner. The development of networks and community capacity
building are needed for children in special circumstances for them to participate more
fully in development and action.
Primary prevention will involve the education of the society in general (through IEC)
about children in special circumstances and their needs. Secondary prevention will focus
on intervention (IEC and services) with at risk groups. Tertiary prevention will focus on
the population with special needs; the services will include support and rehabilitation.
(e) Services for Children in Special Needs
Both the public sector and the NGOs intervene to prevent difficulties children in special
circumstances may face and to provide ameliorative and rehabilitative support.
The National Children’s Council which functions under the aegis of the Ministry for
Women, Child Development and Family Welfare, registers all cases of child abuse and
neglect and carries out investigation. It may recommend the removal of the child from
parental/family home or institutions.
The Ministry for Women also provides shelter and home for children and women.
The Probation and After Care Services of the Ministry for Reform Institutions provide
rehabilitative care for child and juvenile offenders.
The NGOs provide services (special education) to children with special learning needs.
The NGOs receive material and financial support from the government.
SACIM (Society for Aid to Children Inoperable in Mauritius) provides financial and
social support to children from vulnerable families who require medical treatment
overseas (because locally, facilities may not exist).
The Halley Movement undertakes the education for the prevention of abuse and neglect
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of children and provides training for volunteers working with children, particularly to
primary school teachers. This organisation is developing a project to empower elderly
people to provide services for children in the community.
The Ministry for Social Security provides grants to NGOs, including charitable
institutions and provides residential care for abandoned and orphaned children. The staff
of the Ministry also supervises the residential homes to ensure that minimum standards of
care are maintained and that the well-being of children are safeguarded.
Activity 4
i. Explain how advocacy could be developed to meet the needs of disabled children in
Mauritius.
ii. What is your reaction to the contradictions inherent in developing interventions on child
labour?
Activity 5
i. Make a table showing the list of special needs group and social support services network
available to them in Mauritius.
ii. How can school social service assist children to improve their educational performance
and deal with the problem of absenteeism, truancy and dropouts?
iii. To what extent do you support the view that Tourism is facilitating the exploitation of
children through commercial sex and pornography?
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1. (a) Consider some of the ways policy makers and the public at large could be made better
aware of the situation of children in special circumstances.
(b) What will be your priorities?
2. Identify issues not adequately covered or not raised at all in this unit concerning children in
special circumstances.
3. Most descriptions of children living in difficult circumstances refer to family situations. Can
difficult circumstances apply to children living in difficult neighbourhoods (deprived areas)?
8.5 SUMMARY
1. There are various social, economic and physical factors which cause children to experience
special needs and difficulties.
2. The ‘special needs” group is a very demanding and challenging area of work with children
not only because of the diversity of children who fall under this category but also because the
nature of the difficulties faced by these children and their families is very complex. This
group requires a multi-sectoral and team approach to provide effective help, support and
improvement.
3. Overall, in Mauritius, social work with children in special circumstances is under-served.
While the area of corrections and youth services are staffed by trained social workers, social
work professionals and service providers are either not present or else sparsely represented in
most of the other special needs areas. Such special needs areas include school social work,
children born to HIV/AIDS infected mothers, the developmentally disabled, working
children, children living in alcoholic and abusive families or in families undergoing divorce.
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UNIT 9 CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES/SPECIAL NEEDS
Unit Structure
9.0 Overview
9.2 Introduction
9.2.1 Definition
9.3 The Nature and Causes of Developmental Disabilities
9.3.1 Nature
9.3.2 Causes of Disabilities
9.4 Intervention
9.4.1 Constraints and Shortcomings
9.6 Summary
9.0 OVERVIEW
This unit focuses on children who experience developmental difficulties. The concept of
development difficulties and other related concepts will be presented.
The nature and causes of development difficulties will be examined, followed by an assessment
of the needs of these children, and the role and function of professional services in relation to
these needs.
1. Explain the concept of developmental disabilities and other related concepts.

2. Identify the nature and causes of developmental disabilities.
3. Assess the situation of children with developmental difficulties.
4. Identify the perspective for social welfare intervention as regards children with
developmental disabilities.
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5. Evaluate the policy issues and the different programmes and resources concerning
children with disabilities /special needs.
9.2 INTRODUCTION
Society has the responsibility to ensure that all individuals (both adults and children) who are
victims of some disability be given the opportunity and the support to facilitate their integration
into society in a sustainable manner. This is the global philosophy behind collective intervention
to help those experiencing disabilities.
Society has not always had sympathetic attitudes towards the welfare of disabled people. In the
past, disabled people were looked down upon and denigrated to a life of pity, dependency and
charity.
The Housing and Population Census 2000 (Mauritius) defined a person with disability as
someone who is limited to perform daily life activities in a manner considered below normal for
a person of his/her age because of long term physical or mental condition, or health problems.
Although the current situation may be far from what is ideally desirable, there has been a global
shift in attitudes towards the disabled. Some more recent developments that explain the shift in
attitudes is the humanitarian movement, the human rights movement, the actions initiated by the
United Nations (International Year for Disabled) and the dissemination of knowledge on the
capacities of the disabled that have all been instrumental in bringing a change in attitudes. The
golden rule is that the earlier the diagnosis of disability and related intervention, the more
facilitative and successful will be the rehabilitation and integration. It is sad when action on
disabilities is taken late. Let’s now look at what constitutes developmental disabilities.
9.2.1 Definition
The Dictionary of Social Work explains developmental disability as
a condition that produces functional impairment as a result of disease, genetic

disorder or impaired growth before adulthood. Some of the conditions classified as
developmental disabilities include autism, mental retardation, epilepsy, cerebral
palsy and Down’s syndrome.
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Development disorder refers to a group of physical and mental dysfunctions that appear before
maturity is achieved.
(Ref. Social Work Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Barker. K. L, NASW Press, USA.
Impairment refers to ‘any loss or abnormality of physical or mental function.’
Handicap The implementation handbook on the CRC, Unicef 1998, explain the term handicap to
mean “the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal
level with others. It describes the encounter between the person with disability and the
environment”. Handicaps limit the fulfilment of roles and functions that a person could perform.
Article 23 of the CRC provides for the rights of disabled children.
Reading 1
Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNICEF, 1998.
Activity 1
1. Explain briefly some social attitudes toward disabled children in Mauritius.

2. Discuss changes that have occurred in society’s attitudes towards children with disabilities.
Show how changes in terminology have shaped/affected attitudes towards children with
special needs. (Be prepared to discuss this during lecture)
3. “A child may experience impairment but not experience handicap”. Discuss.
4. Tick the correct answer.
Developmental disability is:
(a) a new way to describe mental illness

(b) a legal term to define special education programmes
(c) a term that includes a variety of physical and
mental conditions obstructing development
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9.3 THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES
There are different types of developmental difficulties and related causes. An understanding of
the nature and causes of developmental disability empowers social workers with the right
knowledge and attitudes to serve children with disabilities and to help and support the family and
caring institutions. The knowledge also empowers social workers for advocacy and help them
make contribution towards the social development of the child.
9.3.1 Nature
Developmental disability is manifested before an individual attains adult status. Developmental

disability is likely to continue indefinitely, with little scope for improvement. The situation of
the child experiencing disability can get worse than it is at present but in some cases, the
developmental potential can be maximised through exercises, speech therapy and stimulation.
Developmental difficulties may limit the individual’s functioning for self care and management,
communication and language, mobility, self reliance and ability to integrate into normal learning
systems. Note however, that individuals with developmental disabilities can have other
exceptional skills, for e.g., in computer ability, art, etc. When a group or society fails to provide
support and facilities to developmentally disabled children, the obstructions become a handicap
to the individual.
9.3.2 Causes of Disabilities
Disabilities are attributed to genetic factors and pre-birth conditions, accidents and events during
birth and also some postnatal factors. These causes are briefly considered below:
Prior birth factors include genetic elements, for example, the Down’s syndrome. Sometimes,
when the mother is infected with rubella (measles) during pregnancy, the risk of developmental
disability in the child is high. Other pre-births factors include exposure to radiation, toxins,
diabetes, poor maternal nutrition (including the intake of water), abuse of drugs and alcohol and
the age of the mother.
Incidents around the birth of the child are also high risk factors for developmental disabilities.
They include birth complication, maternal anaemia, twisted umbilical cord, breech delivery,
August 2009 94
wrong use of forceps, delayed/prolonged labour, pre-maturity and poor care.
The post natal factors that are considered high risk include such traumas as tumours of the brain,
skull fractures, infections like meningitis, measles, polio, accidents, exposure to toxins, or
poisoning, poor nutrition and child abuse that result in permanent physical injury and brain
damage.
Social work intervention is aimed at promoting positive interaction and adjustment between the
individual and the environment. Thus, social work roles and tasks with developmental
disabilities include advocacy, support, counselling, and resource provision in addition to
planning, policy-making and administration of services and programmes.
Activity 2
i. List factors that could cause developmental disabilities in children.
ii. Make at least three suggestions for prevention of disabilities.
9.4 INTERVENTION
Intervention for helping children with developmental disabilities demands primary prevention
and, secondary and tertiary interventions. Policies and programmes need to be developed to
prevent disabilities from occurring in the first instance.
At primary level, it is possible to reduce the incidence of disability by prevention through

primary health care; nutrition; protection against communicable disease; safety regulations and
promoting environmental safety.
Prevention and early detection help to reduce the incidence and impact of disability. At
secondary level of intervention, health care and occupational therapy and education help to limit
the handicap and impact of disability.
Access to equipment and to community institutions help to reduce the long-term impact.
Children experiencing developmental difficulties have the same needs as other children but
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because of their special condition, they require additional services and support to meet the needs
arising out of their special situation. Moreover, it is not just the children who may have special
needs and thus require special services. The family and the institutions may require special
attention too. Additional resources may be needed from the school to cater for the children; the
family may not be able to afford the special medical care or may have little information on the
disabling condition which may affect the capacity to care and the quality of care provided to the
child.
The assessment process demands understanding how satisfactorily the current living
environment nurtures and facilitates the growth and development of the child, identifying gaps in
services and social and family attitudes that impinge upon the child who is experiencing
disability.
Readings 2
• Family and Disability A Personal Experience, NCRD Newsletter, December 1994.

• A Society for All, Extracts from the Report on Accessibility for Disabled Persons, NCRD
Newsletter December 1994.
• Training, Employment and Community Integration Programmes. NCRD Newsletter,
December 1993.
• Person with Disabilities in the Mauritian Society. NCRD Newsletter, December 1992.
• Mainstreaming. NCRD Newsletter, December 1994, Vol 1.
• Concept of Community-Based Rehabilitation. NCRD Newsletter, December 1992.
Activity 3
i. Discuss some typical reactions of parents who discover that their child is
developmentally disabled.
ii. A family wants to give up its developmentally disabled child to the care of an institution.
What do you think of this decision? Explain your answer. Are there beliefs related to
your culture that influence your response?
iii. What support may a family require to help a child with developmental disabilities?
iv. Discuss the various issues you will consider in assessing the needs of a developmentally
disabled child within the family.
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9.4.1 Constraints and Shortcomings
The 1990 census reported that some 8% of children aged from birth to 14 years suffer from some
form of disability. It is contested that there is a possibility that there is an underreporting of
disabled children because some disabilities are hidden for fear of stigma and there is also lack of
awareness about some disabilities, particularly of the milder forms.
Most of the services provided for disabled children are special education facilities provided by
NGOs (with some financial help and support from the government). There are some seven
schools providing special education. Table 9.1 below provides information on the schools.
Table 9.1
Name of Special Education Schools No. of Children < 18

Louis Lagesse Trust fund 35
Lizié dans la Main -
School for the Deaf 150
School for the Educationally Subnormal 160
ADEBS (Education for Dyslexic Children) 30
APIEM (Mental retardation) 280
Source: Situation Analysis of Women and Children 1997 Draft Report, UNICEF
Table 9.2
Disabled Population aged less than 20 years – 2000 Census Data
Legs Arms Movement Eye Ear Eye Ear Speech Learning Behaviour Self Other Total
& & & & & Care
feet Fingers Manipulation Ear Speech
Male 402 130 29 270 110 12 125 402 382 252 112 320 2546
Female 252 68 24 220 120 10 101 315 226 137 129 208 1816
654 198 53 490 230 22 226 717 608 389 241 528 4356
Source: Having & Pop Census Report 2000. Central Statistic Office
(Disabled Resident Population)
According to the educational authorities (White Paper on Education), some 6000 children are in
need of special education. Only about one thousand are receiving some form of education and
training. Social work intervention and practice is under-servicing this segment because of lack
of awareness of social work roles and functions and piece- meal approach to helping the child
August 2009 97
with disabilities.
It must be acknowledged that addressing the needs of disabled children require a multi-sectoral
approach, involving health, education, social security and other service providers. Based on the
social work mission, social workers have the primary responsibility to ensure that the needs of
this vulnerable group are not overlooked or neglected by society and that the child with special
needs is given the opportunity to develop his/her maximum potential and to integrate in society.
Activity 4
i. Analyse table 9.1 and 9.2. what can be inferred from the data on children with
disabilities and training and education.
ii. Explain how a case could be made to strengthen services for disabled children and their
families.
1. Review the main causes of developmental disabilities.
2. Consider the merits and demerits of segregating children with special needs as an
intervention strategy to meet special needs.
9.6 SUMMARY
1. Developmental disabilities among children exist in all societies. Additional resources

and capacities are required from parents, social institutions and community to provide for
proper care and integration of the disabled child.
2. Prevention of developmental difficulties is better than finding cure. An understanding of
the nature and causes of risk factors is essential to develop primary prevention.
3. Children with disabilities have same needs and rights as other children. The care and
support for children with developmental disabilities (in Mauritius) is limited. The
services provided are inadequate, both in terms of quality and quantity. There is also
lack of awareness and understanding of the role and functions of social work in the
integration and rehabilitation of children with developmental disabilities.
August 2009 98
UNIT 10 DIRECT INTERVENTION
Unit Structure
10.0 Overview
10.2 Direct Intervention
10.2.1 The Concept of “High Risk”
10.3 Intervention Strategies
10.3.1 Practice Settings, Roles and Tasks
10.3.2 Process
10.3.3 Assessment
10.5 Summary
10.0 OVERVIEW
This unit focuses on direct intervention techniques for working with children. The concept of
direct intervention and its application will be discussed.
The term “high risk” will be defined and discussed. Focus will be on creating awareness and
understanding about high risk situations that call for direct intervention by social workers.
The readings suggested by your lecturer are based on writings of American and British writers
and but as far as possible, the concepts and theories to understand high risk situations and
interventions are related to the local context.
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1. Explain clearly the following concepts:

(i) direct intervention.
(ii) ‘high risk’
2. Explain and develop the assessment process used when working with children.
3. Explain the importance of the planning, implementation and monitoring processes when
working with children.
10.2 DIRECT INTERVENTION
Most direct intervention work is performed at macro and micro levels practice.
The intervention process
• may be initiated by the child welfare agency (i.e., reach out). You diagnose/ assess a need
situation and decide to do something about it. For example, through statistics, you learn
about the rise of teenage pregnancy. Therefore you decide to offer counselling and education
to teenagers.
• may occur as a result of reference, i.e., by action initiated by a third party, for example, the
school system or the paediatrician refers a case of child at risk, or a child living in poverty.
• can happen through self reference, for example by teenagers coming to see the social worker
or developing contact through phone, by parents worried about child development, etc.
Essentially, the interventionist, like a professional social worker, works with the child and the
system with which the child is involved i.e., either the family, the residential care home or the
school. In most direct practice with children, social workers work with both the child and the
family.
Some direct interventions involve investigation and reporting. For example, the professional
worker in adoption settings may need to investigate home conditions and report to the adoption
sanctioning system, i.e., the courts. In all cases of direct work, professional helpers need to
August 2009 100

develop a working relationship with the child and his/her family and then proceed to make an
assessment of the situation. The process leads to the development of a plan for action, followed
by implementation of action and linking with appropriate resource systems and terminates with
evaluation of intervention. It is helpful to start by meeting the family and the child in a neutral
environment but home visits may have to be effected to assess the situation.
A lot of the direct intervention work occurs in child protection services which you have covered
in Unit 7. Direct intervention practice includes protective services but also focuses on
developmental issues, elimination of child poverty, meeting the special needs of the children,
counselling and organising leisure activities for children. Social workers using direct
intervention may use traditional casework approach, group work or counselling. For example,
the probation and aftercare services in Mauritius do a lot of casework with juveniles. But
intervention may also involve counselling and family therapy or group work techniques. The
Ministry for Women’s Rights, Child Development and Family Welfare relies heavily on
counselling techniques.
Activity 1
i. What is the objective of direct intervention work with children in Mauritius?
ii. What skills and knowledge are of particular significance when working with children?
Activity 2
Why do you think direct intervention in child care services involves working with both the child
and the family/child care system? Is this a right approach? Explain your answer.
10.2.1 The Concept of “High Risk”
Direct intervention occurs because there is a possibility of some harm and disadvantage being
inflicted upon the child. The purpose of direct intervention is to avert this from happening.
When the living environment of children constitutes a threat to their well being and
development, a risk situation prevails and intervention must be considered. However, this
August 2009 101

situation does not mean that action is always initiated by social workers. Families may come to
social workers to seek help, for example, by using S.O.S hot lines or by contacting directly the
agency concerned.
According to D. Hill, (1983), the professional helper, (like social worker) needs to provide
answers to three questions:
(i) Is the child at risk? If so, to what degree?
(ii) What is the cause?
(iii) What services can be offered?
The risk situation must be thoroughly investigated.
According to B. Day (1979), risk can be categorised as “here and now” (high risk), accumulative
risk and potential risk.
1. ‘Here and Now’(High risk) constitutes a situation where there is immediate threat of
physical injury, abandonment or danger to life. Such a risk situation warrants immediate
intervention. Delay in action would result in more harm and deprivation to the child.
2. Accumulative risk comprises of chronic disorders, difficulties, marital violence etc. It

constitutes a situation where the interventionist/helper needs to monitor the situation and
decide when to intervene.
3. Potential risk situation is where the child’s environment exhibits signs of difficulties, for
e.g., mental health problems or other such illnesses and dysfunctions, but where no action
has occurred yet. The interventionist needs to assess what would be the most effective
intervention and the factors that would serve as a trigger for intervention.
Some examples of “high risk” situations requiring immediate intervention are: when there is a
danger to the life of the child; when the caretaker is very ill and is unable to care for the child.
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Activity 3
Give some examples of high risk, accumulative risk and potential risk situations.
10.3 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES
10.3.1 Practice Settings, Roles and Tasks
According to Arthur C. Emlen (Encyclopaedia of Social Work), the role of social work in child
care services emerged from the concern to protect children, as well as from social work practice
with families.
Child care professionals are involved in a variety of roles when developing policies and
programmes that strengthen the capacity of families to provide better care.
In this context, social workers undertake a series of tasks, such as

− analysing needs,
− improving existing services and benefits,
− helping families to use child support services in an effective manner and,
− providing leadership and initiatives to bring together the various stakeholders in child
welfare.
Professionals may work directly with the children and their families by providing services to the
following groups/area:
1. Adolescents and pregnant adolescents. The professional may use pharmaco copy,
counselling or group work techniques, like peer educators to help adolescents on
reproductive health, parent relation, misuse of drugs and schooling and educational
issues.
2. Adoption refers to the process whereby a child is legally adopted by persons not
biologically the parents of the child. It may involve serving all relations with biological
parents.
Foster care – Foster care involves institution of alternative parents in the child who may
not have any parents left or who may not be able to live with biological parents.
August 2009 103

3. Group care for children may be permanent, or temporary or in terms of day care.
4. Juvenile offenders - rehabilitation work in correctional settings. The process may be to
work with children in their home or removal from home to another environment.
5. Protective services to children - Rehabilitation in cases of child abuse and neglect and
social protection work.
6. Runaways and street children – to reunite the children with family or alternate care.
7. School social work and child guidance – it is directed to help children facing difficulties
in school with learning and adaptations.
8. Youth and organised leisure services - aimed at socialisation and the development of
children. Leisure is acknowledged as a human right.
9. Parents - through counselling and information on child development.
10. Developing creativity in children serves to promote the developmental potential of
children through art and drama.
In direct intervention with children, the social worker uses counselling and therapy and guided
group interaction. The process involves identification of the problem, assessment, treatment
(which may include medical treatment), law enforcement, and advocacy on behalf of the client
so that the service offered is in the best interest of the child.
In Mauritius, very few professional helpers are employed in child protection services and in the
field of child welfare practice. Most workers have limited knowledge of children and social
work. This situation is changing slowly.
Social workers help children by developing a potential helping relationship with the child and
the family. They then use this relationship to bring about change and progress by empowering
the client system. This means that the ‘professional self’ is the ‘work tool’ for the helping
process. This is referred to as “constructive use of self”. The professional uses his/her
knowledge and skills. The constructive use of self means that the professional uses the “self” to
enable the child to experience a warm and protective relationship with an adult. The social
worker serves as a friend and a role model and facilitates insight development to bring change in
the client system.
In working with the family and adults who form part of the child’s family and environment, the
August 2009 104

“constructive use of self” is used in relationships to create awareness, understanding and

concern for the child’s needs and well-being. The professional helper uses the ‘self’ to create a
helping and nurturing relationship with the parents and the caretakers. It may at times involve
constructive use of the worker’s authority to bring the needed change for the benefit of the child
and the family. The constructive use of self is also used in imparting training and skills and
provide a role model for the child.
Activity 4
i. Explain how professional helpers make constructive use of the self to empower and help
abused and neglected children and help the parents provide love and proper care for their
children.
ii. How important is it for a professional helper to understand the cultural context of the
child client? Support your answer with one or two examples.
10.3.2 Process
The ‘professional self’ is the most important ‘tool’ when working with the children and their
families and he/she needs to reflect on the constructive “use of self” when preparing for
intervention.
Activity 5
i. Explain what you understand by ‘constructive use of self’. Link this concept to the work with
children and their families.
ii. Identify some questions you need to ask yourself as you prepare for intervention with
children and their families in child neglect.
Direct Intervention process in child welfare demands that the helper engages in a series of
decisions about:
(a) Identification of issues/problems that create a danger/diswelfare for child/children.
August 2009 105

(b) Decisions about how the problem should be resolved. The professional
interventionist/helper has to think of goals and strategies to help the child and the family.
This process is also referred to as case planning and service delivery. Essentially, what
the interventionist needs to do is to consider what is the nature of the problem, why it
persists and how to help the child and the family.
After finding answers to what the problem is and why it is occurring, intervention strategies can
be developed.
The strategies may involve one or more of the following:
• environmental support, i.e., provision of resources and supportive network;

• constructive use of authority, in which case cautioning or imposing of sanctions may
resolve the problems, (for example, a parent is not sending the child to school regularly,
making the parent aware of legal action may suffice to correct the problem);
• empowerment of parents/child through information- sometimes parents are ignorant
about a child’s needs; information on child development may be the right strategy;
• healing process through therapy, counselling and clinical work.
10.3.3 Assessment
The helping action of the professional child care worker is based on the understanding and
assessment of the specific circumstances and situation of the child client. In the course on
Generic Method of Social Work, (Year II), you have acquired knowledge about the purpose and
the process of assessment. This knowledge needs to be applied in the assessment of the
child/family situation and interaction. Social workers working with children need to be very
knowledgeable of age appropriate behaviour of children and the family system. The assessment
is based on what the social worker observes about the child and his/her interacting system (it
could be the family, the school, or the sister home) and information gathered through interaction
and references (reference to doctor, teacher, psychiatrist).
The conclusion drawn on the information obtained through interviews and other data and
observation, is referred to as professional assessment. The preliminary assessment tells the
social worker whether further investigation, exploration and assessment is needed. For example,
August 2009 106
parents are worried about their teenage daughter who has become very quiet and withdrawn
instead of the talkative and demanding child they have known. The social worker’s assessment
may be that it is just a normal adolescence manifestation. Then the intervention strategy process
will involve empowering the parents with information on adolescent children. It is not good
enough to tell the parents “It’s OK. There is nothing to worry about.” However, if the
assessment gives rise to the need for further probing because of some indication of distress (here
non-verbal communication and observation are very important tools), then the social worker will
seek more information and data to arrive at a second or final assessment. Martin Herbert
suggests developing a family life map to assess parental skills and their goals and aspirations for
themselves and their children. In assessing the behaviour of children, we need to look at
behaviour and the ability to master age appropriate life tasks, to be able to understand normal
and not normal situations.
The intervention in child welfare can be made up of a multi-professionals team for e.g., social
worker, school teacher and paediatrician. Therefore, several professionals may be involved in
the intervention process. The intervention is determined by the proper assessment, availability
of resources, workability of client system, monitoring mechanisms, mobilisation of human
capacities, marital work and counselling, family therapy and improvement of family
relationships. These require good relationship building and communication skills - the objective
is to bring in change and healing through a supportive and monitoring relationship between the
social worker and the client system.
1. Explain how this unit has increased your knowledge and understanding about the
following:
- Direct intervention and its scope.
- Assessment - including risk assessment.
- Use of self as enabler.
2. How far has this Unit affected your competencies as an assessor of ‘parental qualities’.
August 2009 107

10.5 SUMMARY
1. This unit has classified the aims and objectives of direct intervention with children and
provided some information on some intervention methods and processes.
2. The social worker needs to befriend the child and the family for the intervention to be
successful and to engage the child/family in change and empowerment processes.
3. For effective helping to occur, the intervention process starts with establishing links and
moves to assessment, planning and implementation of action. A nurturing environment
has to be created to facilitate change and promote the growth of the child.
August 2009 108

CHILD WELFARE SERVICES -

SOCIAL WORK WITH CHILDREN
SWRK 1002
READINGS
FILE
(refer to separate file)
August 2009 109

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS
Reading 1
(a) The Best Interest of the Child - Social Work and Social Welfare, An Introduction.
Second edition. J Heffernan, G Shuttlesworth, R Ambrosino. West Publishing Co, USA
(1992), pp 216-217. Permission to reprint from West Publishing Co.
(b) Best Interests of the Child – By James R. Himes, Director, UNICEF International,
Child Development Centre. Published jointly by the UNICEF International Child
Development Centre and Clarendon Press. Permission to reprint from UNICEF,
MAURITIUS.
Readings 2
1. The Girl Child - Beijing’s Fourth World Conference on Women. Permission to reprint
from UNICEF, Mauritius.
2. Basic Fact Sheet - The Situation of the Girl Child (10-14) in the Republic of Mauritius.
The Women Advisory Panel, Mauritius Family Planning Association (brochure).
3. A Statistical Profile on Children in the Republic of Mauritius, Ministry of Women,
Family Welfare and Child Development – June 1998. Permission to reprint from the
Ministry.
4. Disabled Resident Population by sex, age, marital status and type of disability (Republic
of Mauritius, Year 2000).
August 2009 110

UNIT 2: INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
Reading 1
First Call for Children- UNICEF(1992). Permission to reprint from UNICEF, Mauritius.
Reading 2
1. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, (1989). Permission to reprint from UNICEF,
Mauritius.
2. Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Unicef, 1998.
Permission to reprint from Unicef, Mauritius.
3. United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice
(Beijing rules, 1985. Permission to reprint from Unicef.
Reading 3
African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, (1990). Permission to reprint from
UNICEF, Mauritius.
Reading 4
World Summit Goals for Children, (1990). Permission to reprint from UNICEF, Mauritius.
Reading 5
Table 2.1: Found in manual.
August 2009 111

UNIT 3: THE SITUATION OF CHILDREN IN MAURITIUS
Reading 1∗
Chapter I: Socio-economic Context.- Situation Analysis of Women and Children - UNICEF,

Mauritius, (1994). Permission to reprint from UNICEF(Mauritius)
Reading 2*
Chapter II: Mauritian Women and Children in the 1990’s - Situation Analysis of Women and
Children - UNICEF, Mauritius, (1994). Permission to reprint from
UNICEF(Mauritius)
Reading 3
National Plan of Action for the Survival Development and Protection of Children in Mauritius.
Ministry of Women’s Rights, Child Development & Family Welfare, 1992.
The report is not included in the manual but is available at the Mauritiana Section, UOM
Library. You are advised to read the full report.
Reading 4
Child Protection Act 1994. Permission to reprint from State Law Office, Mauritius.
Additional handouts will be proposed by lecturer.
Reading 5
Score Card - Evaluation of the World Summit Goals set up under the National Programme.
Found in the binder. Permission to reprint from the Ministry of Women, Family Welfare and
Child Development, Mauritius.
Reading 6*
Conclusion: Situation Analysis of Women and Children, UNICEF, Mauritius, (1994).

Permission to reprint from UNICEF(Mauritius)
Additional Reading
UNPD – Extract from Common Country Assessment II (Mauritius, December 2003).
∗
Relevant chapters from the updated (1998)version of the report are included at the end of the Readings File
August 2009 112

UNIT 4: ROLE OF SOCIAL WORK WITH CHILDREN
Reading 1
• The Function of Social Work in Services for Families and Children - Social Work in
Contemporary Society, Garvin C D and Tropman J E, Allyn & Bacon, USA (1992), pp334-
336. Permission to reprint from Allyn and Bacon.
Reading 2
• A Statistical Profile on Children in the Republic of Mauritius (1998), Ministry of Women,

Family Welfare and Child Development - P: 8 Table 5 (a)
Reading 3
• Chapter 14: Social Work in Contemporary Society, Garvin C D and Tropman J E, Allyn
and Bacon, USA (1992). Permission to reprint from Allyn and Bacon.
August 2009 113

UNIT 5: CHILD POVERTY
Reading 1
Who are the Poor? - Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur.
Reading 2
Jensen, R. T (2000). Development of Indicators on Child Labour. ILO (pp8-16). (sample).
Readings 3
3(a) Children in Vulnerable Circumstances in Mauritius: Situation Analysis of Women
and Children in Mauritius, UNICEF, (1994) pp 24 - 27. Permission to reprint from
UNICEF(Mauritius).
3(b)∗ Updated version of 2(a), pages 62-63.
3(c) Summary of Household Budget Survey 1997, CSO, Government of Mauritius.
Note: Not included in binder but available in the Mauritiana Section, UoM
Library.
∗
Located at the end of the Readings File
August 2009 114

Reading 1
Unit 5
WHO ARE THE POOR?

Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur
Simply speaking, poverty reflects the condition of being poor in terms of means of subsistence.
But poverty is complex to define because of the different perspectives and approaches to
defining poverty. In her book, Social Welfare-Politics and Public Policy, Diana DeNitto has
summarised at least five approaches to defining poverty:
• Poverty as deprivation
• Poverty as culture
• Poverty as exploitation
• Poverty as inequality
• Poverty as structure
So it is difficult to agree on one definition and to use this definition to identify the poor.
Generally speaking, poverty evokes extreme images of famine, starvation, homelessness, and
poor health. According to World Bank data, about 13% of households in China are estimated to
be living in poverty, i.e., around 100 million people. In India, it is estimated that about 44% of
families, i.e., around 350 million people, live in poverty. Another 200 million poor people live in
South East Asia.
Poverty is however experienced in all societies, though the realities and the degree of poverty
vary from country to country. It is estimated that there are over 30 million poor people in the
USA.
Poverty may be visible, for example, beggars, poorly nourished and homeless children, poorly
paid workers; but poverty may also not be visible, for example, those living in remote, rural
areas.
Individuals may not be poor throughout their life spans but may experience phases of their lives
when they were poor. Poverty throughout the life course is a reality to a small percentage of
people.
Poverty narrows and closes life chances and opportunities. Being poor means economic
insecurity which affects mental and physical well being. Poor people experience greater
emotional stress, instability, anxiety, depression and anger. Poverty makes the individual
vulnerable to poor health as they are more likely to live in substandard housing and experience
hunger and malnutrition. Thus, poor people have lower life expectancies as well.
Not only is defining and identifying who the poor are difficult, but trying to find the causes of
poverty is equally complex. Some people quote, as a major cause of poverty, single parenthood,
August 2009 115

namely women-headed households. But the real problem is families with low/inadequate
incomes. Older people and children are also more at risk to poverty. Children have no incomes
of their own and are dependent on the parents/caretakers. Though some children work for a
living, their incomes will still be inferior to adult wages. Unemployed persons, particularly long-
term unemployed people, also tend to be poor.
Thus, a general picture of poverty emerges as comprising of families with many

dependants(large families), with heads of household poorly educated and more often female,
having poorly paid occupations and earnings as unskilled paid labour. Children from such
families are thus more likely to have lower survival rates and even when they survive, school
enrolment from this category of children will be lower and associated problems will more likely
be their lot.
References:
1. DeNitto Diana, Chapter III, Social Welfare - Politics and Public Policy, Prentice Hall, USA,
1991, ISBN 0-13-817065-7.
2. Who are the Poor? D/C Journal, Dec 1994.
August 2009 116

UNIT 8: OVERVIEW OF CHILDREN IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES
Reading 1
(i) Identifying Needs of Children in Special Circumstances, Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur.

(ii) Juvenile Delinquency, Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur
Reading 2∗
Pages 56-59 - Invest in Children. Securing Rights in a Changing Society, An Updated Situation
Analysis of Children and Women in the Republic of Mauritius, October 1998, Mauritius.
Reading 3
Pages 61-62: Situation Analysis of Women and Children, UNICEF, Mauritius (1994).
Permission to reprint from UNICEF, Mauritius
∗
Located at the end of Readings File
August 2009 117

Reading 1(i)
Unit 8
IDENTIFYING NEEDS OF CHILDREN IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

Compiled by Mrs S Ragobur
Introduction
Many children the world over, and in Mauritius, find themselves in situations which are
considered to be not normal for the child, based on the society’s norms and culture. As
a result, some children find themselves in situations which do not conform to normal
childhood experience and living. They are thus unable to benefit from and use
optimally the facilities and resources put at the disposal of children by society.
What are these special circumstances which constrain the happiness, development and
welfare of children? There are many causes that lead to “special circumstances’, giving
rise to numerous special situations which can be clustered into the following groups:-
(a) Children in Survival Strategies-Working Children
Many children find themselves in the above situation. The main cause of this
condition arises out of parental poverty - children of poor families find
themselves caught up in a vicious circle of poor health and nutrition, low
educational achievement, low motivation and low level of information. Some
children may not have parents or the parents are dysfunctional in parental roles.
Thus children find themselves having to fend for their living and survival.
Children in survival strategies include children who work in normal jobs, as
well as children involved in activities in marginalised sectors which fall within
criminal activities - for example commercial sex/prostitution, pornography,
drugs, begging and other petty crimes.
There exists a lot of controversy about adolescents and young children who
work. One argument is that if working children are stopped from working, their
situation will be even worse. But there is a universal consensus that
employment is not a normal activity for minors and children. So, working
children need to be protected against moral and physical danger, from
discrimination in wages. They must also benefit from risk coverage(for
example, industrial injury) and protected from exploitation through long
working hours. Of course those exposed to criminal activities need to be
protected from further involvement and require rehabilitation. The laws in
Mauritius do not permit the employment of children aged below fifteen years.
But still, many children work, as shown in Table 1 on the following page.
August 2009 118

Service providers need to talk to working children, their families and employers
in order to understand the needs and requirements of working children and to
help parents and employers understand the needs of working children in order to
safeguard and promote the development process.
Table 1
Working Children
Indicator of Economic Activity Rates and Labour Force
Age Group 12 - 14 and 15 - 19 years (selected years)
Activity Rate 1990 1996

% Male Female Male Female
12 - 14 yrs 11.2 3.4 6.0 2.2

15 - 19 yrs 50.7 25.7 38.0 21.0
Labour Force
(000’s)
12 - 14 yrs 3.7 1.1 1.9 0.7
15 - 19 yrs 25.0 22.4 22.4 11.9
Source : Digest of Labour Statistics 1996 CSO MEPD
Child Labour as a percentage of Labour Force has declined from 1.2% in 1990
to 0.8% in 1995 for males aged 12-14 years and from 0.8% to 0.5% for females
during the same period and the same age group.
(b) Street Children
Street children refers to children whose situation is characterised by weak or

non-existent family ties, the ‘street’ constitutes the main habitat. The street
children are usually found in urban areas. They have fairly well developed
survival capacities (but many such activities expose them to criminal acts) and
they are exposed to many hazards and risks.
There are not many children exposed to the ‘street children’ situation in
Mauritius. In certain regions ( for example, in certain regions of Curepipe),
parents work for long hours and are absent from home or due to other factors
(such as alcoholism), some children are drawn to remaining outside their houses
until late. We have no information available on the number of such children
because there is no reporting mechanism. Police may verbally warn such
children to get back to their houses if they are out on their own till late. Many
street children, because they do not have a fixed abode, find themselves in
correctional institutions. Many commit an offence simply to get some form of
August 2009 119

shelter, even if this means shelter in prisons or correctional settings. Children

beyond control are likely to disobey parents and stay out with friends. The
probation service intervenes with many children who are ‘beyond control’ of
parent/guardians.
(c) Children who are Victims of Abuse and Neglect
Abused and neglected children also form part of children being in especially
difficult circumstances. These children may be victims of physical, sexual, or
emotional violence, within the family or in social institutions. Most parents
strive to provide enabling experiences and nurture for their children.
Unfortunately, there are some children who become victims of abuse and
neglect. They require social work and other professional interventions to stop
the abuse, and rehabilitation and support to negate the effect of abuse and
neglect experiences. Child abuse and neglect is receiving keen interest of
policy makers and service providers in Mauritius. The public is becoming more
informed and aware of the problem as evidenced by the increase in the reporting
of abuse and neglect cases. Table 2 below provides data on reported cases
during 1996 - 1997.
Table 2
Physical Abuse- Number of Cases Reported.
Origin of Abusive Action & Cases Jan - Dec 1996 Jan - Dec 1997
Physical Abuse
Parent 208 290
Teacher 14 19
Sexual Abuse 56 66 *
* Up to August 1997
Source : Ministry of Women, Child Development and Family Welfare
In such difficult circumstances, the family needs help and support. The abused
child needs emotional support and protective care. Therapy and counselling are
needed to heal both the victim and the abuser. You will recall that in Unit
Seven, the effects of abuse and intervention were discussed.
(d) Children in Institutions
Children living in institutions do not live with their families or substitute family.
Therefore, their situation demands the special attention of social workers and
other child care professionals.
Children may be institutionalised because of the following reasons:
August 2009 120

(i) Abandoned by family:- normal children, as well as children with

developmental disabilities, may be abandoned by their family.
(ii) Children who are removed from family care to protect them from
violence, abuse, neglect or because they are in moral danger.
(iii) Children may have serious health difficulties (physical or mental).
(iv) Incarcerated due to deviant behaviour.
Table 3 provides information on the child care institutions.
Table 3
Institution Category No.

1 Child care (orphanages) 8
2 Correctional Institutions 5
3 Other (shelter for abused children) 3
Information obtained from Probation
Seminar, Ministry of Social Security and
National Solidarity. Compiled by S
Ragobur
Service providers have to focus on the quality of care provided through

institutional care and ensure that all basic and developmental needs of children
are met and child is protected from exploitation and neglect.
(e) Refugee Children, Illegal Immigrants and Children in Armed Conflict
Mauritius does not have to confront having to address needs of refugee children
or children in armed conflict since (happily) there has been no such
involvement. However, Mauritius has adhered to Article 22 of the Convention
on the Rights of Children. Mauritius is a signatory of the African Charter on the
Rights of Children. Many children of the African continent are involved in
armed conflict or are victims of armed conflict (for example, they are victims of
mines) or have to flee with their parents as refugees. Besides the trauma of
being refugees, refugee children also get separated from parents. Some children
do get reunited with their families eventually , while others remain lost or
become orphans.
The education of refugee children is disrupted. They also face problems of

health and hunger. There is high mortality rate among refugee children.
(f) Teenage Mothers
August 2009 121

Teenage pregnancy is becoming an issue of global concern. In Mauritius, the

rate of teenage pregnancy is averaged around 10% over the last decade.
Table 4 shows data on the frequency of live births among women aged 19 years
and less in Mauritius.
August 2009 122

Table 4
Teenage Pregnancy
Year Total L15 15 - 19 L19 L19%
Live birth
1986 18199 22 1897 191910.5
1990 21566 21 1977 199810.5
1991 21418 26 2086 2112 9.9
1995 19878 21 2051 207210.4
1996 19803 19 2041 206010.4
1997 - 35 - - -
L = Less
Source : Digest of Demographic Statistics 1995, FP & Demographic Year
Book 1996
A study on Youth Profile in Mauritius (Aged between 14 - 24 years) carried out

by the Mauritius Institute of Health revealed that 43% of boys and 11% of girls
interviewed have had sexual relations and 8% admitted to secrecy. Sexual
values and attitudes are changing. Contraceptives are available but not always
used, thus increasing the risk of pregnancy.
(g) Children with Developmental Disabilities
Children with developmental disabilities are affected by severe and chronic

conditions which may cause mental or physical (or both) impairment. It
includes conditions like epilepsy, dyslexia & infantile autism. Children with
development disabilities (differentially abled) have special needs, arising out of
their special situation. They are less mobile and therefore less able to take up
the social resources available. On the other hand, existing resource systems are
inappropriate and appropriate resource systems may not even be available.
Most of the specialised services needed for disabled children in Mauritius are
provided by NGO organisations. Unit 9 focuses on children and developmental
disabilities.
(h) Children with HIV/AIDS and others Suffering from Long-term Illness or
Requiring Terminal Care.
HIV/AIDS infection is a major problem affecting children in sub Saharan

Africa. Many children will either be orphaned because their parents have
contracted AIDS or are themselves likely to die because of HIV/AIDS infection.
AIDS is posing a real threat to child survival in sub Saharan Africa. The
largest number of children victims of AIDS are living in this region.
Mauritius, so far, has a relatively low level of HIV/AIDS infection, but given
the nature of the disease and the rapidly changing life styles of Mauritians,
August 2009 123

AIDS could pose serious public health and child welfare problems. The
strategy is to strengthen prevention programmes and activities. The first case of
AIDS among the resident population was registered in 1987. Currently, there
are 11 babies born of HIV positive mothers and the Ministry of Health is
following up the cases. There is fear that there may be more cases of
HIV/AIDS. Systematic and sustainable support services for HIV families have
not yet been developed in Mauritius. There is a also a lot of stigma attached to
HIV/AIDS. The major problem for children suffering from lethal disease may
be lack of resources (parental) and treatment facilities in hospitals. SACIM and
NGO organisation, finances needy children to receive treatment overseas. We
do not have any specialised hospital for children yet, but policy statement has
provided for a children hospital.
(i) School Failures
School drop outs may be considered another group of children in special

circumstances. The legal working age in Mauritius is 15 years. Educational
achievement is known to be linked to socio-economic environment of families.
The current primary education system is ridden with the problem of high
failures at the end of the six year cycle. Besides the low performance, there also
exists the problem of school drop outs poor nutrition & health, poor adaptation
into school systems absenteeism which require attention. Only the top4000
(boys and girls) get admitted to good secondary schools out of some 30,000
children aged 10-12 years who sit for the Primary School Certificate. Although
many children go onto vocational education, some 6000 children (ref.
Situational Analysis of Children, 1997 update) remain unaccounted for in
educational development. We do not have school social work services.
The nine year schooling system being proposed for educational development
could address this situation whereby education & training needs of many
children could be met more effectively.
(j) Children Living in Alcoholic Families
Children living in alcoholic families also find themselves in difficult

circumstances. Alcoholism is one key problem affecting many families in
Mauritius and it is believed to be the major cause of family breakdown and
dysfunctioning. There is virtually no support at all for children living in
alcoholic families and no way to redress the effect of the psychological trauma.
Alcoholism exists among all groups in Mauritius.
(k) Some children become dependent on alcohol and other harmful substances. In
certain communities / section of the population very young children are given
alcohol even as babies and toddles. But we do not know much about drug and
alcohol abuse among children. Children smoking among adolescents is on the
rise.
August 2009 124

Reference : Situation Analysis of Women and Children - 1994, UNICEF -

Govt of Mauritius, CSO, UNICEF reports on Children in difficult
circumstances
August 2009 125

UNIT 9: CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES/SPECIAL NEEDS
Reading 1
Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, UNICEF, 1998.
Reading 2
1. Family and Disability, A Personal Experience, NCRD Newsletter, December 1994.
2. A Society for All, Extracts from the Report on Accessibility for Disabled Persons,
NCRD Newsletter December 1994.
3. Training, Employment and Community Integration Programmes, NCRD Newsletter

December 1993.
4. Persons with Disabilities in the Mauritian Society, NCRD Newsletter December 1992.
5. Mainstreaming, NCRD Newsletter December 1994, Vol 1, p 1.
6. Concept of Community - Based Rehabilitation, NCRD Newsletter, December 1992.
Permission to reprint 1-6 from National Council for the Rehabilitation of Disabled Persons,
Mauritius.
August 2009 126

UNIT 11: INDIRECT INTERVENTION
Reading 1∗
Pages 8-9 - Invest in Children: Securing Rights in a Changing Society. An Updated Situation
Analysis of Children and Women in the Republic of Mauritius, October 1998, UNICEF,
Mauritius. Permission to reprint from UNICEF, Mauritius.
UNIT 12: COMPARATIVE STUDIES IN SOCIAL WORK WITH CHILDREN -

MAURITIUS AND ELSEWHERE
Reading 1
Children and Women in South Africa: A Situation Analysis, June 1993,UNICEF, pp 1-8, pp
87-103.
∗
Located at the end of the Readings File
August 2009 127

Chapters∗ from Invest in Children: Securing Rights in a Changing Society,

an updated Situation Analysis of Women and Children in the Republic
Mauritius, UNICEF, (1998). Permission to reprint from Unicef, Mauritius.
A Statistical Profile of the Island of Mauritius (1990-1996) – Pages 4-5
Executive Summary – Pages 6-7
Chapter 1: Preamble – Pages 8-9
Chapter 2: Legislative Framework for the Growth, Development and Protection of

Children – Pages 10-14
Chapter 3: Major Socio-economic Changes in Mauritian Society

Pages 15-18
Chapter 4: Main Demographic Trends – Pages 19-23
Chapter 8: Protection Rights of Vulnerable Groups – Pages 56-64
Chapter 11: Participation Rights: Children as Citizens of their Country

Pages 79-81
Chapter 12: New Challenges - Pages 82-84
∗
The Chapters are relevant to Units 3, 5, 8 and 11 of the manual. Spare copies of the report are
available in the Mauritiana Section, UOM Library.
August 2009 128
ASSIGNMENT FILE
Deadline :Refer to the Course Schedule for submission date/week.
General Guidelines :A model of the Assignment Cover Sheet is found on the following
page. Make sure you use the cover when submitting your assignment.
A sheet on the guidelines used when marking assignments is also

included. Make sure you adhere to these standards when writing your
assignments.
Plagiarism & Cheating :Assignments should be the student’s own work. Quotations and
borrowed ideas must be properly acknowledged . Failure to meet the
accepted standards of academic integrity is a serious offence and
sanctions will be enforced as per the University of Mauritius Calendar.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTION:
Write an assignment on one of the following questions (1500-2000 words):-
Question 1:
(a) It is widely acknowledged that family circumstances can adversely affect the well-being
of children. Explain how.
(b) Examine family circumstances that are having a negative impact on children in current
day Mauritius.
(c) How will you design an intervention that makes the family more ‘child friendly’?
Question 2
(a) Explain the concepts of child abuse and neglect.

(b) What explanations from (a) fit in most appropriately with respect to the situation in
Mauritius?
(c) As a social worker, explain the different strategies and levels of intervention required to
prevent child abuse and to provide corrective and healing action.
August 2009 129

UNIVERSITY OF MAURITIUS
FACULTY OF ………………………………………..
DIPLOMA/B.Sc. (HONS) ……………………………
Assignment Cover Sheet
Name of Student
Module
Topic of Assignment
Number of Pages
CERTIFICATION BY STUDENT
I certify that the attached assignment is my own work and that any material drawn from
other sources has been acknowledged.
Signature of Student
Date
August 2009 130

DIPLOMA/B.Sc. (HONS) ……………………………..
Name of Programme of Studies:……………………………………
Marking guide – Assignments Marks/

Remarks
1. Presentation: On time/Late
2. Content: Introduction – Excellent/Satisfactory/Inadequate

Description of relevant theory
Evidence of additional reading
Pros and cons of relevant theory
Advantages/Disadvantages
Independence in thinking
Conclusions
Recommendations
3. Writing style, written expression and presentation

4. References - Correctly acknowledged
Correct format
Consistent and relevant with assignment
August 2009 131

SWRK1002 2009

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Child Welfare Services - SWRK 1002

CHILD WELFARE SERVICES

Centre for Professional Development and Lifelong Learning

About the Course

Unit 1 Introduction to Key Concepts

Unit 2 International Perspectives

Unit 3 The Situation of Children in Mauritius

Unit 4 Professional Roles and Interventions

Unit 5 Child Poverty

Unit6 Child Abuse and Neglect

Unit 7 Child Protection

Unit 8 Overview of Children in Special Circumstances

Unit 9 Children with Disabilities/Special Needs

Unit 10 Direct Intervention

Unit 11 Indirect Intervention

Unit 12 Comparative Studies in Social Work with Children-

August 2009 iii

ABOUT THE COURSE

CHILD WELFARE SERVICES - SWRK 1002, is a general elective module.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THE COURSE

Unit 1 • Explain key concepts related to childhood.

Unit 3 • Evaluate the progress made in Mauritius regarding child welfare.

Unit 5 • Examine the socio-economic factors that result in child poverty in

Unit 6 • Identify key concepts related to child abuse and neglect.

Unit 7 • Outline the philosophy and aims of child protection.

• Identify cases of children in special circumstances.

HOW DO I USE THE COURSE MANUAL?

The UNIT STRUCTURE identifies the main topics in the Unit.

Week Unit Topic Submission of

4 4 Professional Roles and Interventions

Continuous Assessment: 30 marks

Assignment 1 - Refer to Assignment File at the end of the binder.

August 2009 vii

August 2009 viii

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO KEY CONCEPTS

included to provide for a deeper understanding of the concepts.

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit, you will be able to do the following:

(1) How would you define childhood?

Sociological Perspectives: The Sociology of childhood is concerned with understanding how

1.2.1 Child Population

Table 1.1: Child Population

Age 1972 1983 1990 2000

Source: Housing and Population Census Data: CSO, Government of Mauritius.

CHILD POPULATION (REPUBLIC OF MAURITIUS)

CENSUS MALE FEMALE TOTAL SEX

1962 179842 177698 357540 98.8

1.2.2 Children, the Family and the State

i. What is parental responsibility?

ii. What rights do parents have?

1.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY

The “Developmental needs’ of children are raised in the next section.

Identify the several differences between children and adults.

1.4 CHILD WELFARE AND DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN

Definition of Child Welfare:

Key Concerns of Child Welfare are based on:

Children develop along a range of developmental dimensions. These include health,

Some Fields of Practice in Child Welfare:

1.4.1 The Philosophical Issues in Child Welfare

In your own words, define the term “child welfare”.

1.5 DIVERSITY IN STATUS AND WELL BEING OF CHILDREN

Childhood is a universal human condition but is experienced differently due to variations in