Thermodynamics

Energy
Energy is an inherent property of a system. Any system at a given set of conditions (e.g. pressure
and temperature) has a certain energy content. The concept of energy invented to describe a
number of processes such as conversion of work to heat. The SI unit of energy is joule (J). Other
units are:
• 1 cal (calorie)= 4.1868 J
• 1 kcal= 4186.8 J
• 1 Btu (British thermal unit)= 1055.05 J
• 1 thermie= 4.184E6 J
• 1 ft.lbf= 1.35582 J
• 1 kJ= 1000 J
• 1 MJ= 1E6 J
• 1 hp.h (horsepower.hour)= 2.6845E6 J
• 1 kWh= 3.6E6 J
• 1 MWh= 3.6E9 J
• 1 eV (electron volt)= 0.16021E-18 J
• 1 erg= 1E-7 J
Related topic:
• The first law of thermodynamics
• The First Law of Thermodynamics
• Conservation of Energy
• The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. If a system undergoes a process by heat and work transfer, then the net heat
supplied, Q, plus the net work input, W, is equal to the change of intrinsic energy of the
working fluid, i.e.
where U1 and U2 are intrinsic energy of the system at initial and final states,
respectively. The special case of the equation applied to a steady-flow system is known
as steady-flow energy equation. Applying this general principle to a thermodynamic
cycle, when the system undergoes a complete cycle, i.e. U1 = U2, results in:
where:
Q= The algebraic sum of the heat supplied to (+) or rejected from (-) the system.
W= The algebraic sum of the work done by surroundings on the system (+) or by
the system on surroundings (-).
Applying the rule to the power plant shown in figure below,
gives:
Q = Qin - Qout
W = Win - Wout
Qin + Win - Qout - Wout = 0
where,
Qin = Heat supplied to the system through boiler,
Win = Feed-pump work,
Qout = Heat rejected from the system by condenser,
Wout = Turbine work.
•
• Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved
• Exergy or Availability
• Exergy of a system is defined as the theoretical maximum amount of work that can be
obtained from the system at a prescribed state (P, T, h, s, u, v) when operating with a
reservoir at the constant pressure and temperature P0 and T0. The specific exergy of a
non-flow system is:
and for a steady flow system:
where,
• u= Specific internal energy,
• h= Specific enthalpy,
• v= Specific volume,
• s= Specific entropy,
• C= Velocity,
• Z= Height of the system measured from a fixed datum,
• g= Gravity constant.
•
• Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved
Power
Power is defined as work (or energy transfer) per unit time:
P = dW / dt
The SI unit of power is watt (w).

• 1 w= 1 J/s
Other units are:
• 1 kw= 1E3 w
• 1 Mw= 1E6 w
• 1 kpm/s= 9.80665 w
• 1 cal/s= 4.1868 w
• 1 kcal/h= 1.163 w
• 1 erg/s=1E-7 w
• 1 hp (horse power)= 745.7 w
• 1 ft.lbf/s= 1.35582 w
• 1 Btu/h= 0.293071 w
Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved

Enthalpy
Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system, m, multiplied by the specific enthalpy
of the system, h i.e.
H=m h
Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy of a working fluid, h, is a property of the fluid which is defined as:
h=u+P v
where,
u= Specific internal energy
P= Pressure
v= Specific volume
Specific enthalpy has the same dimension as [energy/mass]. The SI unit of specific enthalpy is
J/kg. Other units are:
• 1 kJ/kg= 1000 J/kg
• 1 erg/g= 1E-4 J/kg
• 1 Btu/lbm= 2326 J/kg
• 1 cal/g= 4184 J/kg

Entropy
Entropy of system, is a measure of the avaialability of its energy. A system with high entropy
can do less useful work. This concept was formally used to define the second law of
thermodynamics.
Specific Entropy
Specific entropy of a system is the entropy of the unit mass of the system and has the dimension
of energy/ mass/temperature. The SI unit of specific entropy is J/(Kg . K). Other units are:
• 1 KJ/kg,K= 1000 J/(Kg . K)
• 1 erg/g,K= 1E-4 J/(Kg . K)
• 1 Btu/lbm,F= 4186.8 J/(Kg . K)
• 1 cal/g,C= 4186.8 J/(Kg . K)

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of hotness and can be related to the kinetic energy of molecules of a
substance. A number of physical phenomena can be used for measuring the temperature of an
object. An instrument used for measuring temperature is called a thermometer and is constructed
by using one of the following principles:
• the change of length, such as length of a mercury column,
• the change of volume, such as volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure,
• the change of pressure, such as pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume,
• the change in electric resistance, as in a thermistor,
• the flow of electricity due to Seebeck effect, as in a thermocouple,
• the radiation, as in radiation pyrometers.
All thermometers require a scale. This scale should be defined by easily repeatable
circumstances or fundamental properties. For instance the Centigrade scale has been defined
from the melting (0 C) and boiling (100 C) points of pure water at atmospheric pressure. For
temperature the following units can be used:
C, K, F.
where symbol C is for Centigrade (or Celsius), K for kelvin and F for Fahrenheit. If the
temperature is c on the Centigrade (or Celsius) scale, then the absolute temperature on the kelvin
scale will be:
c+273.15
the Fahrenheit scale will show:

1.8 c+32
There is also another temperature scale, called Rankine (symbol R). If the temperature is f on the
Fahrenheit scale, the Rankine scale will show:
f+459.69
Absolute temperature or thermodynamic temperature (degree kelvin, K) is a fundamental
dimension. It can be related to the energy possessed by matter and is an SI base unit.

Pressure
The pressure of a system is defined as the force exerted by the system on unit area of its
boundaries. This is the definition of the absolute pressure. Often in measurements a gauge is
used to record the pressure difference between the system and the atmospheric pressure. This is
called gauge pressure and can be stated by the following equation:
P=Pg+Po
P=absolute pressure,
Pg=gauge pressure,
Po=atmospheric pressure.
If the pressure of a system is below atmospheric, it is called vacuum pressure.The SI unit of

pressure is pascal (Pa):
• 1 Pa=1 N/m
"bar" is used in many industrial applications:
• 1 bar=0.1 MPa
This unit is approximately equal to atmospheric pressure:
• Standard atmospheric pressure=1.01325 bar= 101325 Pa
In hydraulic "m of water" is common:
• 1 m of water=9806.65 Pa
Many gauges use Mercury (Hg) as the measurement medium.
• 1 mmHg=133.4 Pa
Other units are:
• dyn/cm =0.1 Pa
• kgf/cm =kp/cm =at=98067 Pa
• lbf/ft =47.879 Pa
• in (H2O)=249.08 Pa
• in (Hg)=3386.4 Pa
• psi=lbf/in =6894.7 Pa
• ksi=1000 psi=6.8947 MPa

Specific Volume
The specific volume, v, of a system is the volume occupied by unit mass of the system. The
relationship between the specific volume and density is:
The SI unit of specific volume is m /kg (cubic meter per kilogram). Other units are:
• 1 m /t= 1 m /ton= 0.001 m /kg
• 1 L/kg=1 lit/kg= 1 dm /kg= 0.001 m /kg
• 1 cm /g= 0.001 m /kg
• 1 in /lbm= 3.6175E-5 m /kg
• 1 ft /lbm= 0.0625 m /kg

Density
Density Density of a system is the mass of the unit volume of the system. Note that the density is
reciprocal of specific volume i.e.
The density of gases and vapors is dependent on temperature and pressure while density of most
solids and liquids is dependent only on temperature with good precision for many engineering
applications.
The SI unit of density is kg/m (kilogram per cubic meter). Other units are:
• 1 t/m = 1000 kg/m
• 1 lbm/ft = 16.018 kg/m
• 1 lbm/(U.K.gal)= 99.776 kg/m
• 1 lbm/(U.S.gal)= 119.83 kg/m
• 1 slug/ft = 515.38 kg/m
• 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m
• 1 U.K.ton/yd = 1328.94 kg/m
• 1 U.S.ton/yd = 1186.5 kg/m

Specific Heat Capacity
The specific heat capacity of a solid or liquid is defined as the heat required to raise unit mass of
substance by one degree of temperature. This can be stated by the following equation:
where,
Q= Heat supplied to substance,

m= Mass of the substance,
c= Specific heat capacity,
T= Temperature rise.
There are two definitions for vapors and gases:

Cp = Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, i.e.
Cv = Specific heat capacity at constant volume, i.e.

It can be shown that for a perfect gas:
where R is the gas constant. The ratio, Cp/Cv, has been given symbol ,
and is always greater than unity. The approximate value of this ratio is 1.6 for monatomic gases
such as Ar and He. Diatomic gases (such as H2, N2, CO and O2) have a g ratio about 1.4 and
triatomics (such as SO2 and CO2) 1.3.

Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat is defined as the heat energy stored in a substance as a result of an increase in its
temperature. Related topic:
• Latent Heat

Latent Heat
Latent Heat is defined as the heat which flows to or from a material without a change to
temperature. The heat will only change the structure or phase of the material. e.g. melting or
boiling of pure materials. Related topic:
• Sensible Heat

Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a substance is defined as the heat flow per unit area per unit time
when the temperature decreases by one degree in unit distance. The SI unit of thermal
conductivity is W/(m.K). Other units are:
1 kW/(m.K)= 1000 W/(m.K)
Related topic:
• Fourier's law of conduction

Fourier's Law of Conduction
Fourier's law is an empirical law based on observation. It states that the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt,
through a homogeneous solid is directly proportional to the area, A, of the section at right angles
to the direction of heat flow, and to the temperature difference along the path of heat flow, dT/dx
i.e.
The proportionality ratio, , is called thermal conductivity of the material.

Molar Mass
Molar mass is defined as the mass per number of moles, e.g. molar mass of oxygen (O2) is 32
kg/kmol. The SI unit used for molar mass is kg/kmol. Other units are:
• 1 g/mol= 1 kg/kmol
• 1 lbm/kmol= 0.453 kg/kmol

Mass Flow
Mass flow rate is the amount of mass which enters or leaves a system per unit time. The SI unit
for mass flow rate is kg/s. Other units are:
• 1 kg/h= 1/3600 kg/s
• 1 t/h= 1/3.6 kg/s
• 1 lbm/s= 0.453 kg/s

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
This law states that if object A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and object B is in thermal
equilibrium with object C, then object C is also in thermal equilibrium with object A. This law
allows us to build thermometers. For example the length of a mercury column (object B) may be
used as a measure to compare the temperatures of the two other objects.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that no heat engine can be more efficient than a
reversible heat engine working between two fixed temperature limits (Carnot cycle) i.e. the
maximum thermal efficiency is equal to the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle:
or in other words If the heat input to a heat engine is Q, then the work output of the engine, W
will be restricted to an upper limit Wmax i.e.
It should be noted that real cycles are far less efficient than the Carnot cycle due to mechanical
friction and other irreversibility. Related topic:
• Exergy

Heat Engine
Heat engine is defined as a device that converts heat energy into mechanical energy or more
exactly a system which operates continuously and only heat and work may pass across its
boundaries.
The operation of a heat engine can best be represented by a thermodynamic cycle. Some
examples are: Otto, Diesel, Brayton, Stirling and Rankine cycles.
Forward Heat Engine
LTER= Low Temperature Energy Reservoir
HTER= High Temperature Energy Reservoir
A forward heat engine has a positive work output such as Rankine or Brayton cycle. Applying
the first law of thermodynamics to the cycle gives:
Q1 - Q2 - W = 0
The second law of thermodynamics states that the thermal efficiency of the cycle, , has an
upper limit (the thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle), i.e.
It can be shown that:

Q1 > W
which means that it is impossible to convert the whole heat input to work and
Q2 > 0
which means that a minimum of heat supply to the cold reservoir is necessary.
Reverse Heat Engine
LTER= Low Temperature Energy Reservoir

HTER= High Temperature Energy Reservoir
A reverse heat engine has a positive work input such as heat pump and refrigerator. Applying the
first law of thermodynamics to the cycle gives:
- Q1 + Q2 + W = 0
In case of a reverse heat engine the second law of thermodynamics is as follows: It is impossible
to transfer heat from a cooler body to a hotter body without any work input i.e.
W > 0
which means that the coefficient of performance for a heat pump is greater than unity.

Turbine
Turbines are devices that convert mechanical energy stored in a fluid into rotational mechanical
energy. These machines are widely used for the generation of electricity. The most important
types of turbines are: steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines and wind turbines.

Steam Turbine
Steam turbines are devices which convert the energy stored in steam into rotational mechanical
energy. These machines are widely used for the generation of electricity in a number of different
cycles, such as:
• Rankine cycle
• Reheat cycle
• Regenerative cycle
• Combined cycle
The steam turbine may consists of several stages. Each stage can be described by analyzing the
expansion of steam from a higher pressure to a lower pressure. The steam may be wet, dry
saturated or superheated.
Consider the steam turbine shown in the cycle above. The output power of the turbine at steady
flow condition is:
P = m (h1-h2)
where m is the mass flow of the steam through the turbine and h1 and h2 are specific enthalpy of
the steam at inlet respective outlet of the turbine.
The efficiency of the steam turbines are often described by the isentropic efficiency for
expansion process. The presence of water droplets in the steam will reduce the efficiency of the
turbine and cause physical erosion of the blades. Therefore the dryness fraction of the steam at
the outlet of the turbine should not be less than 0.9.

Steam Turbine
cycles, such as:
• Rankine cycle
• Reheat cycle
• Combined cycle
flow condition is:
P = m (h1-h2)

Steam Turbine
cycles, such as:
• Rankine cycle
• Reheat cycle
• Combined cycle
flow condition is:
P = m (h1-h2)

Isentropic Efficiency
The isentropic efficiency for an expansion process is defined as:
For a unit time and a mass flow, m, we can write:
and for a compression process:
For a unit time and a mass flow, m, we can write:
Related topics:
• Pump
• Steam Turbine

Compressor
Compressors are machines used to increase the pressure of the working fluid. There are several
types of compressors. The most important types of rotating compressors are radial-flow, axial-
flow and positive displacement.
The compression process (1-2) is irreversible but approximately adiabatic. The work input to the
compressor is:
Win = m (h2 - h1)
Where
m= mass flow of air
h2=Enthalpy at outlet
h1=Enthalpy at inlet
The pressure ratio of a compressor is defined as:
r=Po/Pi
where
Po=Absolute pressure at outlet
Pi=Absolute pressure at inlet
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is:
= (h2s-h1)/(h2-h1)
Related topic:
• Open Gas Turbine Cycle
Open Gas Turbine Cycle
Open gas turbine cycle is the most basic gas turbine unit. The working fluid does not circulate
through the system, therefore it is not a true cycle. It consists of a compressor, a combustion
chamber and a gas turbine. The compressor and the gas turbine are mounted on the same shaft.
The compressor unit is either centrifugal or axial flow type. The working fluid goes through the
following processes:
• 1-2 irreversible but approximately adiabatic compression
• 2-3 constant pressure heat supply in the combustion chamber
• 3-4 irreversible but approximately adiabatic expansion of combustion gases
In the simplified T-s diagram, shown above, pressure loss at compressor inlet, in combustion
chamber and at turbine outlet are neglected. Thermal efficiency of the cycle is:
Related topic:
• Modified Gas Turbine Cycle

Thermodynamic Cycle
Thermodynamic cycle is defined as a process in which a working fluid undergoes a series of
state changes and finally returns to its initial state. A cycle plotted on any diagram of properties
forms a closed curve.
A reversible cycle consists only of reversible processes. The area enclosed by the curve plotted
for a reversible cycle on a p-v diagram represents the net work of the cycle.
• The work is done on the system, if the state changes happen in an anticlockwise manner.
• The work is done by the system, if the state changes happen in a clockwise manner.

State of Working Fluid
Working fluid is the matter contained within boundaries of a system. Matter can be in solid,
liquid, vapor or gaseous phase. The working fluid in applied thermodynamic problems is either
approximated by a perfect gas or a substance which exists as liquid and vapor. The state of the
working fluid is defined by certain characteristics known as properties. Some of the properties
which are important in thermodynamic problems are:
• Pressure(P)
• Temperature(T)
• Specific enthalpy(h)
• Specific entropy(s)
• Specific volume(v)
• Specific internal energy(u)
The thermodynamic properties for a pure substance can be related by the general relationship,
f(P,v,T)=0, which represents a surface in the (P,v,T) space. The thermodynamic laws do not
give any information about the nature of this relationship for the substances in the liquid and
vapor phases. These properties may only be related by setting up measurements. The measured
data can be described by equations obtained e.g. by curve fitting. In this case the equations
should be thermodynamically consistent.
The state of any pure working fluid can be defined completely by just knowing two independent
properties of the fluid. This makes it possible to plot state changes on 2D diagrams such as:
• pressure-volume (P-V) diagram,
• temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram,
• enthalpy-entropy (h-s) diagram.

Internal Energy
Internal energy of a system, is the energy content of the system due to its thermodynamic
properties such as pressure and temperature. The change of internal energy of a system depends
only on the initial and final states of the system and not in any way by the path or manner of the
change. This concept is used to define the first law of thermodynamics.
Specific Internal Energy
Specific internal energy is defined as the internal energy of the system per unit mass of the
system and naturally has the same dimension as [energy/mass] or enthalpy.

Enthalpy
Enthalpy of a system is defined as the mass of the system, m, multiplied by the specific enthalpy
of the system, h i.e.
H=m h
Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy of a working fluid, h, is a property of the fluid which is defined as:
h=u+P v
where,
u= Specific internal energy
P= Pressure
v= Specific volume
Specific enthalpy has the same dimension as [energy/mass]. The SI unit of specific enthalpy is
J/kg. Other units are:
• 1 kJ/kg= 1000 J/kg
• 1 erg/g= 1E-4 J/kg
• 1 Btu/lbm= 2326 J/kg
• 1 cal/g= 4184 J/kg

Mass
The SI unit of mass is kg (kilogram). Other units are:
• 1 g= 0.001 kg
• 1 t (metric ton)= 1 ton= 1000 kg
• 1 lbm (pound mass)= 0.453 kg
• 1 slug= 14.594 kg
• 1 U.K.ton (long ton)= 1016.05 kg
• 1 U.S.ton (short ton)= 907.185kg

Perfect Gas or Ideal Gas
Experimental information about gases at low pressures i.e. Charles's law, Boyle's law and
Avogadro's principle may be combined to one equation:
P V=n R T
known as perfect gas equation. Where,
P= absolute pressure,
T= absolute temperature,
V= volume of the gas,
n= number of moles,
and R is a constant, known as gas constant.
R=8314.51 J/(kmol.K)
The surface of possible states, (P,V,T), of a fixed amount of a perfect gas is shown in figure
below.
Any gas that obeys the above mentioned equation under all conditions is called a perfect gas (or
ideal gas). A real gas (or an actual gas), behaves like a perfect gas only at low pressures. Some
properties of actual gases such as specific heat at constant pressure and specific enthalpy are
dependent on temperature but the variation due to pressure is negligible. There are empirical
relations that calculate gas properties. The following polynom is a good approximation for the
specific enthalpy of gases:
where a1 to a6 are constants depending only on the type of the gas. It should be noted that this
formulation will agree with Joule's law and we obtain a set of thermodynamically consistent
equations. The above equation can be used directly for calculation of specific heat capacity of the
gas:
By using the relationship:
The specific entropy of the gas, s, will be:

where a7 is a constant and P0 is a reference pressure. Related topics:
• Amagat's law
• Dalton's law
• Joule's law
• Gas turbine
• Compressor

Amagat's law of additive volumes
The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes of all constituents at the same
temperature and pressure as the mixture. Related topic:
• Ideal Gas

Dalton's law of additive pressures
The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the constituents. The
partial pressure is that pressure which a constituent would exert if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume.
Related topic:
• Ideal gas

Joule's Law
Joule's law state that the internal energy of a perfect gas is a function of the temperature only, i.e.
u=f(t)

System
A system is a collection of matter within defined boundaries. The boundaries may be flexible.
There are two types of system: closed system and open system.
Closed System
In closed systems, nothing leaves the system boundaries. As an example, consider the fluid in the
cylinder of a reciprocating engine during the expansion stroke. The system boundaries are the
cylinder walls and the piston crown. Notice that the boundaries move as the piston moves.
Open System
In open systems there is a mass transfer across the system's boundaries; for instance the steam
flow through a steam turbine at any instant may be defined as an open system with fixed
boundaries.

Isobaric Process
An isobaric process is one during which the pressure of working fluid remains constant.

Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is one during which the temperature of working fluid remains constant.
Isentropic Process
An isentropic process is one during which the entropy of working fluid remains constant.

Isometric Process
An isometric process is one during which the volume of working fluid remains constant.

Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic process is defined as a process in which no heat is supplied to or rejected from the
working fluid. A reversible isentropic process is also an adiabatic process.

Adiabatic Mixing
The mixing of several streams of fluid is quite common in engineering practice. The process can
usually be assumed to occur adiabatically. Mixing process is highly irreversible because of
eddying of fluid streams. Consider the steady-flow system shown in figure above. If the changes
of kinetic energy are negligible, then the law of conservation of energy gives:
or in general,
and the law of conservation of mass gives:
or in general,
where m and h represent mass flow and specific enthalpy of the fluids.

Throttling
A fluid can be throttled by several means. Examples are: a partly open valve, an orifice or any
other sudden reduction in the cross-section of the flow. The enthalpy remains almost constant
and pressure reduces in this process. Throttling is an irreversible process due to eddying of the
fluid.
Consider a perfectly thermally insulated pipe which fluid flows steadily through an orifice.
Applying the first law of thermodynamics to the steady flow system defined by the control
volume between sections 1-1 and 2-2, gives:
dQ/dt+dW/dt=m [ h+ C /2 + g Z]
dQ / dt = 0 because the system is thermally insulated. dW / dt is also zero. If velocities at

sections 1-1 and 2-2 are small or approximately equal and the height difference between these
two sections, Z, is negligible, then we can write:
h=h2-h1=0
where h1 and h2 represent the enthalpy of the working fluid at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.

Free or Unresisted Expansion
Consider two vessels A and B which are connected to each other by a pipe and a valve. Vessel A
is initially filled with a fluid at a certain pressure and B is completely evacuated. By opening the
valve, the fluid in the vessel A will expand until it fills both vessels. This process is known as
free or unresisted expansion. It is an irreversible process because it needs external work to be
done to restore the fluid to its initial condition. Consider a system, consisting of both vessels
which is perfectly thermally insulated. Apply the first law of thermodynamics to the system, i.e.
Q + W = U2 - U1
where indices 1 and 2 represent initial and final states.

Q = 0, because the thermal insulation will not allow any heat transfer between the system and the
surroundings. W=0 because the boundaries of the system are not moved. The result will then be:
U2=U1
The free expansion process is adiabatic but irreversible. If the working fluid is a perfect gas, then
U2=U1 is equivalent to T2=T1.

Polytropic Process
Many processes can be approximated by the law:
where,
P= Pressure,
v= Volume,
n= an index depending on the process type.
Polytropic processes are internally reversible. Some examples are vapors and perfect gases in
many non-flow processes, such as:
• n=0, results in P=constant i.e. isobaric process.
• n=infinity, results in v=constant i.e. isometric process.
• n=1, results in P v=constant, which is an isothermal process for a perfect gas.
• n= , which is a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas.

Some polytropic processes are shown in figure below:
The initial state of working fluid is shown by point 0 on the P-V diagram. The polytropic state
changes are:
• 0 to 1= constant pressure heating,
• 0 to 2= constant volume heating,
• 0 to 3= reversible adiabatic compression,
• 0 to 4= isothermal compression,
• 0 to 5= constant pressure cooling,
• 0 to 6= constant volume cooling,
• 0 to 7= reversible adiabatic expansion,
• 0 to 8= isothermal expansion.
Related topic:
• Polytropic Efficiency

Polytropic Efficiency
The polytropic efficiency of a process is defined as the isentropic efficiency of the process for an
infinitely small stage. It is independent of the pressure ratio (unlike the isentropic efficiency).

Heat Transfer
Heat may transfer across the boundaries of a system, either to or from the system. It occurs only
when there is a temperature difference between the system and surroundings. Heat transfer
changes the internal energy of the system. Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and
radiation, which may occur separately or in combination. Related topics:
• Fouriers's law of conduction
• Newton's law of cooling
• First law of thermodynamics

Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are devices built for efficient heat transfer from one fluid to another and are
widely used in engineering processes. Some examples are intercoolers, preheaters, boilers and
condensers in power plants. By applying the first law of thermodynamics to a heat exchanger
working at steady-state condition, we obtain:
mi hi=0
where,
mi= mass flow of the i-th fluid
hi= change of specific enthalpy of the i-th fluid

There are several types of heat exchanger:
• recuperative type, in which fluids exchange heat on either side of a dividing wall
• regenerative type, in which hot and cold fluids occupy the same space containing a
matrix of material that works alternatively as a sink or source for heat flow
• evaporative type, such as cooling tower in which a liquid is cooled evaporatively in the
same space as coolant.
The recuperative type of heat exchanger which is the most common in practice may be designed
according to one of the following types:
• Parallel-flow
• Counter-flow
• Cross-flow

Parallel-flow Heat Exchanger
Figure above shows a fluid flowing through a pipe and exchanges heat with another fluid
through an annulus surrounding the pipe. In a parallel-flow heat exchanger fluids flow in the
same direction. If the specific heat capacity of fluids are constant, it can be shown that:
where,
dQ/dt= Rate of heat transfer between two fluids
U= Overall heat transfer coefficient
A= Area of the tube
T= Logarithmic mean temperature difference defined by:
Related topics:
• Counter-flow heat exchanger
• Cross-flow heat exchanger

Counter-flow Heat Exchanger
Figure above shows a fluid flowing through a pipe and exchanges heat with another fluid
through an annulus surrounding the pipe. In a counter-flow heat exchanger fluids flow in the
opposite direction. If the specific heat capacity of fluids are constant, it can be shown that:
where,
dQ/dt= Rate of heat transfer between two fluids
U= Overall heat transfer coefficient
A= Area of the tube
T= Logarithmic mean temperature difference defined by:
Related topics:
• Parallel-flow heat exchanger
• Cross-flow heat exchanger

Cross-flow Heat Exchanger
In a cross-flow heat exchanger the direction of fluids are prependicular to each other. The
required surface area, Across for this heat exchanger is usually calculated by using tables. It is
between the required surface area for counter-flow, Acounter and parallel-flow, Aparallel i.e.
Acounter< Across <Aparallel
Related topics:
• Counter-flow heat exchanger
• Parallel-flow heat exchanger

Heat Flow through a Pipe
The heat transfer through a pipe is dependent on the thickness of the pipe and isolation layers.
The thickness of the pipe and layers can be defined by the radius of layers i.e. R1, R2,..., Rn. The
thermal conductivity of layers are, 1, 2,..., . The fluid within the pipe is at temperature Tin,
and the heat transfer coefficient from fluid to the wall is in. The temperature and heat transfer
coefficient for the fluid outside the pipe are Tout and out. By using Fourier's law of
conduction and Newton's law of cooling, it can be shown that for a steady state heat transfer:
where,
dQ/dt= The transferred heat per unit time

L= Length of the pipe
A= 2* *L*R1
U which has the same unit as heat transfer coefficient is known as the overall heat transfer
coefficient.

Heat Flow through a Wall
The composite wall is constructed from different materials in layers. The thickness of layers are,
x1, x2,..., xn. The thermal conductivity of layers are, 1, 2,..., n. The fluid on one side of
the wall is at temperature TA, and the heat transfer coefficient from fluid to wall is A. The
temperature and heat transfer coefficient for the fluid on the other side of the wall are TB and
B. By using Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's law of cooling, it can be shown that for a
steady state heat transfer:
where,
dQ/dt= The transferred heat per unit time

A= Area of the wall
U which has the same unit as heat transfer coefficient is known as the overall heat transfer
coefficient.

Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is the means to control atmospheric environment in private and public buildings
for the comfort of human beings or animals or for the proper performance of some scientific or
industrial processes.
Full air conditioning systems control purity, movement, temperature and relative humidity of the
air. Typical air conditioning systems for buildings are:
• Perimeter induction
• Fan coil
• Chilled ceiling
• Single duct
• Dual duct
• Variable air volume
• Terminal heat recovery
Related topics:
• Sensible Heating
• Sensible Cooling Process at Constant Moisture Content
• Sensible Cooling with Dehumidification
• Humidification
• Spray Water with Recirculation and Heating or Cooling
• Mixing of Two Air Streams
• Process Line for Air Conditioned Space

Perimeter Induction System
Perimeter induction system is an air conditioning system used in buildings. It uses dehumidified
air and either hot or cold water as working mediums. A perimeter induction unit is placed at each
space which is to be air conditioned.
The unit delivers dehumidified air at high pressure which passes over a heat exchanger through
which hot or cold water flows.

Fan Coil System
Fan coil system is an air conditioning system used in buildings. A fan unit is placed at each place
which needs to be heated or cooled. A central plant delivers hot or cold water to fan units. The
fan draws air from the room, blows it over the water coil and returns it to the room.
Dehumidified air from a central plant or fresh air from outside may also be used by a fan coil
system.

Chilled Ceiling System
Chilled ceiling system is an air conditioning system in which the ceiling of a room is cooled by a
supply of chilled water or air from a central plant room.

Single Duct System
Single duct system is an air conditioning system in which dehumidified air at an appropriate
temperature is circulated throughout a building in a single branching duct.
The air is supplied from a central plant room. The delivered air volume to each space within the
building may be controlled by thermostatically operated dampers on the duct outlet.

Dual Duct System or Double Duct System
Dual or double duct system is an air conditioning system in which dehumidified air is circulated
throughout a building via two parallel ducts. Hot air flows within one duct, cold air within the
other. A central plant supplies both cold and hot air. The proportion of hot and cold air delivered
to each room within the building may be controlled by thermostatically operated dampers on the
ducts outlet.

Sensible Heating Process
Sensible Heating Process is a process during which the dry-bulb temperature of air is increased.
The process occurs at constant moisture content. The air passes over a hot and dry surface which
might be pipe coil using steam or hot water, electrical resistance or an air-to-air heat recovery
unit. The load on the heater is:
Related topics:
• Air conditioning
• Humidification

Sensible Cooling Process at Constant Moisture Content
Sensible cooling process at constant moisture content is a process during which the dry-bulb
temperature of air is decreased. The air passes over a cooling coil which uses chilled water or
direct expansion of some refrigerant into the pipe coil. The load on the cooling coil is:
Related topics:
• Humidification

Sensible Cooling with Dehumidification
In this process the dry-bulb temperature and the moisture content of air are decreased. The heat
in the condensed water is normally very small relative to the total cooling load therefore the load
on the cooling coil can be approximated as:
Dehumidification can only occur, if the coil surface temperature is blew the dew-point
temperature of the entering air stream.
Apparatus dew-point temperature (ADP) is defined as the average coil temperature at air
condition C. Where C is the intersection of the saturation line and the straight line through
conditions A and B on psychrometric chart. Related topic:
• Humidification

Humidifiers
Humidifiers are used in air conditioning systems to increase the humidity of the air. There are
several types of humidifiers:
• Adiabatic Humidification Process
• Adiabatic Humidifier with Recirculation of Spray Water
• Adiabatic Humidifiers without Recirculation of Spray Water
• Spray Water with Recirculation and Heating or Cooling
Steam humidifiers are also used in air conditioning system. The two basic types are:
• Direct steam injection
• Pan steam humidifier

Adiabatic Humidification Process
In this process, air enters a duct (which is assumed to be perfectly insulated in order to satisfy the
condition for an adiabatic process) at dry-bulb temperature T1 and moisture content g1 and
leaves the duct at dry-bulb temperature T2 and moisture content g2. The latent heat gained by
the air is equal to the sensible heat loss by the air. i.e.
here hfg is the latent heat of water. If the water tank is infinitely long, the air at the outlet will be
100% saturated. The temperature at this condition is known as adiabatic saturation temperature.
Related topics:
• Pan Steam Humidifier

Adiabatic Humidifier with Recirculation of Spray Water
In this system, the water is recirculated through the pipes to nozzles. That part of water which is
not evaporated into the air stream, returns to the tank for recirculation. This process can be
assumed as an adiabatic process with good approximation. The required make-up water supplied
to the tank is:
The humidifying efficiency is usually expressed by the contact factor. Related topics:

Adiabatic Humidifiers without Recirculation of Spray Water
In this system water is injected through nozzles into the air stream. The supplied water is for
humidification purposes and water which is not evaporated will be drained from the bottom of
the unit. The efficiency of the humidification process can be expressed by the contact factor of
the nozzles. Related topics:

Spray Water with Recirculation and Heating or Cooling
Spray-type humidifiers may use heating or cooling equipment to achieve the desired air
condition. The heat supplied to or gained from the system is:
When the heat is supplied to the system, the ADP (Apparatus Dew-Point Temperature) will be
higher than the adiabatic process. The process line depends on the contact factor of
humidification. In some cases the increase in moisture content is accompanied by sensible
cooling and in some others by sensible heating.
When the heat is gained from the system, the ADP (Apparatus Dew-Point Temperature) will be
lower than the adiabatic process. The process line depends on the contact factor of
humidification. In some cases the sensible cooling is accompanied by humidification and in
some others by dehumidification. Related topic:

Direct Steam Injection
Steam can be directly injected to air stream for air conditioning purposes. In this process, all the
latent heat necessary for evaporation of water is added outside the air stream. The supply of
water vapor increases the enthalpy of the air. The temperature increase in this process is
negligible and it can be assumed as an isothermal process with good approximation.

Pan Steam Humidifier
A Pan Steam Humidifier uses a heating element inside a water tank. The tank is mounted at the
bottom of the air duct. The air flowing over the water surface will cause some evaporative
cooling which results in drop of air dry-bulb temperature. Related topics:

Spray Water with Recirculation and Heating or Cooling
Spray-type humidifiers may use heating or cooling equipment to achieve the desired air
condition. The heat supplied to or gained from the system is:
When the heat is supplied to the system, the ADP (Apparatus Dew-Point Temperature) will be
higher than the adiabatic process. The process line depends on the contact factor of
humidification. In some cases the increase in moisture content is accompanied by sensible
cooling and in some others by sensible heating.
When the heat is gained from the system, the ADP (Apparatus Dew-Point Temperature) will be
lower than the adiabatic process. The process line depends on the contact factor of
humidification. In some cases the sensible cooling is accompanied by humidification and in
some others by dehumidification. Related topic:

Mixing of Two Air Streams
Mixing of two air streams is often used in air conditioning systems, e.g. mixing air from
outdoors with air returned from the air conditioned system. The adiabatic mixing of two air
streams, A and B will produce a new condition C. The mixing process can be drawn as a straight
line ACB on the psychrometric chart. Using the laws of conservation of mass and energy gives:

Process Line for Air Conditioned Space
The room process line, known also as room ratio line (RRL) is defined by the condition of
supplied air and the desired air condition in the space. The RRL is dependent on both sensible
and latent heat load.
The sensible heat load is defined as:
ma= mass flow rate of dry air

Cp= Humid Specific Heat
The latent heat load is defined as:
Related topics:
• Humidification

Direct Steam Injection
Steam can be directly injected to air stream for air conditioning purposes. In this process, all the
latent heat necessary for evaporation of water is added outside the air stream. The supply of
water vapor increases the enthalpy of the air. The temperature increase in this process is
negligible and it can be assumed as an isothermal process with good approximation.

Contact Factor of nozzles
The contact factor of nozzles is defined as the efficiency for humidification. A 100% efficient
nozzle system will bring the moisture content of air to the saturation moisture content at the
apparatus dew-point, gc. The contact factor of the nozzle system can be defined by moisture
content differences:
or by specific enthalpy differences:
The contact factor of a nozzle system depends on the design of nozzles, nozzle arrangement and
water pressure.

Contact Factor of a Coil
The contact factor of a coil is defined as the efficiency for dehumidification. A 100% efficient
coil will bring the moisture content of air to the saturation moisture content at the apparatus dew-
point, gc. The contact factor of the coil can be defined by moisture content differences:
or by specific enthalpy differences:
The contact factor of a coil depends on the design of heat transfer surfaces, air velocity and
drainage of condensate.

Psychrometric Chart
The psychrometric chart is a useful design tool for air conditioning engineers. The chart presents
a number of properties of moist air:
• dry-bulb temperature
• sling wet-bulb temperature
• moisture content
• specific enthalpy
• specific volume
• percentage saturation
Related topics:
• Ideal Gas
• Psychrometry

Specific Humidity or Moisture Content of Air
Specific humidity or moisture content of air is the ratio of the mass of water to the mass of dry
air in a given volume of moist air. Related topics:
• Air Conditioning
• Psychrometry
• Psychrometric Chart

Hygrometer or Psychrometer
Hygrometers are devices for measuring the wet-bulb temperature of the air. The temperature
reading is affected by air movement over the instrument. There are two types of measuring
instrument, sling and screen hygrometer. The sling hygrometer is the more accurate one,
therefore it is preferred by air conditioning engineers.
• Sling hygrometer measures the wet-bulb temperature in a moving air stream, preferably
above 2 m/s. The instrument has two thermometers. One of these thermometers is
covered with muslin sleeve which is kept moist with distilled and clean water. This
thermometer will measure the wet-bulb temperature and the other one dry-bulb
temperature. A sling wet-bulb temperature may also be obtained by an Assman
hygrometer. In the Assman hygrometer, the wet-bulb thermometer is installed in a duct
where the air is flowing at reasonable velocity.
• Screen hygrometer measures the wet-bulb temperature in still air. Thermometers are
installed in a Stevenson screen as used by meteorologists.

Brayton or Joule Cycle
Brayton cycle is an ideal air standard cycle for the closed cycle gas turbine unit. Both the heat
supplied and rejected from the cycle occur at constant pressure, therefore this cycle is also
known as constant pressure cycle. The cycle consists of four processes:
• 1 to 2: Isentropic compression
• 2 to 3: Isobaric heat supply
• 3 to 4: Isentropic expansion
• 4 to 1: Isobaric heat rejection
Work input to the cycle (compressor), W1 and work output of the cycle (gas turbine), W2 are:
W1=m (h2-h1)
W2=m (h3-h4)
wher m is the mass flow of the cycle. Heat supplied to the cycle (heater), Q1 and heat rejected
from the cycle (cooler), Q2 are:
Q1=m (h3-h2)
Q2=m (h4-h1)
The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle with a perfect gas as working fluid is:
= 1-(T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
It can be shown that:
= 1 -r
where,
r = P2/P1 = pressure ratio
n = -1+1/ = a constant depending on specific heat capacity
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Negative Pressures and Cavitation in Liquid Helium
When subjected to intense sound waves, liquids can be stretched until they break and gas bubbles
appear -- Humphrey Maris and Sebastien Balibar
Cavitation—the formation of bubbles—is a familiar phenomenon. Whenever a liquid is agitated violently,

there is a possibility that cavitation will occur (see, for example, figure 1). In the case of boat propellers or
hydraulic machines, cavitation is a problem that engineers try to avoid. In other contexts, however,
cavitation can be useful—as, for example, in ultrasonic cleaning devices. Desirable or not, cavitation is a
complex phenomenon because inhomogeneities in the liquid—such as walls, dissolved gases, vortices,
and impurities—usually play a major role in the nucleation of bubbles. As a consequence, our
understanding of cavitation is incomplete. To make some progress, our research groups have examined
cavitation in superfluid helium, a simple and pure liquid. It is the coldest liquid in nature and exists only at
temperatures near absolute zero, where every other liquid is frozen. It can therefore be filtered very
efficiently and prepared without impurities. Furthermore, it has been predicted that, at very low
temperatures, the nucleation of bubbles will occur by means of quantum tunneling—a process we believe
has now been observed.
How does a liquid break?
Measuring the tensile strength of a solid involves applying an increasing stress until the solid breaks. The
study of cavitation in liquids follows a similar path. Suppose that some water is put into a cylinder that is
sealed with a piston. If the piston is above the water and has a weight placed on top of it, the water will be
under a positive pressure. The pressure will be equal to the weight divided by the cross-sectional area of
the cylinder. But if the apparatus is turned upside down and a weight hung from the piston, what happens?
The correct answer depends critically on some details of the situation that we have not yet specified. If
there is an air bubble in the water above the piston, then when the weight pulls on the piston, the bubble
will grow and the piston will fall. If there is no air bubble and the weight is small, the piston will move down
a short distance but soon come to rest. In that equilibrium position, the force exerted by the weight is
balanced by a force that the water exerts. The water is thus under negative pressure—that is, under
positive stress. If there is no air bubble and the weight is heavy enough, then the piston will move down,
the water will be stretched, and eventually a bubble will spontaneously appear within the liquid or possibly
on the wall of the container.
Why do such things happen? At low pressure P, the equation of state for air (or any other gas) is the well-
known ideal-gas law. As P decreases toward zero, the volume V varies as the inverse of the pressure.
Consequently, when an air bubble is present in the water, the size of the bubble grows without limit as
soon as the weight pulls on the piston. But what happens when there is no bubble and the water is able to
stay in a state of tension? This state is only metastable: If a bubble forms, the piston will be able to move,
and that movement will clearly lower the potential energy of the system. Before a large bubble can be
formed, however, the system has to overcome an energy barrier.
The existence of an energy barrier against nucleation is very general. The barrier arises because the
liquid–gas transition is discontinuous, or “first order.” Such a barrier exists for any first order transition
because the interface between the two phases has a finite energy per unit area. In our example, this
energy is nothing but the surface tension α of water. Since α is nonzero, the formation of a bubble with
radius R has an energy cost of 4π R2α . When such a bubble forms, the energy of the whole system also
contains the work of the negative pressure over the bubble volume, so that the total energy cost of forming
the bubble is
(1
)
At negative pressures, this energy has a maximum for a critical radius Rc = 2α /|P|. The energy at this
radius establishes the energy barrier (see figure 2) at
(2
)
A thermal fluctuation may enable the system to pass over the energy barrier. The probability of such an
occurrence is proportional to the factor
(3) exp (–∆ E/kT),

where T is the absolute temperature and k is Boltzmann’s constant. In this simplified model, it is clear that
cavitation should be a random process that depends on temperature. This discussion of the energy
required to form a bubble is inadequate in one very important respect. Equation 3 says that to maintain a
given probability that nucleation will take place, the ratio of the energy barrier ∆ E to kT must have a
particular value; this requirement would lead to the conclusion that as the temperature decreases, the
pressure at which nucleation occurs should diverge as T–1/2. But such reasoning ignores the obvious fact
that there is an upper limit to the force one molecule in a liquid can exert on another, so that for some
negative pressure of finite magnitude, the liquid will stretch without limit (that is, the compressibility will
become infinite). The pressure at which that happens is called the spinodal limit. When it is reached, the
sound velocity becomes zero and the barrier to nucleation vanishes.
Figure 1. Vortex lines are

generated at the edge of
boat propellers in motion.
Toward the core of the
vortices, the liquid velocity
increases and the pressure
decreases. The lower
pressure triggers cavitation,
and the resulting bubbles
produce noise, vibrations,
and erosion of the
propellers. (Photo courtesy
of DGA–DCE, Bassin des
Carenes, Paris, France.)
Given these considerations, one can see that if the applied pressure is only slightly negative, the energy
barrier is very large and the chance that a bubble will form is very small. Then the liquid can exist in a state
of negative pressure for a long time—but only if the liquid is very clean. If the liquid contains dirt or
dissolved gas, the formation of bubbles is usually much likelier. Bubbles also tend to form preferentially on
the walls of a container. Bubble production associated with walls or impurities is called heterogeneous
nucleation—as distinguished from homogeneous nucleation, which takes place within the volume of an
ideal bulk liquid and is an intrinsic property of the liquid.
Everyday negative pressures
Before entering further into our subject, let us mention some everyday situations in which negative
pressures occur. In a tree, water passes from the roots up to the leaves through the xylem and evaporates
from the leaf surfaces (figure 3). Consider now the variation in the water pressure within the trunk of the
tree. The pressure must decrease with height so as to balance the force of gravity acting on the water and
drive the water through the xylem at the necessary rate. The pressure, which is 1 bar (105 pascals, or
about 1 atmosphere) at ground level, must decrease by 1 bar for each 10 meters going up the tree. At the
top of a California redwood tree—which may be 100 m above the ground—the pressure must therefore be
about –9 bars. One might therefore think that a terrible accident would happen if a bird made a little hole in
the trunk near the top: Air might rush into the hole and cause all the water to flow back to the ground,
leaving a dried-out tree. In fact, the tree is protected against such a disaster, thanks to the presence of
very small constrictions in the xylem channels, safety hatches that can hold water through capillarity.
The water pressure can also become negative in vortices generated by a propeller at the rear of a boat.
The pressure decreases because the local velocity increases towards the vortex core, in accordance with
a general law of hydrodynamics established by Daniel Bernoulli in the 18th century. But the spinodal limit
of water is far from being reached in such vortices. In a complex medium such as seawater, bubbles grow
from seeds that are already present, such as microbubbles of dissolved air or various particles floating
around. Achieving large negative pressures in water has actually been a challenge to scientists for more
than a century. Marcellin Berthelot claimed in 1850 that he had reached –50 bars in a glass ampoule
completely filled with pure water.1 In 1967, Edwin Roedder at the US Geological Survey reached –1000
bars with water inclusions in natural rocks.2 The world’s record now belongs to Austen Angell and his
collaborators at Arizona State University, who in 1991 reported achieving –1400 bars with a similar
technique but synthetic materials.3 Such very large negative pressures are comparable to theoretical
predictions by Robin Speedy of the University of Wellington (in New Zealand) for the maximum negative
pressure in water.4
Figure 2. Energy of a small bubble in a

liquid under negative pressure, as a
function of bubble radius. For small
bubbles, the energy increases with radius
because the surface energy makes the
largest contribution to the energy. Above a
critical radius Rc, the energy begins to
decrease because of the negative energy
associated with the work done by the
applied negative pressure. When its radius
reaches Rc, a bubble can grow without limit.
Thus, the liquid “breaks.”
Helium at negative pressures

Helium remains a liquid at absolute zero because the interatomic forces are extremely weak and the small
helium mass results in a large zero-point energy. At 2.17 K, the so-called lambda point, the liquid becomes
superfluid (see the helium-4 phase diagram in figure 4). Although the phase diagram and other properties
of helium for positive pressures have been studied in great detail for many years, the properties for
negative pressure have not yet been measured.
One important question concerns the determination of the pressure at the spinodal. One method of
estimating the location of the spinodal relies on an extrapolation of the sound velocity into the negative
pressure range—the spinodal is the pressure at which the sound velocity reaches zero. This approach
requires making some assumption about the way in which the sound velocity goes to zero at the spinodal,
an interesting problem of statistical physics that has not yet been completely solved. Estimates based on
this approach5 give a spinodal pressure of between –9 and –10 bars at T = 0 K. At the University of Trento
(in Italy), Franco Dalfovo and his coworkers6 have used a density functional theory to describe liquid
helium-4 and have obtained about –9.5 bars for the zero-temperature spinodal pressure. The Spanish
group of Jordi Boronat at the Polytechnic University of Catalonia in Barcelona found –9.3 bars using a
Monte Carlo numerical method.7 Thus, it now seems well established that the extreme limit of metastability
of liquid 4He is around –9.5 bars. (For 3He, the corresponding result is approximately –3 bars.) At higher
temperatures, the spinodal pressure becomes less negative. Indeed, the spinodal line has to reach the
liquid–gas critical point (5.2 K and +2.2 bars in 4He), because there the difference between liquid and gas
vanishes.
The location of the superfluid transition—the “lambda line”—at negative pressures is even more difficult to
estimate; the curve shown in figure 4 is based only on a guess. The lambda line is expected to reach the
spinodal at some finite temperature, but again, essentially nothing is known about the behavior of the
spinodal or the lambda line in the vicinity of where they meet.
In the phase diagram of helium, there is thus a new world at negative pressure that has not yet been very
much explored and is not shown in textbooks. It extends from the liquid–gas equilibrium curve at small
positive pressures down to the spinodal line a few bars below zero. This regime has been our playground
in recent years. To study the liquid in this pressure regime, it is important to use very clean liquid. Robert
Finch and his coworkers8 made several studies of cavitation in helium in the 1960s and 1970s using liquid
from the main bath of a helium dewar. In those early experiments, cavitation was detected even at very
small negative pressures of only a few millibars, presumably because of some form of contamination of the
helium. A sample of clean liquid helium can easily be prepared by filling a cell through a fine capillary. This
procedure removes any particles of solid air that might be present in a helium dewar.
It is also important that the negative pressure be produced in the interior of the liquid, far from any wall at
which heterogeneous nucleation could occur. We use a sound wave with a frequency of around 1 MHz
generated by a hemispherical ultrasonic transducer (figure 5). The sound comes to a focus in the interior of
the liquid. This method readily produces a pressure oscillation with an amplitude of several bars at the
focal point. The volume throughout which the pressure swing is produced is determined by the sound
wavelength and is typically on the order of 10–6 cm3. To determine whether a cavitation bubble has been
produced, we shine a laser beam through the acoustic focus. Bubbles will scatter the light, which is
detected by a photomultiplier.9
Figure 3. Inside a giant

redwood tree, the pressure of
the water is 1 bar at ground
level, but it decreases to –10
bars near the top of the tree. If a
woodpecker (not shown to
scale) were to make a small
hole in the trunk near the top of
the tree, why wouldn’t air rush
in to replace the water that is at
negative pressure? See the text
for the explanation.
Landmarks in a quantum sea

In our experiments, determining the pressure that has been reached is a challenging problem that requires
calibrating the sound transducer, estimating the efficiency of the focusing, and so forth. Landmarks along
the road to the spinodal are consequently of great value. Fortunately, there is one such landmark, and a
remarkable one indeed. When an electron is injected into helium, it forms a spherical cavity—an “electron
bubble”—from which helium atoms are excluded. The bubble forms because the electron is strongly
repelled by helium; the electron therefore tends to be localized in an empty cavity rather than propagated
through the liquid.
Figure 4. Liquid helium-4
phase diagram, including the
negative-pressure regime.
(The diagram is not to scale.)
The positive-pressure region
of the phase diagram,
including the equilibrium
liquid–gas transition (red
line), has been studied
extensively in many
experiments. The spinodal
line indicates the pressure at
which the liquid’s sound
velocity becomes zero and
the liquid becomes unstable
against long-wavelength
fluctuations. The lambda line
for negative pressures is
based largely on guesswork.
Bubbles formed around free
electrons will explode if the
pressure reaches the line of
red circles.
The radius R of electron bubbles is determined by minimizing the total energy, given by the sum of the
ground state energy of the electron (h2/8me R2, with me being the electron mass), the surface energy of the
bubble (4π R2a), and the work done against the liquid’s pressure in forming the bubble (4π R3P/3). If the
pressure is zero, a bubble will have a radius of around 19 Å. When the pressure is made negative, the
bubble grows, and at a critical pressure of around –2 bars, the electron bubble explodes—it becomes
unstable and grows without limit. The critical pressure can be calculated in a reliable way in terms of
known quantities; therefore, it provides a milepost in the negative-pressure regime. Lying approximately
20% of the way to the spinodal, this milepost offers a good calibration of our system for the production of
negative pressure.10
To study the explosions of electron bubbles, we use a radioactive β source to inject electrons into the
liquid. Electrons from the β source enter the liquid with high velocity, lose energy, and then form stable
bubbles that wander around in the liquid. If such a bubble wanders into the region of the sound focus, it will
expand on the negative part of the pressure oscillation, become unstable, and explode (see figure 6).
These explosions are distinct from the processes that occur in a conventional helium bubble chamber. In a
bubble chamber, an energetic charged particle passes through a liquid that is already at a negative
pressure. In fact, there has been some uncertainty about the mechanism of bubble formation in bubble
chambers. The traditional view has been that the bubble is formed as a result of the energy that is
deposited by one of the secondary electrons produced along the track of the fast particle.11 Our studies of
electron explosions have revealed another possibility (for liquids in which electrons form bubbles).12 When
a secondary electron is produced, it quickly comes to rest in the liquid. It then pushes liquid away to open
up a cavity. The inertia of the liquid surrounding the bubble causes the radius of the cavity to increase
beyond the radius corresponding to the minimum energy configuration. For example, in liquid helium at a
pressure of –0.3 bars, the cavity will reach a maximum radius of about 28 Å and then oscillate for a while
before finally settling down into a state with a radius of 20 Å. But if the pressure is more negative, the
inertia of the liquid around the bubble may be sufficient to make the bubble reach a size beyond the critical
radius for bubble nucleation. Then the bubble will grow without limit. The critical pressure that can be
calculated for this process is in very good agreement with the old measurements for the threshold pressure
for operation of helium and hydrogen bubble chambers.
Figure 5. Apparatus for detecting
cavitation. A hemispherical
ultrasonic transducer immersed in
liquid helium is driven by an RF
pulse to emit a burst of sound. At
the acoustic focus, a large
oscillating pressure is produced. If
the amplitude of the sound is large
enough, bubbles (like the white dot
shown here) may form during the
negative pressure swing. The
bubbles will scatter part of the laser
light passing through the focus.
It may be possible to find other landmarks along the path to the spinodal. One possibility is to use light to
raise an electron bubble to an excited state; the bubble should then explode at a negative pressure of
smaller magnitude that can also be calculated accurately. A second possibility is to introduce quantized
vortices into the liquid. When a vortex is present, each helium atom in the liquid near it will have one unit of
angular momentum. Consequently, the liquid will circulate around the vortex with a tangential velocity of
h/m4r, where r is the distance from the vortex core and m4 is the mass of a helium atom. This circulation
will result in a pressure at the vortex that is more negative than the pressure in the bulk of the liquid. Thus,
the vortex core should explode before the spinodal is reached, thereby providing another way in which
bubbles can form.13
Thermal versus quantum cavitation
How close can experiments come to the spinodal of helium? As the pressure is made more negative, the
energy barrier preventing the nucleation of a bubble becomes smaller and smaller. At some distance from
the spinodal, the barrier is small enough that there becomes a chance that, with the aid of a thermal
fluctuation, a bubble larger than the critical size will be created. Such a bubble will then grow to a
macroscopic size. As the temperature is lowered, the thermal fluctuations become weaker, and the
probability of bubble nucleation remains small until the pressure is very close to the spinodal. Below a
critical temperature Tc, thermally activated passage over the nucleation barrier becomes unimportant
compared to quantum tunneling through the barrier.14 This process is “macroscopic,” in the sense that it
requires the cooperative motion of several hundred helium atoms (of course, “macroscopic” is a great
exaggeration). The detailed theory of quantum cavitation was worked out by one of us (Maris) in 1995 and
by Montserrat Guilleumas and her colleagues in 1996.15 Both analyses predicted that quantum cavitation
should become important in 4He at temperatures below Tc = 0.2 K and at pressures within about 0.3 bars
of the spinodal. It is essential in these calculations to allow for the softening of the liquid as the spinodal is
approached. This effect was not included in earlier calculations.16
Figure 6. Light scattered
from the explosion of an
electron bubble. The white
dot in the center of the
picture is a small bubble
containing a single electron
that has wandered into the
region of the acoustic focus
and exploded during the
negative pressure swing of
the sound field. This
photograph was taken after
the bubble had reached a
diameter of approximately
200 µ m. (Photo by Claire
Cramer.)
At first sight, it looked as though it would be very difficult to test these theoretical ideas. Even with the
electron explosions as mileposts, the pressure estimation was still not very accurate. Consequently, to
determine that the pressure was 0.3 bars from the spinodal seemed to be equivalent to finding a spot 0.3
feet from the edge of a cliff on a very dark night. Fortunately, our recent experiments at the Ecole Normale
Supérieure have produced two results that provide indirect but strong evidence that quantum cavitation
has indeed been seen.17
When the quantum regime is entered, the pressure at which cavitation occurs should become independent
of temperature; the experiments found the onset of such behavior at a temperature of 0.6 K. This
temperature was much higher than the Tc of 0.2 K predicted by theory, but the discrepancy was quickly
understood. In the experiment, 0.6 K was the measured temperature of the liquid before the pressure was
reduced; during the expansion of the liquid that took place before cavitation, however, the temperature
should decrease by about a factor of three. Thus, the measured critical temperature was in reasonable
agreement with theory. The second piece of evidence for quantum cavitation concerns the statistics of the
cavitation. A series of experiments was performed in which the pressure swing applied to the liquid was
controlled very precisely. Even though the pressure reached in each sound pulse was the same,
sometimes a bubble was produced and sometimes it wasn’t (figure 7). The observations that the cavitation
is statistical, but independent of temperature, strongly suggest that nucleation is occurring by means of
quantum tunneling.
Figure 7. Acoustic cavitation is a
stochastic phenomenon. A high-
amplitude burst of sound brought to
a focus in the liquid may or may not
result in cavitation. We have
measured the cavitation probability
by sending a series of 100 sound
bursts with well controlled
amplitude and counting the number
of times cavitation occurs. As
shown here for liquid helium-4 at
171 mK, the cavitation probability
increases continually with the
sound amplitude. The solid line is a
fit with a theory in which the
formation of bubbles is assumed to
occur by means of quantum
tunneling. The units for the sound
amplitude have been chosen such
that unit amplitude corresponds to
a cavitation probability of 50%.
These observations of quantum cavitation have been performed with liquid 4He in the superfluid state. Can
bubbles be produced by quantum tunneling only when there is some sort of quantum coherence in the
liquid? We hope to answer that question through measurements on liquid 3He, which is not superfluid
except at much lower temperatures. For 3He, the crossover temperature from thermal nucleation to
quantum tunneling has been predicted16 to be around 120 mK. In measurements down to 40 mK, our
preliminary results show that the cavitation pressure is about three times less negative in 3He than in 4He,
as would be expected if cavitation occurs by means of quantum tunneling very close to the spinodal limit
for both isotopes in the low-temperature limit. Furthermore, the results show that the pressure at which
bubbles form in 3He continues to vary with temperature down to at least 100 mK, a temperature much
lower than in helium-4 (again, as predicted). However, the existence of a temperature-independent regime
in 3He has not yet been established.18
Much more accurate measurements are now in progress. If a “quantum plateau” below 100 mK is found, it
will demonstrate that quantum cavitation can take place without the need for the quantum coherence
characteristic of a superfluid. If there is no quantum plateau, it will be necessary to reconsider the theory of
quantum cavitation in 3He. For example, since 3He is a Fermi liquid, its compressibility is a function of
frequency. This behavior may affect the tunneling process, which occurs on a timescale of around 10–11 s.
It is also possible that the spinodal line has an unexpected temperature variation, or that the large viscosity
of 3He has to be considered. Answering questions about such issues should lead to further improvements
in the understanding of liquids close to a spinodal.
We thank many friends and collaborators for their help with this research and for discussions. The work at
Brown University has been supported by the National Science Foundation.
References
1. M. Berthelot, Ann. Chim. Phys. 30, 232 (1850).
2. E. Roedder, Science 155, 1413 (1967).
3. Q. Zheng, D. J. Durben, G. H. Wolf, C. A. Angell, Science 254, 829 (1991).
4. R. J. Speedy, J. Phys. Chem. 86, 982 (1982). See also R. E. Apfel, J. Acoust. Soc. Am 49, 145 (1970),
for an account of earlier experimental tests of the theory of homogeneous nucleation using ether.
5. Q. Xiong, H. J. Maris, J. Low Temp. Phys. 77, 347 (1989). H. J. Maris, Phys. Rev. Lett. 66, 45 (1991).
6. F. Dalfovo, A. Lastri, L. Pricaupenko, S. Stringari, J. Treiner, Phys. Rev. B 52, 1193 (1995).
7. J. Boronat, J. Casulleras, J. Navarro, Phys. Rev. B 50, 3427 (1994).
8. See, for example, R. D. Finch, R. Kagiwada, M. Barmatz, I. Rudnick, Phys. Rev. 134, A1425 (1964).
9. This method for the study of cavitation in helium was introduced by J. Nissen, E. Bodegom, L. C. Brodie,
and J. S. Semura, Phys. Rev. B 40, 6617 (1989).
10. V. A. Akulichev, Y. Y. Boguslavskii, Sov. Phys. JETP 35, 1012 (1972). J. Classen, H. J. Maris, C.-K.
Su, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 2006 (1996). J. Classen, C.-K. Su, M. Mohazzab, H. J. Maris, Phys. Rev. B 57,
3000 (1998).
11. F. Seitz, Phys. Fluids 1, 2 (1958). A. G. Tenner, Nucl. Instrum. Methods 22, 1 (1963).
12. D. Konstantinov, W. Homsi, J. Luzuriaga, C.-K. Su, M. A. Weilert, H. J. Maris, J. Low Temp. Phys. 113,
485 (1998).
13. H. J. Maris, J. Low Temp. Phys. 94, 111 (1994).
14. I. M. Lifshitz, Y. Kagan, Sov. Phys. JETP 35, 206 (1972).
15. H. J. Maris, J. Low Temp. Phys. 98, 403 (1995). M. Guilleumas, M. Barranco, D. M. Jezek, R. J.
Lombard, M. Pi, Phys. Rev. B 54, 16135 (1996).
16. See, for example, V. A. Akulichev, V. A. Bulanov, Sov. Phys. Acoust. 20, 502 (1975).
17. H. Lambaré, P. Roche, S. Balibar, O. A. Andreeva, C. Guthmann, K. O. Keshishev, E. Rolley, H. J.
Maris, Eur. Phys. J. B 2, 381 (1998).
18. S. Balibar, F. Caupin, H. Lambaré, P. Roche, H. J. Maris, J. Low Temp. Phys. 113, 459 (1998). F.
Caupin, P. Roche, S. Marchand, S. Balibar, J. Low Temp. Phys. 113, 473 (1998).
Humphrey Maris is a professor of physics and engineering at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. Sebastien Balibar is a
director of research at the National center for Scientific research, working at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris, France.
© 1999 American Institute of Physics
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The 1st Law of Thermodynamics tells us that energy is neither created nor destroyed, thus the energy of
the universe is a constant. However, energy can certainly be transferred from one part of the universe
to another. To work out thermodynamic problems we will need to isolate a certain portion of the universe,
the system, from the remainder of the universe, the surroundings.
The energy transfer between different systems can be expressed as:

E1 = E2 (1)
where
E1 = initial energy
E2 = final energy
The internal energy encompasses:
• The kinetic energy associated with the motions of the atoms

• The potential energy stored in the chemical bonds of the molecules
• The gravitational energy of the system
The first law is the starting point for the science of thermodynamics and for engineering analysis.
Based on the types of exchange that can take place we will define three types of systems:
• isolated systems: no exchange of matter or energy

• closed systems: no exchange of matter but some exchange of energy
• open systems: exchange of both matter and energy
The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal energy, heat, and system work. It is used
extensively in the discussion of heat engines.
Internal Energy - Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with

the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale from
the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to
the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale. For
example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no
apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it
is a seething mass of high speed molecules. If the water were tossed across
the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when
we superimpose an ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.
Heat - Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high temperature

object to a lower temperature object. An object does not possess "heat"; the
appropriate term for the microscopic energy in an object is internal energy.
The internal energy may be increased by transferring energy to the object
from a higher temperature (hotter) object - this is called heating.
Work - When work is done by a thermodynamic system, it is usually a gas

that is doing the work. The work done by a gas at constant pressure is W =
p dV, where W id work, p is pressure and dV is change in volume.
For non-constant pressure, the work can be visualized as the area under
the pressure-volume curve which represents the process taking place.
Heat Engines -Refrigerators, Heat pumps, Carnot cycle, Otto cycle
The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the head added to the system minus the work done
by the system:
dE = Q - W (2)
where
dE = change in internal energy
Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system
1st law does not provide the information of direction of processes and does not determine the final
equilibrium state. Intuitively, we know that energy flows from high temperature to low temperature. Thus,
the 2nd law is needed to determine the direction of processes.
Enthalpy is the "thermodynamic potential" useful in the chemical thermodynamics of reactions and non-
cyclic processes. Enthalpy is defined by
H = U + PV (3)
where
H = enthalpy
U = internal energy
P = pressure
V = volume
Enthalpy is then a precisely measurable state variable, since it is defined in terms of three other precisely
definable state variables.
Entropy is used to define the unavailable energy in a system. Entropy defines the relative ability of one
system to act to an other. As things moves toward a lower energy level, where one is less able to act
upon the surroundings, the entropy is said to increase. Entropy is connected to the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
For the universe as a whole the entropy is increasing.
There are two classical statements of the second law of thermodynamics:
Kelvin & Planc

"No (heat) engine whose working fluid undergoes a cycle can absorb heat
from a single reservoir, deliver an equivalent amount of work, and deliver no
other effect"
Clausius
"No machine whose working fluid undergoes a cycle can absorb heat from
one system, reject heat to another system and produce no other effect"
Both statements of the second law place constraints on the first law by identifying that energy goes
downhill.
The second law is concerned with entropy (S). Entropy is produced by all processes and associated with
the entropy production is the loss of ability to do work. The second law says that the entropy of the
universe increases. An increase in overall disorder is therefore spontaneous. If the volume and energy of
a system are constant, then every change to the system increases the entropy. If volume or energy
change, then the entropy of the system actually decrease. However, the entropy of the universe does not
decrease.
For energy to be available there must be a region with high energy level and a region with low energy
level. Useful work must be derived from the energy that would flows from the high level to the low level.
• 100% of the energy can not be transformed to work

• Entropy can be produced but never destroyed
Efficiency of a heat machine

The efficiency of a heat machine working between two energy levels is defined in terms of absolute
temperature:
η = ( Th - Tc ) / Th = 1 - Tc / Th(1)
where
η = efficiency
Th = temperature high level (K)
Tc = temperature low level (K)
As a consequence, to attain maximum efficiency the Tc would have to be as cold as possible. For 100%
efficiency the Tc would have to equal 0 K. This is practically impossible, so the efficiency is always less
than 1 (less than 100%).
Change in entropy > 0 Change in entropy = 0 Change in entropy < 0

irreversible process reversible process impossible process
Entropy is used to define the unavailable energy in a system. Entropy defines the relative ability of one
system to act on an other. As things move toward a lower energy level, where one is less able to act upon
the surroundings, the entropy is said to increase.
• For the universe as a whole the entropy is increasing!
Entropy definition
Entropy is defined as :
S = H / T (2)
where
S = entropy (kJ/kg K)
H = enthalpy (kJ/kg)
T = absolute temperature (K)
A change in the entropy of a system is caused by a change in its heat content, where the change of
entropy is equal to the heat change divided by the average absolute temperature (Ta):
dS = dH / Ta (3)
The sum of (H / T) values for each step in the Carnot cycle equals 0. This only happens because for
every positive H there is a countering negative H, overall.
Carnot Heat Cycle

In a heat engine, a gas is reversibly heated and then cooled. A model of the
cycle is as follows: State 1 --(isothermal expansion) --> State 2 --(adiabatic
expansion) --> State 3 --(isothermal compression) --> State 4 --(adiabatic
compression) --> State 1
State 1 to State 2: Isothermal Expansion

Isothermal expansion occurs at a high temperature Th, dT = 0 and dE1 = 0.
Since dE = H + w, w1 = - H1. For ideal gases, dE is dependent on
temperature only.
State 2 to State 3: Adiabatic Expansion

The gas is cooled from the high temperature, Th, to the low temperature, Tc.
dE2 = w2 and H2 = 0 (adiabatic).
State 3 to State 4: Isothermal Compression

This is the reverse of the process between states 1 and 2. The gas is
compressed at Tc. dT = 0 and dE3 = 0. w3 = - H3
State 4 to State 1: Adiabatic Compression

This is the reverse of the process between states 2 and 3. dE4 = w4 and H4
= 0 (adiabatic).
The processes in the Carnot cycle can be graphed as the pressure vs. the
volume. The area enclosed in the curve is then the work for the Carnot cycle
because w = - integral (P dV). Since this is a cycle, dE overall equals 0.
Therefore,
-w = H = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4
If you decrease Tc, then the quantity -w gets larger in magnitude.
if -w > 0 then H > 0 and the system, the heat engine, does work on the
surroundings.
The laws of thermodynamics were determined empirically (by experiment). They are generalizations of
repeated scientific experiments. The second law is a generalization of experiments dealing with entropy--
it is that the dS of the system plus the dS of the surroundings is equal to or greater then 0.
• Entropy is not conserved like energy!
Example - Entropy Heating Water

A process raises 1 kg of water from 0 to 100oC (273 to 373 K) under atmospheric conditions.
Specific enthalpy at 0oC (hf) = 0 kJ/kg (from steam tables) (Specific - per unit mass)
Specific enthalpy of water at 100oC (hf) = 419 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Change in specific entropy:
dS = dH / Ta
= ((419 kJ/kg) - (0 kJ/kg)) / ((273 K + 373 K)/2)
= 1.297 kJ/kgK
Example - Entropy Evaporation Water to Steam

A process changes 1 kg of water at 100oC (373 K) to saturated steam at 100oC (373 K) under
atmospheric conditions.
Specific enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) before evaporating = 0 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Specific enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) after evaporating = 2 258 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
dS = dH / Ta
= (2 258 - 0) / ((373 + 373)/2)
= 6.054 kJ/kgK
The total change in specific entropy from water at 0oC to saturated steam at 100oC is the sum of the
change in specific entropy for the water, plus the change of specific entropy for the steam.
Example - Entropy Superheated Steam

A process superheats 1 kg of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure to 150oC (423 K).
Specific total enthalpy of steam at 100oC (373 K) = 2 675 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Specific total enthalpy of superheated steam at 150oC (373 K) = 2 777 kJ/kg (from steam tables)

dS = dH / Ta
= ((2777 kJ/kg) - (2675 kJ/kg)) / ((423 K + 373 K)/2)
= 0.256 kJ/kgK
• Entropy table for superheated steam

The total pressure of a mixture of gases is made up by the sum of the partial pressures of the
components in the mixture as known from Gibbs'-Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures:
• The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the
partial pressures of the individual gases
The total pressure in a mixture of gases can be expressed as:
p = Σpi (1)
where
p = the pressure of the mixture
pi = partial pressure of gas i
The energy transfer of a substance can be expressed as
Q = m cp dt (1)
where
Q = quantity of energy transferred (kJ)
m = mass of substance (kg)
cp = specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kgoC)
dt = temperature difference (rise or fall) in the substance (oC)
The quantity of heat transferred when a specific amount of steam condensates can be expressed as
Q = Ms he (1)
where
Q = quantity of heat (kJ)
Ms = mass of condensing steam (kg)
he = specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
The heat transferred in a condensing steam flow can be expressed as
q = ms he (2)
where
q = heat transfer (kW)
ms = steam flow rate (kg/s)
Heat
Heat energy is transferred as a result of a temperature difference. Energy as heat passes from a warm
body with higher temperature to a cold body with lower temperature.
The transfer of energy as a result of the temperature difference alone is referred to as heat flow. The
Watt, which is the SI unit of power, can be defined as 1 J/s of heat flow.
Other units used to quantify heat energy are the British Thermal Unit - Btu (the amount of heat to raise
1 lb of water by 1oF) and the Calorie (the amount of heat to raise 1 gram of water by 1oC). Units of energy
used may be calorie (cal), Joule (J, SI unit) or Btu. For comparing units, check the unit converter for more
information!
Calorie is defined as an amount of heat required to change temperature of one gram of liquid water by
one degree Celsius.
1 cal = 4.184 J
Specific Enthalpy
This is the term given to the total energy, due to both pressure and temperature, of a fluid (such as water
or steam) at any given time and condition. More specifically it is the sum of the internal energy and the
work done by an applied pressure.
The basic unit of measurement is the joule (J). Since one joule represents a very small amount of energy
it is common to use kiloJoules (kJ) (1 000 Joules).
Specific enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a unit mass. The unit commonly used is kJ/kg.
Heat Capacity
Heat Capacity of a system is the amount of heat required to change the temperature of the whole system
by
one degree.
Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to change temperature of one kilogram of a
substance by one degree. Specific heat may be measured in kJ/kg K or Btu/lboF. For comparing units,
check the unit converter for more information!
Specific heat capacities for different materials can be found in the Material Properties section.
Since enthalpy of a fluid is a function of its temperature and pressure, the temperature dependence of the
enthalpy can be estimated by measuring the rise in temperature caused by the flow of heat at constant
pressure. The constant-pressure heat capacity - cp - is a measure of the change in enthalpy at a particular
temperature.
Similarly, the internal energy is a function of temperature and specific volume. The constant volume heat
capacity - cv - is a measure of the change in internal energy at a particular temperature and constant
volume.
Unless the pressure is extremely high the work done by applied pressure on solids and liquids can be
neglected, and enthalpy can be represented by the internal energy component alone. Constant-volume
and constant-pressure heat capacities can be said to be equal.
For solids and liquids
cp == cv
The specific heat capacity represents the amount of energy required to raise 1 kg by 1oC, and can be
thought of as the ability of a substance to absorb heat. Therefore the SI units of specific heat capacity are
kJ/kg K (kJ/kg oC). Water has a very large specific heat capacity (4.19 kJ/kg oC) compared with many
fluids.
• Water is a good heat carrier!
Amount of Heat Required to Rise Temperature

The amount of heat needed to heat a subject from one temperature level to an other can be expressed
as:
Q = cp m dT (2)
where
Q = amount of heat (kJ)
cp = specific heat capacity (kJ/kg.K)
m = mass (kg)
dT = temperature difference between hot and cold side (K)
Example Heating Water

Consider the energy needed to heat 1.0 kg of water from 0 oC to 100 oC when the specific heat of water is
4.19 kJ/kg K:
Q = (4.19 kJ/kg.K) (1.0 kg) ((100 oC) - (0 oC))
= 419 (kJ)
Work
The amount of mechanical work done can be determined by an equation derived from Newtonian
mechanics
Work = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
or
W=Fl (3)
where
W = work (Nm, J)
F = force (N)
l = length (m)
Example - Work done by Force

The work done by a force 100 N moving a body 50 m can be calculated as
F = (100 N) (50 m)
= 5000 Nm (J)
Work can also be described as the product of the applied pressure and the displaced volume:
Work = Applied pressure x Displaced volume
The unit of work is joule, J, which is defined as the amount of work done when a force of 1 newton acts
for a distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.
1 J = 1 Nm
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work (a translation from Greek-"work within"). The SI unit for work and
energy is the joule, defined as 1 Nm.
Moving objects can do work because they have kinetic energy. ("kinetic" means "motion" in Greek).
The amount of kinetic energy possessed by an object can be calculated as
Ek =1/2 m v2 (4)
where
m = mass of the object (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
The energy of a level position (stored energy) is called potential energy. This is energy associated with
forces of attraction and repulsion between objects (gravity).
The total energy of a system is composed of the internal, potential and kinetic energy. The temperature of
a substance is directly related to its internal energy. The internal energy is associated with the motion,
interaction and bonding of the molecules within a substance. The external energy of a substance is
associated with its velocity and location, and is the sum of its potential and kinetic energy.
Energy is the capacity or capability to do work and energy is used when work are done.
The unit for energy is joule - J, where
1 J = 1 Nm
which is the same unit as for work.
Energy forms
There can be several forms of energy, including
• mechanical energy
• heat or thermal energy
• electrical energy
• chemical energy
• nuclear energy
• light energy
Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency is the ratio between useful energy output and input energy, and can be expressed as
μ = Eo / Ei (1)
where
μ = energy efficiency
Eo = useful energy output
Ei = energy input
It is common to state efficiency as a percentage by multiplying (1) with 100.
Example - Energy Efficiency

A lift moves a mass 10 m up with a force of 100 N. The input energy to the lift is 1500 J. The energy
efficiency of the lift can be calculated as
μ = (100 N) (10 m) / (1500 J)
= 0.67 or
= 67 %
• 1 electron volt (eV) = 1.6021 10-19 J

• 1 erg (erg) = 10-7 J (exact)
• 1 calorie, thermochemical (cal) = 4.184 J
• 1 British thermal unit (Btu) = 1055.6 J
• 1 Q (Q) = 1018 Btu (exact)
• 1 quad (q) = 1015 Btu (exact)
• 1 tons oil equivalent (toe) = 4.19 1010 J
• 1 barrels oil equivalent (bbl) = 5.74 109 J
• 1 tons coal equivalent (tce) = 2.93 1010 J
• 1 m3 of natural gas = 3.4 107 J
• 1 litre of gasoline = 3.2 107 J
• 1 kilowatthour (kWh) = 3.6 106 J
The specific heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume processes, and the ratio of specific
heat and the individual gas constant - R - for some common used "ideal gases", can be found in the table
below (approximate values at 68oF (20oC) and 14.7 psia (1 atm)):
Gas or Vapor Formul Ratio of Individual Gas

a Specific Heat Capacity Specifi constant
c Heats -R-
cp cv cp cv κ= cp - cv cp - cv
o o
(kJ/kg (kJ/kg (Btu/lbm F (Btu/lbm F cp / cv (kJ/kg (ft
K) K) ) ) K) lbf/lbmoR
)
Acetone 1.47 1.32 0.35 0.32 1.11 0.15
Acetylene C2H2 1.69 1.37 0.35 0.27 1.232 0.319 59.34
Air 1.01 0.718 0.24 0.17 1.40 0.287 53.34
C2H5O
Alcohol 1.88 1.67 0.45 0.4 1.13 0.22
H
Alcohol CH3OH 1.93 1.53 0.46 0.37 1.26 0.39
Ammonia NH3 2.19 1.66 0.52 0.4 1.31 0.53 96.5
Argon Ar 0.520 0.312 0.12 0.07 1.667 0.208
Benzene C6H6 1.09 0.99 0.26 0.24 1.12 0.1
Blast furnace
1.03 0.73 0.25 0.17 1.41 0.3 55.05
gas
Bromine 0.25 0.2 0.06 0.05 1.28 0.05
Butatiene 1.12
Butane C4H10 1.67 1.53 0.395 0.356 1.094 0.143 26.5
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.844 0.655 0.21 0.16 1.289 0.189 38.86
Carbon
CO 1.02 0.72 0.24 0.17 1.40 0.297 55.14
monoxide
Carbon
0.67 0.55 0.16 0.13 1.21 0.12
disulphide
Chlorine Cl2 0.48 0.36 0.12 0.09 1.34 0.12

Chloroform 0.63 0.55 0.15 0.13 1.15 0.08
Combustion
1 0.24
products
Ethane C2H6 1.75 1.48 0.39 0.32 1.187 0.276 51.5
Ether 2.01 1.95 0.48 0.47 1.03 0.06
Ethylene C2H4 1.53 1.23 0.4 0.33 1.240 0.296 55.08
Freon 22 1.18
Helium He 5.19 3.12 1.25 0.75 1.667 2.08 386.3
Hexane 1.06
Hydrogen H2 14.32 10.16 3.42 2.43 1.405 4.12 765.9
Hydrogen
HCl 0.8 0.57 0.191 0.135 1.41 0.23 42.4
Chloride
Hydrogen
H2S 0.243 0.187 1.32 45.2
Sulfide
Hydroxyl OH 1.76 1.27 1.384 0.489
Methane CH4 2.22 1.70 0.59 0.45 1.304 0.518 96.4
Methyl Chloride CH3Cl 0.240 0.200 1.20 30.6
Natural Gas 2.34 1.85 0.56 0.44 1.27 0.5 79.1
Neon 1.03 0.618 1.667 0.412
Nitric Oxide NO 0.995 0.718 0.23 0.17 1.386 0.277

Nitrogen N2 1.04 0.743 0.25 0.18 1.400 0.297 54.99
Nitrogen
4.69 4.6 1.12 1.1 1.02 0.09
tetroxide
Nitrous oxide N2O 0.88 0.69 0.21 0.17 1.27 0.18 35.1
Oxygen O2 0.919 0.659 0.22 0.16 1.395 0.260 48.24
Pentane 1.07
Propane C3H8 1.67 1.48 0.39 0.34 1.127 0.189 35.0
Propene
C3H6 1.5 1.31 0.36 0.31 1.15 0.18 36.8
(propylene)
Water Vapor
Steam 1 psia. 1.93 1.46 0.46 0.35 1.32 0.462
120 – 600 oF
Steam 14.7
psia. 220 – 600 1.97 1.5 0.47 0.36 1.31 0.46
o
F
Steam 150 psia.

2.26 1.76 0.54 0.42 1.28 0.5
360 – 600 oF
Sulfur dioxide
(Sulphur SO2 0.64 0.51 0.15 0.12 1.29 0.13 24.1
dioxide)
• κ = cp / cv - the specific heat capacity ratio

• cp = specific heat in a constant pressure process
• cv = specific heat in a constant volume process
• R- Individual Gas constant
Internal Energy
For an ideal gas the internal energy - u - is a function of temperature and the change in internal energy
can be expressed as
du = cv dT (1)
where
du = change in internal energy
cv = specific heat capacity for the gas in a constant volume process
dT = change in temperature
cv varies with temperature, but within a moderate temperature change the heat capacity - cv - can be
regarded as constant.
• Specific Heat Capacities for Gases
Enthalpy
For an ideal gas the enthalpy - h - is function of temperature and the change in enthalpy can be
expressed as
dh = cp dT (2)
where
dh = change in enthalpy
cp= specific heat capacity for the gas in a constant pressure process
cp can within a moderate temperature change be regarded as constant.
• More about Specific Heat Capacities for Gases

The enthalpy in a fluid is defined as:
h=u+p/ρ (3)
where
h = enthalpy
u = internal energy
p = absolute pressure
ρ = density
Combining (3) and the Ideal Gas Law gives:
h=u+RT (4)
where
R = the individual gas constant
The change in enthalpy can be expressed by differentiating (4):
dh = du + R dT (5)
Dividing (5) with dT gives:
(dh / dT) - (du / dT) = R (6)
Modifying (6) with (1) and (2):
cp - cv = R (7)
The difference cp - cv is constant for an ideal gas.
The Ratio of Specific Heats

The Ratio of Specific Heats can be expressed as:
k = cp / cv (8)
where
k = the ratio of specific heats
Ratio of Specific Heats for some common gases:
Ratio of Specific
Gas
Heats
Acetylene 1.30
Air, Standard 1.40
Ammonia 1.32
Argon 1.66
Benzene 1.12
N-butane 1.18
Iso-butane 1.19
Carbon Dioxide 1.28
Carbon Disulphide 1.21
Carbon Monoxide 1.40

Chlorine 1.33
Ethane 1.18
Ethyl alcohol 1.13
Ethyl chloride 1.19
Ethylene 1.24
Helium 1.66
N-heptane 1.05
Hexane 1.06
Hydrochloric acid 1.41
Hydrogen 1.41
Hydrogen chloride 1.41
Hydrogen
1.32
sulphide
Methane 1.32
Methyl alcohol 1.20
Methyl butane 1.08
Methyl chloride 1.20
Natural Gas
1.32
(Methane)
Nitric oxide 1.40

Nitrogen 1.40
Nitrous oxide 1.31
N-octane 1.05
Oxygen 1.40
N-pentane 1.08
Iso-pentane 1.08
Propane 1.12
R-11 1.14
R-12 1.14
R-22 1.18
R-114 1.09
R-123 1.10
R-134a 1.20
Steam (water) 1.33
Sulphur dioxide 1.26
Toulene 1.09
Since the ratio is dimensionless the value is the same in the SI and the imperial system of units.
In perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change of temperature and pressure
as expressed by the Ideal Gas Law.
The Ideal Gas Law and the Individual Gas Constant- R
The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, temperature, and volume of an ideal or perfect gas. The Ideal Gas
Law can be expressed with the Individual Gas Constant:
pV=mRT (1)
where
p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
V = volume (m3, ft3)
m = mass (kg, lb)
R = individual gas constant (J/kg.oK, ft.lb/slugs.oR)
T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)
This equation (1) can be modified to:
p=ρRT (2)
where the density
ρ=m/V (3)
The Individual Gas Constant - R - depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight of
the gas.
Equation (1) can also be modified to
p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2 (4)
expressing the relationship between different states for a given mass of gas.
The Ideal Gas Law and the Universal Gas Constant - Ru

The Universal Gas Constant is independent of the particular gas and is the same for all "perfect" gases.
The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with the Universal Gas Constant:
p V = n Ru T (5)
where
p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
V = volume (m3, ft3)
n = is the number of moles of gas present
Ru = universal gas constant (J/mol.oK, lbf.ft/(lbmol.oR))
T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)

Example - The Ideal Gas Law
A tank with volume of 1 ft3 is filled with air compressed to a gauge pressure of 50 psi. The temperature in
tank is 70 oF.
The air density can be calculated with a transformation of the ideal gas law (2) to:
ρ=p/RT (6)
ρ= [(50 lb/in2 + 14,7 lb/in2)(144 in2/ft2)]/[(1716 ft.lb/slug.oR)((70 + 460) oR)]
= 0,0102 slugs/ft3
The weight of the air is the product of specific weight and the air volume. It can be calculated as:
w=ρgV (7)
w = (0,0102 slugs/ft3)(32,2 ft/s2)(1 ft3)
= 0,32844 slugs.ft/s2
= 0,32844 lb
The specific heat capacity of common metals are indicated in the table below:
Specific Heat Capacity - cp

Metal
(kJ/kg K) (kcal/kgoC) (Btu/lbmoF)
Aluminum 0.91 0.22 0.22
Antimony 0.21 0.05 0.05
Beryllium 1.83 0.436 0.436
Bismuth 0.13 0.03 0.03
Cadmium 0.23 0.055 0.055
Carbon Steel 0.49 0.12 0.12
Cast Iron 0.46 0.11 0.11
Chromium 0.46 0.11 0.11

Cobalt 0.42 0.1 0.1
Copper 0.39 0.092 0.09
Gold 0.13 0.031 0.03
Iridium 0.13 0.031 0.31
Iron 0.46 0.108 0.11
Lead 0.13 0.031 0.03
Magnesium 1.05 0.243 0.25
Manganese 0.48 0.114 0.114
Mercury 0.14 0.033 0.03
Molybdenum 0.25 0.06 0.06
Nickel 0.54 0.106 0.13
Niobium
0.27 0.064 0.064
(Columbium)
Osmium 0.13 0.031 0.031
Platinum 0.13 0.032 0.03
Plutonium 0.13 0.032 0.032
Potassium 0.75 0.180 0.180
Rhodium 0.24 0.058 0.058
Selenium 0.32 0.077 0.077

Silicon 0.71 0.17 0.17
Silver 0.23 0.057 0.057
Sodium 1.21 0.29 0.29
Tantalum 0.14 0.034 0.34
Thorium 0.13 0.03 0.03
Tin 0.21 0.054 0.05
Titanium 0.54 0.125 0.13
Tungsten 0.13 0.032 0.03
Uranium 0.12 0.028 0.028
Vanadium 0.39 0.116 0.116
Zinc 0.39 0.093 0.09
Zirconium 0.27 0.06 0.06
Wrought Iron 0.50 0.12 0.12
• 1 J/(kg K) = 2.389x10-4 kcal/(kg oC) = 2.389x10-4 Btu/(lbm oF)

• 1 kJ/(kg K) = 0.2389 kcal/(kg oC) = 0.2389 Btu/(lbm oF)
• 1 Btu/(lbm oF) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 kcal/(kg oC)
• 1 kcal/(kg oC) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 Btu/(lbm oF)
• When a body of mass is elevated against the gravitational force the
potential energy can be expressed as
• Ep = Fg dh
• = m g dh (1)
• where
• Fg = gravitational force (weight) acting on the body (N)
• Ep = potential energy (J)
• m = mass of body (kg)
• g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
• dh = change in elevation (m)
• Example - Potential Energy when body is elevated

• A body of 1000 kg is elevated 10 m. The change in potential energy can
be calculated as
• Ep = (1000 kg) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m)
• = 98100 J
• = 98 kJ
• = 0.027 kWh
Standardized enthalpies and entropies of some common substances:
Entropy - s - Enthalpy - h -
Substance
Btu/lbmole R J/gmole K Btu/lbmole J/gmole
Acetylene
47.97 200.82 97,495 226,757
C2H2
Benzene C6H6 64.3 269.21 35,653 82,923
n-Butane
74.1 310.03 -53,627 -124,727
C4H10
Carbon
51.03 213.66 -169,183 -393,492
Dioxide CO2
Carbon
47.3 197.92 -47,517 -110,516
Monoxide CO
Ethane C2H6 54.8 229.48 -36,401 -84,662
Hydrogen H2 31.2 130.60 0 0
Methane CH4 44.5 186.19 -32,179 -74,843
Nitrogen N2 45.8 191.56 0 0
Oxygen O2 48.99 205.09 0 0

Propane C3H8 64.47 269.92 -44,647 -103,848
Water H2O 16.72 70.00 -122,976 -286,022
• equilibrium states at 25oC (77oF) and 1 atm

The most common units for heat are
• BTU (Btu) - British Thermal Unit

• Calorie
• Joule
BTU - British Thermal Unit

The unit of heat in the imperial system - the BTU - is
• the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1oF
(58.5oF - 59.5oF) at sea level (30 inches of mercury).
• 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.931 10-4 kWh = 0.252 kcal =
778.16 ft.lbf = 1.0551010 ergs = 252 cal = 0.293 watt-hours
An item using one kilowatt-hour of electricity generates 3412 Btu.
Calorie
A calorie is commonly defined as
• the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water 1oC
• the kilogram calorie, large calorie, food calorie, Calorie (capital C) or just calorie
(lowercase c) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram
of water by one degree Celsius
• 1 kcal = 4186.8 J = 426.9 kp.m = 1.163 10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft.lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1000 cal
Be aware that alternative definitions exists - in short:
• Thermochemical calorie
• 4 °C calorie
• 15 °C calorie
• 20 °C calorie
• Mean calorie
• International Steam Table calorie (1929)
• International Steam Table calorie (1956)
• IUNS calorie (Committee on Nomenclature of the International Union of Nutritional
Sciences)
The calorie is outdated and commonly replaced by the SI-unit Joule.
Joule
The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is
• a unit of energy equal to the work done when a force of one newton acts through a
distance of one meter
• 4.184 joule of heat energy (or one calorie) is required to raise the temperature of a unit
weight (1 g) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33.8oF
• 1 J (Joule) = 0.1020 kpm = 2.778 10-7 kWh = 2.389 10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft.lbf = 1 kg.m2/s2
= 1 watt second = 1 Nm = 1 ft.lb = 9.478 10-4 Btu
• Converting between heat and energy units
Acceleration
foot/second2, meter/second2, gal, galileo, inch/second2
• 1 m/s2 = 3.28084 ft/s2 = 100 cm/s2 = 39.37 inch per second squared (inch/s2)
• 1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2 = 30.48 cm/s2
• 1 g = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.17405 ft/s2
Angle
• 1 circle = 360 degrees = 400 grades = 21600 minutes = 6.28318 radians = 12 signs
• 1 circumference = 360 degrees = 6.28318 radians
• 1 radian = 0.15915 circumference = 57.29578 degree = 3437.747 minute = 0.63662
quadrant = 0.15915 revolution = 206265 second
Area
acre, are, barn, sq.ft., sq.in., foot2, hectare, inch2, mile2, section, meter2, township, yard2, hectares
• 1 m2 = 1550 in2 = 10.764 ft2 = 1.1968 yd2 = 3.861x10-7 mile2

• 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2 = 144 in2 = 0,1111 yd2 = 3.587x10-8 mile2
• 1 in2 = 6.452 cm2 = 6.452x10-4 m2 = 6.944x10-3 ft2 = 7.716x10-4 yd2 = 2.491x10-10 mile2
• 1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2 = 1,296 in2 = 9 ft2 = 0.3228x10-6 mile2
• 1 mile2 = 2.590x106 m2 = 0.4015x1010 in2 = 2.788x107 ft2 = 3.098x106 yd2=640 Acres
• 1 acre = 1/640 square mile = 0.404686 ha (Hectares) = 4,046.86 m2 = 43,560.174 Sq.Ft.
(Int) = 43,560 Sq.Ft. (US Survey) = 4840 Sq.Yds. = 40.46873 are
• 1 km2 = 102 ha2 = 106 m2 = 1010 cm2 = 1012 mm2
• 1 ha (Hectare) = 104 m2 = 108 cm2 = 1010 mm2 = 2.471 Acres
• 1 cm2 = 10-4 m2 = 0.155 in2
• 1 mm2 = 1.55x10-3in2
• 1 township = 36 square mile = 23040 acre = 36 section = 9.323957 107 m2 = 9324
hectare = 93.24 square kilometer
• 1 section = 1 square mile = 2.59 106 m2 = 2.59 square kilometer = 259 hectare = 3.0976
106 square yards = 640 acre =
• 1 are = 0.024711 acre (Int) = 1 sq dekameter = 1076.39 sq foot = 100 sq meter =
3.86102x10-5 sq mile = 119.599 sq yard
• 1 barn = 1x10-24 sq cm
• 1 centiare = 0.01 are = 10.764 sq foot = 1550 sq inch = 1 sq meter = 1.19599 sq yard
• 1 circular mil = 1x10-6 circular inch = 5.06707x10-6 sq cm = 7.85398x10-7 sq inch =
0.000507 sq mm = 0.7854 sq mill
• 1 hectare = 2.471 acre 0 100 are = 1x108 sq cm = 107639.1 sq foot = 10000 sq meter =
0.00386 sq mile = 395.367 sq rod
Capacitance
• 1 abfarad = 1x109 farad = 1x1015 microfarad = 8.98755x1020 statfarad
• 1 farad = 1x10-9 abfarad = 1.00049 farads (Ínt) = 1x106 microfarad = 8.98755x1011
statfarad
Conductance
• 1 abmho = 1000 megamho = 1x109 mho = 8.98755x1020 statmho
Current
• 1 abampere = 10 ampere = 1.03638x10-4 faraday/sec(chem) = 2.99792x1010 statampere
= 1 biot
• 1 ampere = 0.1 abampere = 1.00015 ampere (Int) = 1 coulomb/sec = 1.03638x10-5
faraday/sec (chem) 1x106 microampere = 1000 milliampere = 2.99792x109 statampere
• 1 ampere (Int) = 0.99985 ampere
• 1 biot = 10 ampere
Density
kg/cubic meter, gram/centimeter3, lmb/cubic inch, lbm/cubic foot, slug/cubic foot, kilogram/cubic meter,
lbm/gallon (US liq)
• Density Water 1,000 kg/m3 = 62.43 Lbs./Cu.Ft = 8.33 Lbs./Gal. = 0.1337 Cu.Ft./Gal.
• 1 lb/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3 = 0.016 g/cm3 = 0.00926 oz/in3 = 2.57 oz/gal (Imperial) = 2.139
oz/gal (U.S.) = 0.0005787 lb/in3 = 27 lb/yd3 = 0.161 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.134 lb/gal (U.S)
= 0.0121 ton/yd3
• 1 slug/ft3 = 515.379 kg/m3
• 1 kg/l = 62.43 lb/ft3
• 1 kg/m3 = 0.001 g/cm3 = 0.0005780 oz/in3 = 0.16036 oz/gal (Imperial) = 0.1335 oz/gal
(U.S.) = 0.0624 lb/ft3 = 0.000036127 lb/in3 = 1.6856 lb/yd3 = 0.010022 lb/gal (Imperial) =
0.008345 lb/gal (U.S) = 0.0007525 ton/yd3
Electric Charge
• 1 abcoulomb = 0.00278 ampere-hour = 10 coulomb = 6.24151x1019 electronic charge =
1.03632x10-4 faraday (chem) = 2.99792x1010 statcoulomb
• 1 ampere hour = 360 abcoulomb = 3600 coulomb = 0.03731 faraday (chem)
• 1 coulomb = 0.1 abcoulomb = 0.000278 ampere hour = 1 ampere second = 1.00015002
coulomb (Int) = 1.0363x10-5 faraday (chem) = 1.0360x10-5 faraday (phys) = 2.9979x109
statcoulomb
Electromotive Force, Voltage Difference

• abvolt = 0.01 microvolt = 1x10-5 millivolt = 1x10-8 volt
Energy
British Thermal Unit (Btu), calorie, joule, kilojoule, electron volt, erg, foot lbf, foot poundal, kilocalorie,
kilowatt hour, watt hour,
• 1 J (Joule) = 0,1020 kpm = 2.778x10-7 kWh = 2.389x10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft lbf = 1 (kg
m2)/s2 = 1 watt second = 1 Nm = 9.478x10-4 Btu
• 1 kpm = 9.80665 J = 2.724x10-6 kWh = 2.342x10-3 kcal = 7.233 ft lbf = 9.295x10-3 Btu
• 1 kWh = 3.6x106 J = 3.671x105 kpm = 859.9 kcal = 2.656x106 ft lbf = 3.412x103 Btu
• 1 kJ = 1 kNm = 1kWs = 103 J = 0.947813 Btu = 737.6 ft lbf = 0.23884 kcal
• 1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1,055.06 J = 107.6 kpm = 2.92875x10-4 kWh = 251.996
calorie = 0.252 kcal = 777.649 ft lbf = 1.0544x1010 erg = 0.293 watt hour = 0.999331 Btu
(Int Steam Tab) = 0.998560 Btu (mean) = 25020.1 foot-poundal = 107.514 kg force
meter = 1.0751x107 gram-force cm = 0.000393 hp-hour = 10.456 liter atm = 1054.35
wattsecond
• 1 cal = 4.186 J
• 1 kcal = 4186,8 J = 426,9 kp m = 1.163x10-3 kWh = 3.088 ft lbf = 3.9683 Btu = 1,000 cal
• 1 ft lbf (foot pound force) = 1.3558 J = 0.1383 kp m = 3.766x10-7 kWh = 3.238x10-4 kcal =
1.285x10-3 Btu
• 1 hp h (horse power hour) = 2.6846x106 J = 0.7457 kWh
• 1 erg = 1 (g cm2)/s2 = 10-7 J = 1 dyne-centimeter
• 1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J
• 1 Q = 1018 Btu = 1.055x1021 J
• 1 Quad = 1015 Btu
• 1 Therm = 100,000 Btu
• 1 kg m = 7.233 ft lb = 0.00929 Btu = 9.806 Joule
Energy per unit mass

• 1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg
• 1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal/kg
• 1 kcal/kg = 4.1868 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Flow - see Volume flow
Force
dyne, kilogram force (kgf), kilopound force, kip, lbf (pound force), ounce force (avoirdupois), poundal,
newton
• 1 N (Newton) = 0.1020 kp = 7.233 pdl = 7.233/32.174 lbf = 0.2248 lbf = 1 (kg m)/s2 = 105
dyne = 1/9.80665 kgf
• 1 lbf (Pound force) = 4.44822 N = 0.4536 kp = 32.17 pdl = 4.448x105 dyn
• 1 dyne = 1 (g cm)/s2
• 1 kg has a weight of 1 kp
• 1 kp (Kilopond) = 9.80665 N = 2.205 lbf = 70.93 pdl
• 1 pdl (Poundal) = 0.13826 N = 0.01409 kp = 0.03108 lbf
Frequency
• 1 hertz = 1 cycle/sec
Heat flow rate

• 1 Btu/sec = 1,055.1 W
• 1 kW (kJ/s) = 102.0 kpm/s = 859.9 kcal/h = 3,413 Btu/h = 1.360 hk = 1.341 hp = 738 ft
lb/s = 1,000 J/s = 3.6x106 J/h
• 1 kpm/s = 9.8067x10-3 kW = 8.432 kcal/h = 32.47 Btu/h = 0.01333 hk = 0.01316 hp =
7.237 ft lb/s
• 1 kcal/h = 1.163x10-3 kW = 0.1186 kpm/s = 3.969 Btu/h = 1.582x10-3 hk = 1.560x10-3 hp
= 0.8583 ft lb/s
• 1 Btu/h = 2.931x10-4 kW = 0.0299 kpm/s = 0.252 kcal/h = 3.986x10-4 hk = 3.939x10-4 hp
= 0.2163 ft lb/s
• 1 kcal/h = 1.16x10-3 kW
• 1 hk (metric horse power) = 0.735499 kW = 75.00 kpm/s = 632.5 kcal/h = 2,510 Btu/h =
0.9863 hp = 542.8 ft lb/s
• 1 hp = 0.74570 kW = 76.04 kpm/s = 641.2 kcal/h = 2,545 Btu/h = 1.014 hk = 550.3 ft lb/s
• 1 ft lb/s = 1.35501 kW = 0.1382 kpm/s = 1.165 kcal/h = 4.625 Btu/h = 1.843x10-3 hk =
1.817x10-3 hp
Heat flux
• 1 Btu/ft2 = 2.713 kcal/m2 = 2.043x104 J/m2K
• 1 Btu/ ft2 h = 3.1525 W/m2
• 1 Btu/ft2 oF = 4.88 kcal/m2K = 2.043x104 J/m2K
• 1 kcal/m2 = 0.369 Btu/ft2
• 1 kcal/m2K = 0.205 Btu/ft2oF
Heat generation per unit volume

• 1 Btu/ft3 = 8.9 kcal/m3 = 3.73x104 J/m3
• 1 Btu/ft3 h = 10.343 W/m3
• 1 kcal/m3 = 0.112 Btu/ft3
Heat generation per unit mass

• 1 Btu/lb = 0.556 kcal/kg = 2,326 J/kg
• 1 kcal/kg = 1.800 Btu/lb
Heat transfer coefficient

• 1 Btu/ft2 h oF = 5.678 W/m2 K = 4.882 kcal/h m2 oC
• 1 W/m2K = 0.85984 kcal/h m2 oC = 0.1761 Btu/ ft2 h oF
• 1 kcal/h m2 oC = 1.163 W/m2K = 0.205 Btu/ ft2 h oF
Hydraulic Gradients
• 1 ftH2O/100 ft = 0.44 psi/100 ft = 9.8 kPa/100 m = 1000 mmH2O/100 m
• 1 psi/100 ft = 2.3 ftH2O/100 ft = 2288 mmH2O/100 ft = 22.46 kPa/100 m
Inductance
• abhenry = 1x10-9 henry
• nery = 1x109 abhenry = 0.9995 henry (Int) = 1000 millihenry = 1.113x10-12 stathenry
Information Storage
• 1 bit = 0.125 byte (computers)
• 1 byte = 8 bit
Length
feet, meters, centimeters, kilometers, miles, furlongs, yards, micrometers, inches,angstrom, cubit, fathom,
foot, hand, league, light year, micron, mil, nautical mile, rod,
• 1 m (meter) = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in = 1.0936 yd = 6.214x10-4 mile

• 1 km = 0.6214 mile = 3281 ft = 1094 yds
• 1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 0.08333 ft = 0.02778 yd = 1.578x10-5 mile
• 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd = 1.894x10-4 mile = 30.48 cm = 304.8 mm
• 1 mm = 10-3 m
• 1 cm = 10-2 m = 0.3937 in = 0.0328 ft = 1x108 Aangstrom = 0.03281 foot = 0.0984 hand
(horses) = 0.3937 inch = 1x10-5 kilometer = 0.0497 link (Gunter) = 0.0328 (Ramden) =
1000 micrometer = 1000 micron = 5.3996x10-6 mile (naut) = 6.2137x10-6 mile (US
statute) = 10 millimeter = 1x107 millimicron = 393.7 mil = 2.371 picas (printers) 28.4528
point (printers) = 0.00199 rod (US Survey) = 0.01094 yard
• 1 mm = 0.03937 in
• 1 Aangstrom = 10-10 m = 1x10-8 cm = 3.937x10-9 inch = 1x10-4 micrometer = 0.0001
micron = 0.1 millimicron
• 1 mile = 1.6093 km = 1,609.3 m = 63,346 in = 5,280 ft = 1,760 yd
• 1 mil (Norway and Sweden) = 10 kilometres
• 1 nm (nautical mile, sea mile) = 1,852 metres = 1.151 mile = 6076.1 feet = 0.016667
degree of latitude
• 1 yd (yard) = 0.9144 m = 36 in = 3 ft = 5.682x10-4 mile
• 1 Furlong = 660 feet = 40 rods = 1/8 mile
• 1 rod = 5.5 yards
• 1 land league = 3 miles
• 1 Fathom = 6 feet = 1.828804 meters
• 1 astronomical unit = 1.496x108 kilometer
• 1 cable (UK) = 0.00167 degree latitude = 185.37 meter
• 1 cable length (US Survey) = 120 fathom (US Survey) = 720 foot (US Survey) = 219.456
meter
• 1 caliber = 0.01 inch = 0.254 mm
• 1 chain (Gunter or US Survey) = 2011.7 centimeter = 66.00013 foot = 66 foot (US
Survey) = 0.1 Furlong (US Survey) = 792 inch (US Survey) = 100 link (Gunter) =
66.00013 link (Ramden) = 20.117 meter = 0.0125 mile (US statute) = 4 rod (US Survey)
= 22 yard (US Survey)
• 1 light year = 63241.08 astronomical unit = 9.46073x1012 kilometer = 5.8786x1012 mile
(US statute) = 0.306601 parsec
Luminous Emittance (Illuminance)

• 1 lumen/sq ft = 1 foot candle = 1x104 lux = 1 phot
• 1 lux = 0.0929 foot candle = 1 lumen /sq meter = 0.0001 phot
Luminous Flux
• 1 candle power = 12.566 lumen
• 1 lumen = 1 candela steradian = 0.07958 candle power (spherical) = 0.0015 watt
Luminous Intensity
• 1 candela = 1.091 hefner candle (Germ) = 1 lumen/steradian
Magnetic Flux Density

• 1 gamma flux = 1x10-5 gauss = 1 x10-6 gram = 1 microgram = 1x10-9 tesla
• 1 gauss = 0.9997 gauss (Int) = 1x105 gamma = 1 gilbert/cm = 1 maxwell/sq cm = 1
line/sq cm = 6.4516 line/sq inch = 1x10-4 tesla = 1x10-8 weber/sq cm = 6.452x10-8
weber/sq inch = 1x10-4 weber/sq meter
Magnitude of a Physical Quantity (Power or intensity relative to a specified or

implied reference level)
• 1 bel = 10 decibel
• 1 decibel = 0.1 bel
Mass, Weight
pounds, kilograms, grams, ounces, grains, tons (long), tons (short), tons (metric), carat, grain, ounce
mass, pound mass (lbm), slug, tonne
• 1 kg = 1,000 gram = 2.2046 lb = 6.8521x10-2 slug

• 1 lbm = 16 oz = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g = 7000 grains = 0.03108 slug
• 1 slug = 14.594 kg = 32.174 lbm
• 1 grain = 0.000143 lb = 0.0648 g
• 1 g = 15.43 grains = 0.0353 oz = 0.002205 lb
• 1 qt = 0.9464 liters
• 1 metric ton (or tonne) = 1 tonne métrique = 1000 kg = 106 g = 109 mg =
1.10231131 short tons
• 1 short ton = 2000 lbs = 907.18474 kg
• 1 long ton = 2240 pounds = 1,016.0469088 kg
• 1 oz (ounce) = 28.35 g = 437.5 grains = 0.0625 lb = 0.0000279 long ton (UK) =
0.00003125 long ton (US) = 0.000558 long hundredweight (UK) = 0.000625 long
hundredweight (US) = 0.004464 stone = 16 dram
• 1 troy pound = 12 troy ounces
• 1 scruple = 20 grains
• 1 dram = 3 scruples
• 1 apothecary ounce = 8 drams
• 1 apothecary pound = 12 apothecary ounces
• 1 pennyweight = 24 grains
• 1 Gal. H2O = 8.33 Lbs. H2O
• 1 cental (US) = 45.359 kilogram = 100 pound
• 1 carat (metric) = 3.0865 grain = 0.2 gram = 200 milligram
• 1 hectogram = 100 gram = 0.26769 pound (apoth or troy) = 0.2205 pound (avdp)
• Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity - An introduction and definition of density,
specific weight and specific gravity. Formulas with examples.
Mass flow rate

• 1 lb/h = 1.26x10-4 kg/s
• 1 lb/s = 0.4536 kg/s
• 1 lb/min = 7.56x10-3 kg/s = 27.216 kg/s
• 1 kg/s = 3,600 kg/h = 132.28 lb/min
• 1 kg/h = 2.778x10-4 kg/s = 3.67x10-2 lb/min
Moment of Inertia
• 1 kg m2 = 10000 kg cm2 = 54675 ounce in2 = 3417.2 lb in2 = 23.73 lb ft2
Nautical Measure
• 1 league = 3 nautical miles
• 1 nautical mile = 6067.10 feet = 1.1508 statute miles
• 1 knot (nautical unit of speed) = 1 nautical mile per hour
• one degree at the equator = 60 nautical miles = 69.047 statute miles
• 360 degrees = 21600 nautical miles = 24856.8 statute miles = circumference at equator
Power
horsepower, kilowatt, watt,btu/second, calorie/second, foot lbf/second, kilocalorie/second
• 1 W = 1 kg m2/s3 = 1 Nm/s = 1 J/s = 10,000,000 ergs per second

• 1 kW = 1,000 Watts = 3,412 Btu/h = 737.6/550 British hp = 1.341 British hp =
103/9.80665 kgf m/s = 737.6 ft lbf/s = 103/(9.80665 75) metric hp
• 1 hp (English horse power) = 745.7 W = 0.746 kW = 550 ft lb/s = 2,545 Btu/h = 33.000 ft
lb/m = 1.0139 metric horse power ~= 1.0 KVA
• 1 horsepower (mech) = 2542.47 Btu (mean)/hr = 42.375 Btu (mean)/min = 0.7062 Btu
(mean)/sec = 6.416x105 calorie/hr (termo) = 6.412x105 calorie (IST)/hr = 6.4069x105
calorie(mean)/hr = 10694 calorie/min (thermo) = 10686 calorie (IST)/min = 10678 calorie
(mean)/min = 10.686 calorie, kg/min (IST) = 7.457x109 erg/sec = 1980000 foot pound-
force/hr = 33000 foot pound-force/min = 550 foot pound-force/sec = 0.076 horsepower
(boiler) = 0.9996 horsepower (electric) = 1.0139 horsepower (metric) = 745.7 joule/sec =
0.7457 kilowatt = 0.7456 kilowatt (Int) = 0.212 ton of refrigeration = 745.7 watt
• 1 horsepower (boiler) = 33445.6 Btu (mean)/hr = 140671.6 calorie/min (thermo) =
140469.4 calorie (mean)/min = 140742.3 calorie (20oC)/min 9.8095x1010 erg/sec =
434107 foot-pound-force/min = 13.1548 horsepower (mech) = 13.1495 horsepower
(electric) = 13.3372 horsepower (metric) = 13.1487 horsepower (water) = 9809.5
joule/sec = 9.8095 kilowatt
• 1 horsepower (electric) = 2547.16 Btu/hr (thermo) = 2545.46 Btu (IST)/hr = 2543.49 Btu
(mean)/hr = 178.298 calorie/sec (thermo) = 641.87 calorie, kg/hr (thermo) = 7.46x109
erg/sec = 33013 foot pound-force/min = 550.2 foot pound-force/sec = 1.0004
horsepower (mech) = 0.07605 horsepower (boiler) = 1.01428 horsepower (metric) =
0.99994 horsepower (water) = 746 joule/sec = 0.746 kilowatt = 746 watt
• 1 horsepower (metric) = 2511.3 Btu/hr (thermo) = 2509.6 Btu (IST)/hr = 2507.7 Btu
(mean)/hr = 6.328x105 calorie/hr (thermo) = 6.324x105 calorie (IST)/hr = 6.319x105
calorie (mean)/hr = 7.35x109 ergs/sec = 32548.6 foot pound-force/min = 542.476 foot
pound-force/sec = 0.9863 horsepower (mech) = 0.07498 horsepower (boiler) = 0.9859
horsepower (electric) = 0.98587 horsepower (water) = 75 kg-force meter/sec (kg m/s) =
0.7355 kilowatt = 735.499 W = 75 kg m/s
• 1 horsepower (water) = 33015 foot pound-force/min = 1.00046 horsepower (mech) =
0.07605 horsepower (boiler) = 1.00006 horsepower (electric) = 1.01434 horsepower
(metric) = 0.746043 kilowatt
• 1 refrigeration Ton = 12,000 Btu/h cooling = 3.516 kW = 3,025.9 k Calories/h
• 1 cooling tower Ton = 15,000 Btu/h = 3,782 k Calories/h
• 1 ft lb/s = 1.3558 W
• 1 Btu/s = 1055.1 W
• 1 Btu/h = 1 Btuh = 0.293 W = 0.001 MBH
• 1 cheval vapeur (French) = 0.98632 horsepower
Power per unit area

• 1 W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/(h ft2) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m2)
Pressure
atmosphere, centimeters of mercury, foot of water, bar, barye, centimeter of water, dyne/centimeter2, inch
of mercury, inch of water, kgf/centimeter2, kgf/meter2, lbf/foot2, lbf/inch2 (psi), millibar, millimeter of
mercury, pascal, torr, newton/meter2
• Standard Atmospheric Pressure 1 atm = 101.325 kN/m2 = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kPa =
14.7 psia = 0 psig = 29.92 in Hg = 760 torr = 33.95 Ft.H2O = 407.2 In.W.G (Water
Gauge) = 2116.8 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
• 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2 = 1x10-5 bar = 4.03x10-3 in water = 0.336x10-3 ft water
= 0.1024 mm water = 0.295x10-3 in mercury = 7.55x10-3 mm mercury = 0.1024 kg/m2 =
0.993x10-5 atm
• 1 Pa = 10-6 N/mm2 = 10-5 bar = 0.1020 kp/m2 = 1.02x10-4 m H2O = 9.869x10-6 atm =
1.45x10-4 psi (lbf/in2)
• 1 N/mm2 = 106 Pa = 10 bar = 1.020x105 kp/m2 = 102.0 m H2O = 9.869 atm = 145.0 psi
(lbf/in2)
• 1 mmHg = 1 torr = 0.01934 lb/in2
• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa (N/m2) = 1.013x102 kN/m2 = 1.033x104 kp/m2 = 1.033 kp/cm2 = 1.013
bar = 14.696 psi (lb/in2) = 407.1 in H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 33.9 ft H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC)
= 10.33 m H2O at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 29.92 in mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 760 mm
mercury at 62 0F (16.7 oC) = 760 torr
• 1 bar = 1x105 Pa (N/m2) = 0.1 N/mm2 = 10,197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.98692 atm =
14.5038 psi (lbf/in2) = 1x106 dyne/sq cm = 750 mmHg = 1x106 barye (French) = 75.0062
cm Hg (0oC) = 33.4883 ft H2O (60oF) = 1019.72 gram-force/sq cm = 29.530 in Hg (32oF)
= 1.01972 kg-force/sq cm = 1000 millibar = 2088.54 pound-force/sq foot
• 1 kp/m2 = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 9.807x10-6 N/mm2 = 10-3 m H2O = 1 mm H2O = 0.9681x10-4
atm = 1.422x10-3 psi (lb/in2) = 0.0394 in H2O = 0.0736 mm mercury
• 1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2) = 6,894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2 = 6.895x10-2 bar =
27.71 in H2O at 62oF (16.7oC) = 703.1 mm H2O at 62oF (16.7oC) = 2.0416 in mercury at
62oF (16.7oC) = 51.8 mm mercury at 62oF (16.7oC) = 703.6 kg/m2 = 0.06895 atm = 2.307
Ft. H2O = 16 ounces
• 1 psf (lbf/ft2) = 47.88 N/m2 (Pa) = 0.006944 lbf/in2 (psi)
• 1 dyn/cm2 = 145.04x10-7 lbf/in2
• 1 in mercury (Hg) = 3,376.8 N/m2= 0.49 lb/in2 = 12.8 in water
• 1 Ounce = 1.73 In.W.C.
• 1 Ft.H2O = 0.4335 psi = 62.43 Lbs./Sq.Ft.
• 1 in water = 248.8 N/m2= 0.0361 lb/in2 = 25.4 kg/m2 = 0.0739 in mercury
• 1 m H2O = 9806.7 Pa = 9.807x10-3 N/mm2 = 0.0987 bar = 1,000 kp/m2 = 0.09678 atm =
1.422 psi (lbf/in2)
• 1 mm water = 9.81 Pa (N/m2) = 1 kg/m2 = 0.0736 mm mercury = 0.9677x10-4 atm
• 1 mm mercury = 0.0193 lb/in2 = 133 N/m2 = 12.8 mm water
• 1 barye (French) = 1.0 dyne/sq cm = 0.10 newton/sq meter = 0.10 Pascal
Note! When using pressure units based on liquid columns (like mm Water, in Water, mm Hg ...) - be
aware that densities of liquids varies with temperature. For more exact conversions consult temperature
density sources for the actual liquids.
Radioactivity
• 1 becquerel = 2.7027x10-11 curie = 1 disintegration/sec
Resistance, Electrical
• 1 abohm = 1x10-15 megohm = 0.001 microohm = 1x10-9 ohm
Rotation
revolutions,
• 1 r/min (rpm) = 0.01667 r/s = 0.105 rad/s

• 1 r/s = 60 r/min = 6.28 rad/s
• 1 rad/s = 9.55 r/min (rpm) = 0.159 r/s (rps)
Specific energy, enthalpy, entropy

• 1 Btu/lbm = 2,326.1 J/kg = 0.55556 kcal/kg = 778.2 ft lbf / lbm = 3.9 10-4 hp hr / lbm = 5.4
lbf/in2 / lbm/ft3 = 0.237 kp m / g = 5.56 10-4 kcal/g = 2.326 kJ/kg
• 1 J/kg = 4.299x10-4 Btu/lbm = 2.388x10-4 kcal/kg
• 1 kcal/kg = 1.80 Btu/lbm = 4,187 J/kg
Specific heat capacity

• 1 J/(kg K) = 2.389x10-4 kcal/(kg oC) = 2.389x10-4 Btu/(lbm oF)
• 1 kJ/(kg K) = 0.2389 kcal/(kg oC) = 0.2389 Btu/(lbm oF)
• 1 Btu/(lbm oF) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 kcal/(kg oC)
• 1 kcal/(kg oC) = 4,186.8 J/ (kg K) = 1 Btu/(lbm oF)
Specific Energy
• 1 kJ/kg = 1 J/g = 0.4299 Btu/ lbm = 0.23884 kcal/kg
• 1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg = 0.55 kcal/kg
• 1 kcal/kg = 4.1868 kJ/kg = 1.8 Btu/lbm
Specific Volume
• 1 m3/kg = 16.02 ft3/lbm = 27680 in3/lbm = 119.8 US gal/lbm = 1000 liter/kg
• 1 liter/kg = 0.016 ft3/lbm = 27.7 in3/lbm = 0.12 US gal/lbm = 0.001 m3/kg
• 1 ft3/lbm = 1728 in3/lbm = 7.48 US gal/lbm = 62.43 liter/kg = 0.062 m3/kg
• 1 in3/lbm = 0.00058 ft3/lbm = 0.0043 US gal/lbm = 0.036 liter/kg = 0.000036 m3/kg
• 1 US gal/lbm = 0.134 ft3/lbm = 231 in3/lbm = 8.35 liter/kg = 0.0083 m3/kg
Stress
• 1 psi (lb/in2) = 144 psf (lbf/ft2)= 6,894.8 Pa (N/m2) = 6.895x10-3 N/mm2
• 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa = 1.4504x10-4 lb/in2
Surveyor's Measure
• 1 mile = 8 furlongs = 80 chains
• 1furlong = 10 chains = 220 yards
• 1 chain = 4 rods = 22 yards = 66 feet = 100 links
• 1 link = 7.92 inches
Temperature
celsius, rankine, kelvin, centigrade, fahrenheit,
• 1 oC (dt) = 1.8 oF (dt ) - temperature difference

• 1 oF (dt) = 0.555 oC (dt) - temperature difference
• 0 oC corresponds to 32 oF, 273.16 K and 491.69 R
• 1 oR = 5/9 K
• T(oF) = [T(oC)](9/5) + 32
• T(oF) = [T(K) - 273.15](9/5) + 32
• T(oC) = 5/9[T(oF) - 32]
Thermal Conductivity
• 1 W/(m K) = 0.85984 kcal/(h m oC) = 0.5779 Btu/(ft h oF) = 0.048 Btu/(in h oF)
• 1 Btu/(ft h oF) = 1.731 W/(m K) = 1.488 kcal/(h m oC)
• 1 kcal/(h m oC) = 1.163 W/(m K) = 0.6720 Btu/(ft h oF)
Thermal Diffusivity
• 1 ft2 /s = 0.0929 m2/s
• 1 ft2 /h = 2.581x10-5 m2/s
Thermal resistance
• 1 (h oF)/Btu = 1.8958 K/W
Time
year, month, day, hour, minute, second, millisecond
• 1 h = 3600 s = 60 min
• 1 ms (millisecond) = 10-3 s
• 1 μs (microsecond) = 10-6 s
• 1 ns (nanosecond) = 10-9 s
• 1 day (mean solar) = 1.0027379 day (sidereal) = 24 hour (mean solar) = 24.06571 hour
(sidereal) = 0.0027397 year (calendar) = 0.002738 year (sidereal) = 0.002738 year
(tropical)
Torque, Moment
foot-pound torque, newton-meter
• 1 ft lb = 1.356 Nm
Velocity, Speed
foot/second, inch/second, meter/second, kilometer/hour, knot, mile/hour,nautical mile per hour
• 1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s

• 1 ft/min = 5.08x10-3 m/s = 0.0183 km/h = 0.0114 mph
• 1 mph = 0.44703 m/s = 1.609 km/h = 88 ft/min = 5280 ft/hr = 1.467 Ft./sec. = 0.8684
knots
• 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h = 196.85 ft/min = 2.237 mph
• 1 km/h = 0.2778 m/s = 54.68 ft/min = 0.6214 mph = 0.5396 knot
• 1 knot (nautical mile per hour) = 0.514444444 m/s = 1.852 kilometers per hour = 1.1515
miles per hour= 1 nautical miles per hour
• 1 League = 3.0 Miles
• 1 cm/sec = 1.9685 foot/min = 0.0328 foot/sec = 0.036 km/hr = 0.0194 knots (Int) = 0.6
meter/min = 0.02237 mile/hr = 0.000373 mile/min
Viscosity Dynamic
• 1 lb/(ft s) = 1.4879 Pa s = 14.88 P = 1,488 cP = 0.1517 kp s/m2
• 1 cP (Centipoise) = 10-3 Pa s = 0.01 Poise = 1.020x10-4 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-4 lb/(ft s) =
0.00100 (N s)/m2 = 0.01 gram/(cm sec) = 2.4191 lb/(ft hr)
• 1 kg/(m s ) = 1 (N s)/m2 = 0.6720 lbm/(ft s) = 10 Poise
• 1 P (Poise) = 0.1 Pa s = 100 cP = 1.020x10-2 kp s/m2 = 6.721x10-2 lb/(ft s) = 0.1 kg/ms
• 1 Pa s (N s/m2) = 10 P (Poise) = 103 cP = 0.1020 kp s/m2 = 0.6721 lb/(ft s)
• 1 kp s/m2 = 9.80665 Pa s = 98.07 P = 9,807 cP = 6.591 lb/(ft s)
• 1 reyns = 1 1bf s/in2 = 6894.76 Pa s
• Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity - An introduction to dynamic, absolute and
kinematic viscosity and how to convert between CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP),
Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler.
Viscosity Kinematic
• 1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s
• 1 ft2/ h = 2.581x10-5m2/s
• 1 St (Stokes) = 1x10-4 m2/s = 100 cSt = 1.076x10-3 ft2/s
• 1 m2/s = 104 St = 106 cSt = 10.764 ft2/s= 38750 ft2/h
• 1 cSt (Centistoke) = 10-6 m2/s = 0.01 Stokes = 1.076x10-5 ft2/s = 1 square mm/sec
Volume
barrel, gallon, cubic centimeter (cm3), cubic feet (foot3), cubic inch (inch3), cubic meter (meter3), cubic yard
(yard3), quarts, liters, acre foot, board foot, bushel, cord, cup, dram, fluid ounce, peck, pint, quart,
tablespoon, teaspoon,
• 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3= 28.32 dm3 = 0.03704 yd3 = 6.229 Imp. gal (UK) = 7.481 gal (US) =
1,728 cu inch = 2.296x10-5 acre foot = 12 board foot (timber) = 0.7786 bushel (UK) =
0.8036 bushel (US, dry) = 0.00781 cord (firewood) = 0.0625 cord foot (timber) = 28316.8
cu centimeter = 6.42851 gallon (US, dry) = 7.48052 gallon (US, liq) = 28.3168 liter =
996.614 ounce (UK, liq) = 957.506 ounce (US, liq) = 51.4281 pint (US, dry) = 59.84442
pint (US, liq) = 25.714 quart (US, dry) = 29.922 quart (US, liq)
• 1 in3 = 1.6387x10-5 m3 = 1.639x10-2 dm3 (liter) = 16.39 cm3 = 16390 mm3 = 0.000579 ft3
• 1 Gallon (U.S.) = 3.785x10-3 m3 = 3.785 dm3 (liter) = 231 in3 = 0.13368 ft3 = 4.951x10-3
yd3 = 0.8327 Imp. gal (UK) = 4 Quarts = 8 Pints
• 1 Imp. gallon (UK) = 4.546x10-3 m3 = 4.546 dm3 = 0.1605 ft3 = 5.946x10-3 yd3 = 1.201 gal
(US)
• 1 dm3 (Liter) = 10-3 m3 = 0.03532 ft3 = 1.308x10-3 yd3 = 0.220 Imp gal (UK) = 0.2642
Gallons (US) = 1.057 Quarts = 2.113 Pints
• 1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3 = 764.6 dm3 = 27 ft3 = 168.2 Imp. gal (UK) = 202.0 gal (US) = 46,656
Cu.In. = 1616 Pints = 807.9 Quarts = 764.6 Liters
• 1 pint (pt) = 0.568 dm3 (liter) = 16 fl. oz. (fluid ounce) = 28.88 in3
• 1 km3 = 109 m3 = 1012 dm3 (liter) = 1015 cm3 = 1018 mm3
• 1 cm3 = 0.061 in3 = 0.00042 board foot = 2.7496x10-5 bushel (UK) = 2.8378x10-5 bushel
(US, dry) = 3.5315x10-5 cu foot = 0.06102 cu inch = 1x10-6 cu meter = 1.308x10-6 cu yard
= 0.28156 drachm (UK, liq) = 0.27051 dram (US, liq) = 0.000227 gallon (UK) = 0.00027
gallon (US, dry) = 0.000264 gallon (US, liq) = 0.0074 gill (UK) = 0.00845 gill (US) =
0.001 liter = 0.035195 ounce (UK, liq) = 0.033814 ounce (US, liq) = 0.00182 pint (US,
dry) = 0.00211 pint (US, liq) = 0.00088 quart (UK) = 0.00091 quart (US, dry) = 0.00106
quart (US, liq)
• 1 m3 = 103 dm3 (liter) = 35.31 ft3 = 1.3093 yd3 = 220.0 Imp. gal (UK) = 264.2 gal (US) =
61,023 Cu.In. = 35.31 Cu.Ft = 0.1 decistere
• 1 Hogshead = 63 gallon = 8.42184 Cu.Ft
• 1 barrel (UK) = 1.5 bag (UK) = 1.41541 barrel (US, dry) = 1.37251 barrel (US, liq) = 4.5
bushel (UK) = 4.64426 bushel (US, dry) = 5.77957 cu ft = 0.16366 cu meter = 36 gallon
(UK) = 163.6592 liter
• 1 barrel beer = 31.5 gallons beer
• 1 barrel (US, oil) = 1.33 barrel (US, liq) = 5.61458 cu foot = 42 gallons (US, liq) =
158.9873 liter
• 1 barrel (US, dry) = 0.969696 barrel (US, liq) = 3.28122 bushel (US, dry) = 4.0833 cu ft =
7056 cu inch = 0.11563 cu meter = 104.999 quart (US, dry)
• 1 barrel (US, liq) = 1.03125 barrel (US, dry) = 0.75 barrel (US, oil) = 4.2109 cu foot =
7276.5 cu inch = 0.11924 cu meter = 26.22924 gallon (UK) = 31.5 gallon (US, liq) =
119.24 liter =
• 1 bushel = 1.2445 Cu.Ft. = 32 Quarts (Dry) = 64 Pints (dry) = 4 Pecks
• 1 bushel (UK) = 0.3333 bag (UK) = 1.03206 bushel (US) = 36368.7 cu cm = 1.28435 cu
foot = 2219 cu inch = 8 gallon (UK) = 36.3687 liter
• 1 bushel (US, dry) = 0.30476 barrel (US, dry) = 0.96894 bushel (UK) = 35239.07 cu cm
= 1.24446 cu foot = 2150.42 cu inch = 0.03524 cu meter 0.04609 cu yard = 8 gallon (US,
dry) = 9.30918 gallon (US, liq) = 35.23907 liter = 1191.57 ounce (US, liq) = 4 peck (US)
= 64 pint (US, dry) = 32 quart (US, dry) = 37.23671 quart (US, liq)
• 1 quart (qt) = 2 pints = 57.75 in3 = 1/8 dry quarts
• 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.) = 2 tablespoons = 1.805 in3 = 29.574 milliliters
• 1 cord (firewood) = 128 cu foot = 8 cord foot (timber) = 3.6246 cu meter
• 1 cord foot (timber) = 0.125 cord (firewood) = 16 cu foot
• 1 peck = 8 dry quarts
• 1 cup = 8 fl.oz. (fluid ounce)
• 1 cup (metric) = 200 milliliter
• 1 cup, tea = 0.25 pint = 142.06 milliliter
• 1 board foot = piece of lumber 1 foot wide x 1 foot long x 1 inch thick = 2359.74 cu cm =
0.083333 cu foot = 144 cu inch
• 1 acre foot = 43560 cu foot = 1233.482 cu meter = 1613.33 cu yard = 3.259x105 gallon
(US liquid)
• 1 acre inch = 3630 cu foot = 102.7901531 cu meter = 134.44 cu yard = 27154.286 gallon
(US)
• 1 bucket (UK) = 18184.35 cu cm = 4 gallon (UK)
• 1 butt (UK. liq) = 16.2549 bushel (US) = 20.2285 cu foot = 0.57281 cu meter = 151.3197
gallon (US)
• 1 chaldron (UK, liq) = 36 bushel (UK)
• 1 dram (US, liq) = 3.6967 cu cm = 0.225586 cu inch = 1.04084 drachm (UK, liq) =
0.03125 gill (US) = 3.69669 millimeter = 60 minim (US) = 0.125 ounce (US, liq) =
0.0078125 pint (US, liq)
• 1 fifth (US, liq) = 17.067 jigger (US, liq) = 0.75708 liter = 25.6 ounce (US, liq) = 1.6 pint
(US, liq) = 25.6 pony (US, liq) = 0.8 quartt (US, liq) = 25.6 shot (US, liq)
• 1 firkin (UK) = 1.125 bushel (UK) = 40914.8 cu cm = 1.44489 cu foot = 1.20095 firkin
(US) = 9 gallon (UK) = 40.91481 liter = 72 pint (UK)
• 1 hectoliter = 2.7496 bushel (UK) = 2.8378 bushel (US, dry) = 1x105 cu cm = 3.5315 cu
foot = 26.417 gallon (US, liq) = 100 liter = 3381.4 ounce (US, liq) = 11.351 peck (US)
Volume Flow
• 1 dm3/s (kg/s water) = 13.20 Imp. gal (UK)/min
• 1 m3/s = 3,600 m3/h = 1,000 dm3(liter)/s = 35.32 ft3/s = 2,118.9 ft3/min = 13,200 Imp.gal
(UK)/min = 15,852 gal (US)/min
• 1 m3/h = 2.7778x10-4 m3/s = 0.2778 dm3(litre)/s = 9.810x10-3 ft3/s = 0.5886 ft3/min (cfm) =
3.667 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 4.403 gal (US)/min
• 1 m3/h = 103 dm3(litre)/h = 16.67 dm3(litre)/min = 0.27878 dm3(litre)/s
• 1 ft3/min = 1.7 m3/h = 0.47 l/s = 62.43 Lbs.H2O/Min.
• 1 dm3(litre)/s = 10-3 m3/s = 3.6 m3/h = 0.03532 ft3/s = 2.1189 ft3/min (cfm) = 13.200
Imp.gal (UK)/min = 15.852 gal (US)/min = 792 Imp. gal (UK)/h
• 1 dm3(litre)/s = 60 litre/min = 3,600 litre/h
• 1 ft3/s = 0.0283168 m3/s = 101.9 m3/h = 28.32 dm3(litre)/s = 60 ft3/min = 373.7 Imp.gal
(UK)/min = 448.9 gal (US)/min
• 1 Imp.gal (UK)/min = 7.57682x10-5 m3/s = 0.273 m3/h = 0.0758 dm3(litre)/s = 2.675x10-3
ft3/s = 0.1605 ft3/min = 1.201 gal (US)/min
• 1 gal (US)/min =6.30888x10-5 m3/s = 0.227 m3/h = 0.06309 dm3(litre)/s = 2.228x10-3 ft3/s
= 0.1337 ft3/min = 0.8327 Imperial gal (UK)/min
Weight see Mass

• See Density, Specific Weight and Specific Gravity - An introduction and definition of
density, specific weight and specific gravity. Formulas with examples.
Density is defined as an objects mass per unit volume. Mass is a property.
• Mass and Weight - the Difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of
the difference between weight and mass.
The density can be expressed as
ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (1)
where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)
The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people often use
pounds per cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a measure of force, not
mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by 32.2 for a rough value in
pounds.
• Unit converter for other units

The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed inside the substance. Density is a physical
property constant at a given temperature and density can help to identify a substance.
• Densities and material properties for common materials
Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the substance to the density of water, i.e.
Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:

An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml. (milliliter).
The density can be calculated as
ρ = [(18.5 g) / (1000 g/kg)] / [(23.4 ml) / (1000 ml/l) (1000 l/m3) ]
= (18.5 10-3 kg) / (23.4 10-6 m3)
= 790 kg/m3
If we look up densities of some common substances, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, has a
density of 790 kg/m3. The liquid may be ethyl alcohol!
Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume

The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3. Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!
m = (0.17 m3) (4507 kg/m3)
= 766.2 kg
Specific Weight
Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
• Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of
the difference between weight and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as
γ=ρg (2)
where
γ = specific weight (N/m3)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are N/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is under
normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.
Example - Specific Weight Water

Specific weight for water at 39 oF (4 oC) is 62.4 lb/ft3 (9.81 kN/m3) in imperial units. Specific weight in SI
units can be calculated like
γ = (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2)
= 9810 N/m3
= 9.81 kN/m3
Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials
Specific Weight - γ
Product
Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133.7
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.81
• Material Properties
Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of density of the material to the
density of water at a specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be expressed as
SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)
where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)
It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as reference - at this point the density of water is at
the highest - 1000 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.
• Thermal Properties of Water Density, Freezing temperature, Boiling temperature, Latent

heat of melting, Latent heat of evaporation, Critical temperature ...
Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the metric SI system as in the imperial
English system (BG). At the reference point the Specific Gravity has same numerically value as density.
Example - Specific Gravity

If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic centimeter (cm3), 7.85 kilograms per liter, or
7.85 metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron is:
SG = (7850 kg/m3) / (1000 kg/m3)
= 7.85
• water density is 1000 kg/m3

When a body is moved as a result of a force being applied to it, work is dThe energy required heating up
a substance like a tank, swimming pool or similar within a certain time can be calculated as
q = m cp dt / t (1)
where
q = mean heat transfer rate (kW)
cp = specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg oC)
t = heat up time (s)
Note that heat loss to the surroundings will extend the heating up time.
one.
The amount of work is the product of the applied force and the distance:
W=Fs (1)
where
W = work done (J, ft lb)

F = force acting on the object (N, lb)
s = distance object moved in the direction of the force (m, ft)
The unit of work is joule, J, which is defined as the amount of work done when a force of 1 Newton acts
for distance of 1 m in the direction of the force.
• 1 J (Joule) = 0,1020 kpm = 2.778x10-7 kWh = 2.389x10-4 kcal = 0.7376 ft lbf = 1 (kg
m2)/s2 = 1 watt second = 1 Nm = 1 ft lb = 9.478x10-4 Btu
• 1 ft lbf (foot pound force) = 1.3558 J = 0.1383 kp m = 3.766x10-7 kWh = 3.238x10-4 kcal =
1.285x10-3 Btu
This is the same unit as energy.
The work done by a constant force and a spring force can be visualized as the area under the graph in
distance force diagrams like
Example - Constant Force

A constant force of 20 N is acting a distance of 30 m. The work done can be calculated as
W = (20 N) (30 m)
= 60 (J, Nm)
Example - Spring Force
A spring is extended 40 mm by a force of 20 N. The work done can be calculated as
W = 1/2 (20 N) (0.040 m)
= 0.4 (J, Nm)
Example - Climbing Stairs, Imperial units
The work made by a person of 150 lb climbing a stair of 100 ft can be calculated as
W = (150 lb) (100 ft)
= 15,000 ft lb
The energy required heating up a substance like a tank, swimming pool or similar within a certain time
can be calculated as
q = m cp dt / t (1)
where
q = mean heat transfer rate (kW)
cp = specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg oC)
t = heat up time (s)
Note that heat loss to the surroundings will extend the heating up time.
The Rankine cycle can be regarded as a modified Carnot cycle where the vapor out of the turbine is
condensed completely before it is feed into a boiler with a relatively small feed pump. With the Carnot
process the vapor from the turbine is very wet and a compression would require a large compressor
dealing with a non-homogenous mixture.
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be expressed as
μR = Hi - He / Hi - hc (1)
where
μR = Rankine efficiency
Hi = heat at turbine inlet (kJ/kg)
He = heat at turbine outlet (kJ/kg)
hc = sensible heat in exhaust (kJ/kg)
Thermal resistivity is the reciprocal of thermal conductivity and can be expressed as
r=1/k (1)
where
r = thermal resistivity (moC/W, hr ft2 oF/Btu)
k = thermal conductivity (W/moC, Btu in/hr ft2 oF)
Thermal conductivity - k - is the property of a material indicating its ability to conduct heat.
Thermal transmittance from thermal resistance can be expressed as
U=1/R (1)
where
U = overall thermal transmittance (W/m2 oC)
R = thermal resistance (m2oC/W)
Overall thermal transmittance from individual thermal resistances can be expressed as
U = 1 / Σ Ri (2)
Example - thermal transmittance of an heat exchanger

The thermal transmittance of an heat exchanger can be calculated like
U = 1 / (Rair film + Rcondensate film + Rmetal wall + Rproduct film)
The Specific Heat Capacity is the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance by one
degree in temperature. The heat supplied to a unit mass can be expressed as
dQ = m c dt (1)
where
dQ = heat supplied (kJ, Btu)
m = mass (kg, lb)
c = Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/kg oC, Btu/lb oF)
dt = temperature change (oC, oF)
Expressing Specific Heat Capacity using (1)
c = dQ / m dt (1b)
Converting between Common Units

• 1 Btu/lbmoF = 4186.8 J/kg K = 1 kcal/kgoC
Specific Heat Capacity Gases

There are two definitions of Specific Heat Capacity for vapors and gases:
cp = (δh/δT)p - Specific Heat Capacity at constant pressure (kJ/kgoC)
cv = ( δh/ δT)v - Specific Heat Capacity at constant volume (kJ/kgoC)
Gas Constant
The gas constant can be expressed as
R = cp - cv (2)
where
R = Gas Constant
Ratio of Specific Heat

The Ratio of Specific Heat Capacities is expressed
k = cp / cv (3)
The Individual and the Universal Gas Constant are known from the Ideal Gas Law.
The Individual Gas Constant - R

The Individual Gas Constant depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight of the
gas. The value is independent of temperature.
In the imperial system the units for the individual gas constant are ft lb/slug oR. In the SI system the units
are J/kg K.
The Individual Gas Constant for some common gases are listed below:
Individual Gas Constant - R
Gas Molecular
Imperial Units SI Units
Weight
(ft lb/slug oR) (J/kg K)
(g/mole)
Argon, Ar 208 39.94
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 1,130 188.9 44.01
Carbon Monoxide, CO 297 28.01
Helium, He 12,420 2,077 4.003
Hydrogen, H2 24,660 4,124 2.016
Methane - natural gas, CH4 3,099 518.3 16.04
Nitrogen, N2 1,775 296.8 28.02
Oxygen, O2 1,554 259.8 32
Propane, C3H8 189 44.09
Sulfur dioxide, SO2 130 64.07
Air 1,716 286.9 28.97

Water vapor 2,760 461.5 18.02
• More material properties
The Universal Gas Constant - Ru

The Universal Gas Constant - Ru - appears in the ideal gas law and can be expressed as the product
between the Individual Gas Constant - R - for the particular gas - and the Molecular Weight - Mgas - for the
gas, and is the same for all ideal or perfect gases:
Ru = Mgas R (1)
where
Ru = universal gas constant
Mgas = molecular weight of the ideal gas or mixture of gases
The Molar Weight of a Gas

The molar weight of a gas can be calculated like
Mgas = (f1/M1 + .... + fn/Mn) (2)
where
f = mass of the gas relative to the total mass of the mixture
M = molecular weight of the gas
The Universal Gas Constant - Ru - in alternative Units

• atm.cm3/(mol.K) : 82.0575
• atm.ft3/(lbmol.K) : 1.31443
• atm.ft3/(lbmol.oR) : 0.73024
• atm.l/(mol.K) : 0.08206
• bar.cm3/(mol.K) : 83.14472
• bar.l/(mol.K) : 0.08314472
• Btu/(lbmol.oR) : 1.9859
• cal/(mol.K) : 1.9859
• erg/(mol.K) : 83144720
• hp.h/(lbmol.oR) : 0.0007805
• inHg.ft3/(lbmol.oR) : 21.85
• J/(mol.K) : 8.314472
• kJ/(kmol.K) : 8.314472
• J/(kmol.K) : 8314.472
• (kgf/cm2).l/(mol.K) : 0.084784
• kPa.cm3/(mol.K) : 8314.472
• kWh/(lbmol.oR) : 0.000582
• lbf.ft/(lbmol.oR) : 1545.349
• mmHg.ft3/(lbmol.K) : 999
• mmHg.ft3/(lbmol.oR) : 555
• mmHg.l/(mol.K) : 62.364
• Pa.m3/(mol.K) : 8.314472
• psf.ft3/(lbmol.oR) : 1545.349
• psi.ft3/(lbmol.oR) : 10.73
• Torr.cm3/(mol.K) : 62364
• The Ideal Gas Law - Gases are highly compressible with changes in density directly
related to changes in temperature and pressure.
• A Mixture of Gases - Properties of mixtures of gases.
• More about temperature
The Universal Constant defined in Terms of the Boltzmann's Constant

The universal gas constant cab be defined in terms of Boltzmann's constant k as:
Ru = k NA (2)
where
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1,3807 x 10-23 (J/K)
NA = Avogadro Number = 6,022 x 1023 (1/mol)
The First Law of Thermodynamics forms the
• basis for quantitative analysis of chemical reactions

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is used to
• identify the directions of chemical reactions

The Third Law of Thermodynamics states that
• the entropy of any pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium approaches zero as

the temperature approaches zero (Kelvin), or conversely
• the temperature (Kelvin) of any pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium
approaches zero when the entropy approaches zero
The Third Law of Thermodynamics can mathematically be expressed as
lim ST→0 = 0 (1)
where
S = entropy (J/K)
T = absolute temperature (K)

At a temperature of absolute zero there is no thermal energy or heat. At a temperature of zero Kelvin the
atoms in a pure crystalline substance are aligned perfectly and do not move. There is no entropy of
mixing since the substance is pure.
The temperature of absolute zero is the reference point for determination entropy. The absolute entropy
of a substance can be calculated from measured thermodynamic properties by integrating the differential
equations of state from absolute zero. For a gas this requires integrating through solid, liquid and gaseous
phases.
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Thermodynamics

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Energy

Applying the rule to the power plant shown in figure below,

and for a steady flow system:

The SI unit of power is watt (w).

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the Fahrenheit scale will show:

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If the pressure of a system is below atmospheric, it is called vacuum pressure.The SI unit of

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• 1 m /t= 1 m /ton= 0.001 m /kg

• 1 L/kg=1 lit/kg= 1 dm /kg= 0.001 m /kg

• 1 cm /g= 0.001 m /kg

• 1 in /lbm= 3.6175E-5 m /kg

• 1 ft /lbm= 0.0625 m /kg

Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved

• 1 t/m = 1000 kg/m

• 1 lbm/ft = 16.018 kg/m

• 1 lbm/(U.K.gal)= 99.776 kg/m

• 1 lbm/(U.S.gal)= 119.83 kg/m

• 1 slug/ft = 515.38 kg/m

• 1 g/cm = 1000 kg/m

• 1 U.K.ton/yd = 1328.94 kg/m

• 1 U.S.ton/yd = 1186.5 kg/m

Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved

Q= Heat supplied to substance,

There are two definitions for vapors and gases:

Cv = Specific heat capacity at constant volume, i.e.

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The proportionality ratio, , is called thermal conductivity of the material.

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It can be shown that:

LTER= Low Temperature Energy Reservoir

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For a unit time and a mass flow, m, we can write:

and for a compression process:

For a unit time and a mass flow, m, we can write:

Copyright © 1998 Taftan Data. All Rights Reserved

Win = m (h2 - h1)

The pressure ratio of a compressor is defined as:

The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is:

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By using the relationship:

The specific entropy of the gas, s, will be:

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