Physics: Classical Mechanics

Physics 61L: Spring 2011

A Summary
Dated 5 May 2011

Classical Mechanics and Newtonian Dynamics

Duke University
Edmund T. Pratt, Jr., School of Engineering

ABSTRACT
A summary of the major concepts and equations relevant to a first-semester, calculus-based course in
introductory mechanics. Particular emphasis is placed on the dynamism of system elements and the
application of Newton’s laws to nontrivial systems. Select derivations of formulae are included on the
basis of the amount of insight gained through their inclusion.

Kinematics The final expression above—a result of algebraic manipulation

of the standard particulate position equation with constant
Kinematics is a language through which the motions of bodies 1
acceleration (xf = xi + vi t + at2 )—is of great practical use;
(particles) and systems (discrete sets of particles) can be 2
described without regard for the forces originally responsible for said manipulation is given below, and involves solving for the
the motion. More specifically, changes to the vector quantities time variable in the velocity equation...
of position, velocity, and acceleration constitute the means by vf − vi
which the motion of these mobile elements is understood. vf = vi + at =⇒ t =
a
...and then eliminating the parameter through substitution:
The dynamic particle with variable or non-constant
acceleration requires an integral treatment, since all three of 1 2
the above vector quantities vary with time: xf = xi + vi t + at
2
1
Position: (xf − xi ) = vi t + at2
2
Z  v − v  1  v − v 2
f i f i
~
x(t) = ~
x0 + ~v dt = vi + a
a 2 a !
vi vf vi2 1 vf2 − 2vf vi + vi2
Velocity: = − + a
a a 2 a2
Z
d~
x
~v (t) = = ~v0 + ~adt vi vf v2 vf2 vf vi v2
dt = − i + − + i
a a 2a a 2a
Acceleration: 2 2 2
2v v f v
=− i + + i
d~v d2 ~
x 2a 2a 2a
~a(t) = = 2 v2 vf2
dt dt (xf − xi ) = − i +
2a 2a
A particle moving with either zero or constant acceleration can 2a(xf − xi ) = −vi2 + vf2
be described via the following equations: vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi )

~vx/y = ~vx/z + ~vz/y  Note that this equation is time-independent, since we found it

vi + vf

xf = xi + t



 by eliminating the variable t from the kinematic equations.
2 


1 2 

xf = xi + vi t + at 
 For the specific case of an object in free fall,
2 Constant acceleration
1 2  ay = g = 9.8 m/s2
xf = xi + vf t − at 


2 


 vy = vi,y − gt
vf = vi + at


 1 2
yf = yi + vi,y t − gt


2 2
2

vf = vi + 2a(xf − xi )

1
 Projectile Motion • Law of Reaction (Third Law): If object A exerts a force
~A→B on object B along a line connecting the two objects,
F
Key concept: in projectile motion, gravitational forces in the then object B exerts an equal and opposite reaction force
y-direction have no affect on vx . Because of the vector nature of F~B→A = −F ~A→B on object A. The implications are as
of motion and force, a complex two-dimensional motion can be follows:
"uncoupled" or resolved to motion relative to the two
coordinate axes. ~i→j = −F
F ~j→i
X
F~i,j = 0
x-component y-component
i,j

ax = 0 ay = −g (The latter form means that the sum of all internal forces
vf,x = vi,x (constant v) vf,y = vi,y + ay t between particles in a closed system of particles cancel.)
xf = xi + vi,x t 1
yf = yi + vi,y t + ay t2
~x = 0~i
F 2
~y = −(mg)~j
F Statics

In a system that exists in static equilibrium, the following two

conditions must necessarily hold:
Fluids X
~net = 0
F
Pressure is, by definition, a distributed force. In static fluids, X
only normal stress is exerted (force perpendicular to surfaces). ~τnet = 0
The equation for pressure is as follows:
An effective approach to the static equilibrium condition is to
F
P = declare the validity of the above equations, and to then break
A them down into further equations by reducing the force and
tension vectors into their respective components. For example,
Pascal’s Law: pressure in a fluid depends only on depth, with
a net force of zero implies
P0 the surface pressure (which in most cases is the atmospheric
pressure).
X X X
Fx,i = 0, Fy,i = 0, and Fz,i = 0
P = P0 + ρgd i i i

Archimedes’ Principle: the buoyant force on an object is equal

and opposite to the force that gravity would exert on the fluid Force Rules
displaced by the object.
The gravitational force near the Earth’s surface: a
Fb = ρV g downward-directed, constant, fundamental force; in vector
Here, ρ represents fluid density (in mass per unit volume), ~g = −mg~j (in a coordinate frame where up is +y).
form, F
which is a known quantity in most cases. Therefore, the
expression ρV can be interpreted to be equivalent to mass, m. Fg = mg

The spring force (Hooke’s Law) in one dimension: a force

directed back toward the spring’s natural point of equilibrium
Dynamics (a “restoring force" =⇒ direction opposes displacement).

Newton’s laws: Fx = −k∆x

• Law of Inertia (First Law): Objects at rest or in uniform The normal force: a force directed perpendicularly and away
motion (at a constant velocity) remain so unless acted upon from contact surface, with magnitude sufficient to exactly
by an unbalanced (net) force. oppose the force of contact (a “force of restraint").

~i = 0 = m~a = m d~v =⇒ ~v = constant vector

X
F F⊥ = N
i
dt
Tension in a massless, unbreakable string: a force directed away
• Law of Dynamics (Second Law): The net force applied to from the object at point of connection.
an object is directly proportional to its acceleration. The
constant of proportionality is called the mass of the object. Fs = T

~i = m~a = d(m~v ) = d~p Static friction: a force directed opposite to the net force and
X
~ =
F F ,
dt dt parallel to surface; localized at the point of contact between the
i
static object and the surface.
where the momentum of a particle, p
~ = m~v , is discussed
below. fs ≤ µs N

2
 Kinetic friction: a force directed opposite to the direction of This is because a nonzero net force is necessary for acceleration
motion of the moving object; localized at the point of contact to be present at all; the logic is that, if a given particle is
between the static object and the surface. lacking acceleration, then it has either zero or constant velocity,
which means that there is no change in particulate velocity and
F k = µk N
thus no change in momentum (a quantity dependent on
Drag force: a force directed opposite to the relative direction of velocity) This leads directly to a more formal statement...
motion through a given fluid. It arises because the surface of an
object moving through a fluid is literally bouncing fluid Law of conservation of momentum:
particles off in the leading direction while moving away from
particles in the trailing direction, so that there is a differential ~net = d~
When F
p
= 0, then p
~ = constant and p
~i = p
~f .
pressure on the two surfaces. dt

Fd = −bv n , 1 ≤ n ≤ 2

Case Study: A Collision

Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion is a very specific, simplified instance of
radial motion. In such motion, there exists some net, constant
force (whether from tension, applied, etc.) directed antiparallel
to the r-axis (radial) and no force in the direction of increasing
angular displacement, ∆θ. This force acts to constantly change
the direction of the velocity vector of the circulating particle,
producing a constant radial acceleration known as “centripetal
acceleration,"
v2
aradial = . Most collision problems in introductory mechanics will be
r
Newton’s second law thus requires the net force on the particle
of mass m to equal the aforementioned force—referred to as the
“centripetal force"
X v2
Fext = Fcent = maradial = m .
r appending the terms cosθ and sinθ to the magnitude of the
(Remember: this force accelerates a body by acting ⊥ to
motion and thereby changing only the direction of v and not
the magnitude. In other words, if there is no centripetal force
producing a radial acceleration, then the particle is traveling
linearly and not in circular motion)
For the specific case of two objects, mA and mB , colliding in an
inelastic (or “sticky") collision, we can conclude that
momentum is conserved so long as the two objects fall within
our definition of the system. Then, we are free to solve for the
velocity of the combined two-object system after collision:
p
~i = p
~f
mA~vA,i + mA~vB,i = (mA + mB )vsys,f
mA~vA,i + mA~vB,i
vsys,f =
mA + mB
restricted to a single dimension, in which case the vectors above
reduce to the single particular component of interest.
Two-dimensional collisions will involve resolving the momentum
vector p
~ into its components and then solving for the x- and
y-components of the velocity vectors, usually by way of
velocity vector, respectively. These types of problems can get
pretty messy, but who doesn’t like messy?
Impulse

In general terms, impulse is a measure of the transmittance of a

Momentum force to a rigid body over a given time (and specifically, the
integral of a force with respect to time), with the end result
Momentum can be thought of as the assigned “importance” of a being an incurred change in the momentum of that rigid body.
force, insofar as a high velocity becomes considerably more
significant (and dangerous) when it is associated with a The formal definition of the impulse transmitted by a variable
progressively larger mass. force (a force that varies with time) is
Z tf
Translational momentum: J~ = ~net (t)dt,
F
ti
p
~ = m~v
X but because
p
~sys = p
~i
i ~net d~
p ~net dt = d~
F = =⇒ F p,
Newton’s second law (as above): dt
we can equivalently write, in a form known as the
~i = m~a = m d~v = d(m~v ) = d~
p
X
~ =
F F
dt dt dt impulse-momentum theorem,
i
Z p~f
~i = 0, d~
p
X
=⇒ when F =0 J~ = d~
p=p ~f − p~i ,
i
dt p
~i

3
 or
Newton’s second law reformulated:
J~ = ∆~
p
d2 ~ d2 X X ext
~i ,
When the force is non-variable (or constant), then the M~aCM = M 2
(RCM ) = 2 mi~ri = F
dt dt i i
expression for impulse no longer contains any differentials and
is considerably easier to solve—especially if we know the which, combined with the definition of momentum, yields the
~net i, over a time interval:
average force, hF following:

~net i = J ~f − p
p ~i ∆~
p ~net i∆t
X
~ext = 0 =⇒ p
hF = = p = hF
=⇒ J = ∆~ F ~tot = Mtot VCM = constant
∆t ∆t ∆t
where
P
~CM ~vi mi ~vA mA + ~vB mB + · · ·
Center of Mass V = P =
i m i mA + mB + · · ·
The process of computing the center of mass can be viewed as Key concept: the above outcome implies that it is the external
an attempt to condense the entirety of the mass of a rigid body force which determines translation of the center of mass. If
(or a system of bodies) into a point mass located at a single there is no external force, then there is no CM acceleration and
point in space, in order for us to treat the previously complex no change in CM velocity, producing a similar lack of change in
body as a straightforward particle. Note that a body’s center of CM momentum.
mass need not necessarily be confined to the body itself (see
the horseshoe, or the infamous doughnut which physicists so
readily cite).
Work and Energy
For a system of discrete particles: Kinetic energy:
P
mi~ri 1
~
RCM = Pi = XCM~i + YCM ~j + ZCM ~k, K= mv 2
i mi 2

where Work-kinetic energy theorem:

P
mi xi mA xA + mB xB + · · ·
XCM = Pi = Whereas the impulse-momentum theorem assigned force to be a
m i mA + mB + · · ·
P i function of time (with impulse being the integral of force with
m y
i i mA yA + mB yB + · · · respect to time), the work-kinetic energy theorem instead
YCM = Pi =
m i mA + mB + · · · assigns force to be a function of displacement, ∆x (with work
P i
mi zi mA zA + mB zB + · · · being the integral of force with respect to displacement).
ZCM = Pi =
i m i mA + mB + · · ·
We can actually derive the expression for the theorem in one
dimension by returning to the time-independent kinematic
For a solid body: equation for the final velocity of a particle,
R vf2 = vi2 + 2a(xf − xi ), and hammer it algebraically into a more
~rdm
~ CM
R = R = XCM~i + YCM ~j + ZCM ~k relevant form. Multiplying both sides by the term 1/2 and the
dm mass m gives:
where 1 1
mvf2 = mvi2 + ma(xf − xi ),
R
xdm 2 2
XCM = R
dm but when we substitute F = ma by Newton’s second law,
R
ydm 1 1
YCM = R mvf2 = mvi2 + F ∆x
dm 2 2
R
zdm 1 1
ZCM = R F ∆x = mvf2 − mvi2 .
dm 2 2
Z Since work W is analogous to a force exerted on a body over a
and where common methods of resolving the term dm 1
distance, F ∆x, and since kinetic energy K = mv 2 , then we
include: 2
are finished:
Z Z Z
dm = ρdv = ρdxdydz z
incurred change in kinetic energy
}| {
Z Z Z 1 2 1 2
m W = ∆K = mvf − mvi
dm = λds = ds |{z} 2 2
` work done by net force

4
Key concept: since we derived the work-kinetic energy theorem For the specific case of a system moving from an initial position
from an equation which was itself derived through elimination of rest to a final position of rest,
of the time parameter, the theorem has the property of being
time-independent as well; applying the principles of Wnet = ∆K = 0 since vi = vf = 0.
work-energy or conservation of energy (further below) might be
good choices for situations in which time is either not given or
not relevant.
Power
Work equations:
Power in physics is the rate at which a force does work on a
• Work → variable force in one dimension:
Z xf particle. The average power exerted is simply the net work
divided by the time interval during which the force acted:
W = Fx (x)dx
xi
W
hP i =
∆t
• Work → constant force in one dimension:
Z xf xf If we take the limit as ∆t → ∞, we find the (generally) much

W = Fx dx = xFx  = Fx ∆x more useful differential power expression:
xi xi
dw
P =
• Work → variable force in three dimensions: dt
(|F~ |cosθ)|dx|
Z ~rf =
W = ~ (t) · d~r(t)
F  dt
~
ri
~ |  dx  cosθ
 
= |F  dt 
• Work → constant force in three dimensions:
~ ||~v |cosθ
= |F
Z ~rf
W = ~ · d~r = |F
F ~ ||∆~r|cosθ ~ · ~v
=F
~
ri

where θ is the angle between the force vector and the

direction of displacement. The significance of the cosine
function is that a force ⊥ to the displacementof an object Work, Energy, and Power
π
thus does no work on that object (i.e. cos = 0). W = F
2 Z ∆x cos θ
W = F~ · d~s
• Work → gravitational force (conservative):
1
mv 2
Z yf
K =
Wgrav = Fgrav dy 2
yi ∆Ug = mg∆h
Z yf
= −mgdy W
Pavg =
yi ∆t
yf
 P = F v cos θ
= −mgy  = −mg(yf − yi )
yi

= −mg∆y Gravity

• Work → spring force (conservative): Gm1 m2

Fgrav = −
Z xf r2
Wspring = Fspring dx Gm1 m2
UG = −
xi r
Z xf
= −kxdx
xi
xf
1 1
= − kx2  = − k(x2f − x2i )

2 xi 2
1 2 1 2
= kxi − kxf
2 2

• Work → friction force (non-conservative):

W = −fk |∆x|

5
 Radial Motion Waves
dθ k is wave # in rad/unit length
ω = = 2πf
dt
y(x, t) = A cos(ωt − kx + φ)
d~ω
α
~ = k = 2π/λ
dt
v = ωr ω = 2πf
1 p
T = v = λf = ω/k = F/µ
f p
~atot = ~aradial + ~atangential v = tension/linear density
v 2 λ = 4L/(2n − 1) {harm : 1 open}
aradial = inward
r λ = 2L/n {both open/closed}
atan = αr⊥
ωf = ωi + αt
1 2 Trigonometry
θf = θi + ωi t + αt
2 Sides a, b, and c are across from angles α, β, and γ respectively.
ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α(θf − θi )
sin α sin β sin γ
= =
a b c
Moment of Inertia and Torque c2 = a2 + b2 − ab cos γ
X
I = mi ri2
i

I = Icm + mh2 Variables a = acceleration

τ = +rF sin θ for CCW F = force
~ f = frequency
~τ = ~ = dL
~r × F h = height
dt I = moment of inertia
τ = Iα J = impulse
1 2
Krot = Iω K = kinetic energy
2 k = spring constant
W = τ ∆θ = ∆Krot
` = length
~
L = ω = ~r × p
I~ ~ m = mass
Iring = mr2 N = normal force
Idisk = 1/2 mr2 P = power
p = momentum
Irod = 1/12 m`2 r = radius or distance
Isolid sphere = 2/5 mr2 T = period
Ihallow sphere = 2/3 mr2 t = time
U = potential energy
v = velocity or speed
Simple Harmonic Motion W = work done on system
~s x = position
F = −k~x
p α = angular acceleration
Ts = 2π m/k µ = coefficient of friction
1 2 θ = angle
Us = kx
2 τ = torque
p
Tp = 2π `/g ω = angular velocity

Constants g ≡ 9.80665 m/s2 ≈ 9.81 m/s

Vectors c ≡ 299 792 458 m/s ≈ 3.00 × 108 m/s
G ≈ 6.67 × 10−11 m3 /kg·s2
q
|~a| = a= a2x + a2y + a2z
x̂ × ŷ = ẑ
~a · ~b = |~a| |~b| cos θ = ax bx + ay by + az bz
~a × ~b = (ax x̂ + ay ŷ + az ẑ) × (bx x̂ + by ŷ + bz ẑ)
~a × ~b = x̂(ay bz − az by ) + ŷ(az bx − ax bz ) + ẑ(ax by − ay bx )
|~a × ~b| = |~a| |~b| sin θ