The Chemical Earth

Assumed Knowledge
The Essence of the New Syllabus
The New vs The Old
Resources
 Assumed Knowledge
✘ identify the atom as the smallest unit of an element and distinguish
between atoms and molecules (5.7.2a)

fundamental property: number of protons

model is Rutherford/Bohr - protons and neutrons in nucleus with
electrons surrounding
atoms join together to form molecules
molecule - two or more atoms bonded together

✘ identify that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms rather

than creating matter (5.7.3a)

compound - consists of atoms of two or more elements joined

chemically
simple chemical reactions do not involve nuclear energy
 Assumed Knowledge
✘ classify compounds into groups based on common chemical
characteristics (5.7.3b)

melting point, boiling point, conductivity, hardness, malleable,

ductile, lustre, nature of aqueous solutions formed

✘ construct word equations from observations and written descriptions of a

range of chemical reactions (5.7.3c)

state of matter important - great influence on whether a reaction occurs

or not.
 Assumed Knowledge
✘ identify a range of common compounds using their common
names and chemical formulae (5.7.3d)

students at University still have trouble with this.

Basic ideas of stoichiometry weak - needs to be drilled

✘ qualitatively describe reactants and products in decomposition

reactions (5.7.3e)

need to define clearly decomposition - one reactant forms two or

more products.
Under specified conditions of decomposition - Products more
stable than reactants
practical examples - fireworks
The Essence of the New
Syllabus

An understanding of atoms,
elements and compounds
 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth
contain mixtures
✘ recall the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms
of particle theory

what is particle theory and how does it apply to each of these

✘ recall that compounds are classified into groups based on common

chemical characteristics

melting point, boiling point, conductivity, hardness, malleable,

ductile, lustre, nature of aqueous solutions formed
 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth
contain mixtures

✘ identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds

Biosphere - living organisms on earth

Lithosphere - the earths outer mantle and crust
Hydrosphere - the earths water
Atmosphere - the gases above the earths surface

✘ identify and describe uses of mixtures which are obtained from the
Australian environment and which are used without the need for
separation procedures

foodstuffs, bio derived materials eg wood, coal,

 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth
contain mixtures

✘ explain why the elemental composition of the Earth is fixed in time

composition fixed at time of formation of planet.

Some elements deca,y others (He) are lost from the atmosphere. So is
the composition really unchanging.

✘ identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally

occurring mixtures of:
- solids of different sizes manual separation, mechanical
- solids and liquids decantation
- dissolved solids in liquids evaporation
- liquids distillation ( freezing)
- gases liquefaction,
effusion - uranium isotope separation
 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth
contain mixtures

✘ assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating

examples of earth materials, identifying the differences in
properties which enable these separations

element vs compounds, bonding, state,

cost (plant, energy), purity of material required

✘ describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful

data for chemists and other scientists

composition of material - material must contain species which

are isolable by gravimetric analysis - solubility. Mixture must not
be too complex
 1. The living and non-living components of the Earth
contain mixtures

✘ apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds (binary

compounds, hydroxides, acids, salts of acids including the
hydrogen salts of diprotic and triprotic acids) as they are
introduced in the laboratory

since no guidelines to range of compounds - need summary of

rules, common species. Students weak on arrival at University.
Care as often non systematic names are the IUPAC names

✘ identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are

encountered

IUPAC name and systematic name not always the same. Care
and common sense required as some names can be complex.
Take note of latter statements on range of nomenclature that
must be known in the organic module.
 2. Although most elements are found in combinations
on Earth, some elements are found uncombined

✘ identify the five most abundant (by weight) elements in each of

the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere and
describe the most common physical and chemical forms in
which they are found

SI data book invaluable

✘ recall the atom as the smallest unit of an element and

distinguish between atoms and molecules

definition of molecule: definition may be inconsistent with usage

latter in the syllabus
 2. Although most elements are found in combinations on
Earth, some elements are found uncombined

✘ explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the

likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element

ties into activity series in metals - reactive elements unlikely to be

found as pure elements .
CARE: eg oxygen is a reactive element yet often needs energy to
initiate reactions, 20 % of atmosphere is oxygen

✘ classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according

to their physical properties

electrical conductivity, colour, physical state, reactivity

care as some of these properties change gradually across the table
 2. Although most elements are found in combinations
on Earth, some elements are found uncombined

✘ account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their

physical properties

strength - requires metals, alloys, polymers

corrosion resistance, conductivity, inertness, reactivity ( I2, Cl2)

✘ recall some relationships between elements using the Periodic

Table

trends??? - what is in 4/5 syllabus - need to be aware of what

your group of students has done before.
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level

✘ recall that matter is made of particles that are continuously

moving and interacting

the students level of understanding will depend very much on

what has been covered in stages 4/5. Teachers may need to
reinforce ideas of vibrational and rotational movement in solids
and liquids.

✘ recall the model for atomic structure and the distribution of

electrons, protons and neutrons

vague - several models will have been encountered. Model

used is mainly based on that of Rutherford. (Bohr gives us
principle energy levels)
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
✘ describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

dealing mainly with the principle energy levels - statement is

vague as can also talk about the sublevels in a qualitative sense

✘ describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or

losing electrons

straight forward! - completion of outer (valence) shell of

electrons
+
Na X Na + X

XX _
X
XX

Cl + X Cl
XX
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
✘ apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of
metals and non-metals

completion of outer shell - easier for metals to give up electrons,

non metals to gain electrons - related to ionisation energies and
electron affinities

✘ apply Lewis electron dot structures to visualise:

- the formation of simple ions
- the electron sharing in some simple molecules

implies do not need to know how to construct Lewis diagrams (see

next page) but simply to use them - care needs to be exercised in
using them for some systems which are not “simple”. Many
systems do not have an octet of electrons!
 Rules for writing Lewis Diagrams

✘ Write the correct (sensible) arrangement of the atoms

(electropositive atoms tend to be central atoms)
✘ Find the total number of valence electrons - total over all atoms,
add for negative charge, subtract for positive charge
✘ Assign 2 electrons to each covalent bond
✘ distribute remaining electrons so each atom has the appropriate
number
✘ examples: HCl, SiCl4, H2O, NH4+
✘ Atoms attain noble gas configuration
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level

✘ recall that particles with opposite charges will attract each other
and identify that this attraction forms ionic compounds

basis for ALL bonds is an electrostatic interaction between

species of opposite charge.

✘ explain why the formula for an ionic compound is empirical

structure of solid is a 3D array, formula reflects the ratio of the

ions in the lattice. Idea of 3D lattice comes latter
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level

✘ describe molecules as particles which can move independently of

each other

simplistic view - molecules have strong bonding within the molecule

but weak bonding interactions between molecules - intermolecular
forces play an important role in determining properties - particles are
not really independent

✘ distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble

gases) and molecules with more than one atom

grave concerns here - The statement is wrong!!!

a molecule “ consists of TWO or more atoms bound together
chemically”
“interparticle interactions”
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
✘ describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of
electrons

electrostatic attraction for a shared pair of electrons

inequality of attraction leads to polar bond formation

✘ construct formulae for compounds formed from

- ions
- atoms sharing electrons

relate to completion of valence shells

ie loss of two electrons means formulae must be MX2 ( if X gains one
electron) MX ( if X gains 2 electrons) for ionic systems.
Stoichiometry of covalent systems can be determined by electronic
and coordination requirements - care needed here. Care for 2nd and
3rd row
 3. Elements in Earth materials are present as
compounds because of interactions at the atomic level

✘ recall the construction of word equations from observations and

written descriptions of a range of reactions

By this stage students should be less reliant on word equations

and start to use symbol equations as well
 4. Energy is required to extract some elements from
their naturally occurring sources

✘ identify the differences between physical and chemical change in

terms of rearrangement of particles

physical relates to changes of state

chemical involves making and/or breaking of bonds. New species
with different chemical properties are produced.

✘ summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of

water as an example of the difference between physical and chemical
change

boiling is a physical change - relatively, requires small amount of

energy.
electrolysis is a chemical change - bonds are broken/formed, much
energy is required - water is decomposed to its constituent elements.
Energy used to break bonds recovered on reacting H2 + O2.
 4. Energy is required to extract some elements from
their naturally occurring sources

✘ recall qualitative descriptions of reactants and products in

decomposition reactions

✘ identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy

that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or
synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes
occurring in everyday life

photosynthesis, internal combustion engine, batteries

 4. Energy is required to extract some elements from
their naturally occurring sources

✘ explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in

a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or
bond, between them

can be related to melting and boiling points in ionic substances.

tabulations of bond strengths would be useful here - can be
related to an experiment such as the water electrolysis vs
boiling observed previously. (Reactive compounds can have
strong bonds)

✘ recall a range of common compounds using their common

names and chemical formulae

these should be used continuously through the module(s)

 4. Energy is required to extract some elements from
their naturally occurring sources

✘ recall that a new compound is formed by rearranging atoms

rather than creating matter

the energy involved in chemical reactions is not of the

magnitude of nuclear energy
 5. The properties of Earth’s natural resources are
determined by their bonding and structure
✘ identify differences between physical and chemical properties of
elements, compounds and mixtures

A broad range of physical properties can be developed by

simple observations of the world around us.
Chemical properties is less obvious - range of chemical
reactions studied is limited. Stage 5 (5.7.2e) covers a range of reactions.
These will be needed as resources as the amount of experimental in the
Chemical Earth is somewhat limited.

✘ compare some physical and chemical properties of a range of

common ores including bauxite and an iron ore mined in
Australia with those of the elements from which they are formed

Data book very useful here, as will be the Metals module.

Conversion of ores to their elements is very energy intensive.
 5. The properties of Earth’s natural resources are
determined by their bonding and structure
✘ identify and describe some uses of the ores or materials from the ores

✘ describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or

covalent

melting point, boiling point, conductivity, hardness, malleable,

ductile, lustre, nature of aqueous solutions formed
- it is implied that the students need to know what the variations
in each of these properties is as it relates to ionic and covalent
substances
 5. The properties of Earth’s natural resources are
determined by their bonding and structure

✘ distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Can use ideas of localised/mobile electrons.

These are extreme models and they have limitations - the most
immediate being how to describe SiO2 and graphite/diamond

✘ describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of

electrons

explains many of the properties of metals

 5. The properties of Earth’s natural resources are
determined by their bonding and structure
✘ describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional
lattices of ions

The level of sophistication of the lattice description here is not clear.

To fully describe the lattice and the stoichiometry the idea of the filling
of holes in a lattice is needed. The syllabus probably does not expect
that level of detail. Choose simple examples eg NaCl

✘ describe covalent compounds as molecules or as covalent lattices

A covalent lattice is necessary because, ie some covalently bonded

systems have some of the properties of ionic substances. It may be
possible here to relate the idea of covalent lattices to gem stones.
Idea of intermolecular forces will also be necessary here to explain
why many covalent systems exist as solids.
 5. The properties of Earth’s natural resources are
determined by their bonding and structure
✘ identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

The data book is useful here - students will need to know about
allotropes eg Phosphorus can be both a molecular solid and covalent
lattice

✘ explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and

hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent
network structures

Care: most examples are clear cut. Ionic substances do not have mobile,
charge carrying species in the solid but do in the melt. Ionic substances
are not hard but are brittle despite the strong electrostatic interactions.
Graphite conducts (poorly)!!
 New versus Old
✘ Of all the modules, The Chemical Earth appears to have the
most in common with the old 2U Chemistry syllabus.
✘ The Chemical Earth draws from both the old Preliminary course
as well as the HSC course.
✘ Preliminary Core 1 Atoms and Elements
Preliminary Core 2 Compounds
Preliminary Core 3 Atomic structure
HSC Core 8 Structure and Bonding

are the most relevant sections - some being able to be lifted

almost directly into the new syllabus
✘ Note that some of the suggested experiences of the old syllabus
are now part of the core of the new syllabus, eg the relative
abundances if elements in the various spheres.
 Resources for the Chemical Earth
✘ Any recent edition of a level 1 University text.
CHEMISTRY “The Molecular Nature of matter and Change.”
Silberberg, 2nd Ed, McGraw Hill
General Chemistry. Ebbing and Gammon, 6th Ed, Houghton Mifflin
General Chemistry. Atkins and Jones, 3rd Ed, Freeman
Others include the books by Zumdahl and also Chang.
✘ SI Data Book - Aylward and Findlay It now has useful safety data
on many common chemicals included.
✘ WWW
✘ Australian Companies - Comalco, BHP etc
✘ Reference Encyclopedia such as Britannica.