© Kamla-Raj 2006 J. Soc. Sci.

, 12(3): 199-205 (2006)

Effects of Globalization on Cities in Developing Countries

Leke Oduwaye

Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Nigeria

P.O. Box 265, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba Lagos, Nigeria
E-mail: leodwa@yahoo.com
KEYWORDS Economic; land use; government; policy

ABSTRACT Extant literature on urban development is considerable in both developed and developing countries.
The theoretical and empirical nature of these studies are of different strands. However there is a consensus on the
influence of economic policies, principles and technology on urban development of cities in various regions of the
world. This paper is on the effects of the rave of the moment “globalisation” on cities in developing countries with
emphasis on Lagos, a prime city in West African sub-region. The paper highlights efforts towards economic
transformation in Nigeria prior to the emergence of globalisation and after its emergence. It noted that due to the
poor negotiative position of cities in developing countries caused by their weak productive position and export of
primary goods, low technology, poor financial strength, unstable economy, poor infrastructure facilities, insecurity
and instability in governance, cities in developing countries are not well positioned to obtain optional benefit of this
new world economic order. To reap these benefits, cities in developing countries will have to overcome these
obstacles.

INTRODUCTION Nigeria and the West Africa economic activities.

Studies on urban land use shows that urban
areas are of enormous political, social, economic
and cultural importance to the various regions in
which they are located. Cities of more influences
are those that could be classified in “world and
regional cities”, of which Lagos the case study is
striving to belong. Lagos is about the third largest
and economically active city in Africa after Cairo
in Egypt and Johannesburg in South Africa.
These cities have population of over 10 million
people. Lagos is located in West Africa, Egypt in
North Africa and Johannesburg in South Africa.
Thus these cities can be described as the “Africa
Triangle Cities Network”. They are strategically
positioned to influence and determine the socio-
economic destiny of Africa. These cities have
the tendencies to be among the largest and most
fast-growing among cities in developing
countries (Rakodi, 1997). These cities serve
simultaneously as national and regional engines
of growth, centres of technological and cultural
creativity, houses of the poor and deprived, the
sites and sources of environmental pollution
(Fuchs, 1994). These are the most sensitive
settlements in Africa to global economic policies
and technological development. Thus, they
transmit development impulses to the hinterlands
of the areas in which they are located.
Lagos in particular is essentially the loci of
The city is linked both to the economies of the
hinterland in Nigeria at the national scale and to
the wider regional and global economy through
trade, investment, culture and technology. Like
in cities throughout the world, Lagos has the
history of earlier responses to global reforms in
organisation of production, economic policies
with significant spatial effects than any other city
in the West African sub-region. This could be
traced to the rate of responses of cities in Nigeria
to recent global economic policies in Africa at
the dawn of the twenty-first century.
Three recent global socio-economic policies
are discussed in this paper in order to bring to
focus the trends of socio-economic development
attempts in Africa in general and Nigeria in
particular. In Nigeria in the recent times, these
policies are the Structural Adjustment Programme
(SAP), the New Partnership for Africa
Development (NEPAD) and the concept of
privatisation. The paper touched on the influence
of the World Bank and the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) in particular as they attempt at
improving the economic fortune of developing
countries. It discusses indepth of the contem-
porary economic phenomenon “globalisa-tion”,
its contextual basis, advantages and the likely
problems it could create for developing countries
as these countries are not in any advantageous
position to reap the full benefits of globalisation.
200
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES
As earlier mentioned three key economic
transformation concepts are discussed in this
paper as examples of attempts at achieving
sustainable economic development in Nigeria.
These concepts are the SAP, NEPAD and the
issue of privatisation.
The Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)
was introduced into Nigeria as a response to the
International Monetary Fund technical advice as
a response to the recognition of the structural
distortion in the Nigeria economy in 1986. The
SAP was also designed to restore medium term
viability to the balance of payment options of
Nigeria. Adedeji (1990) stated that it may have
been necessitated by the devastations of
irresponsible domestic economic policies.
However it requires policy action by deficit and
surplus countries. This is necessary for the policy
to produce the desired effects especially for
developing economies (Adeniji, 2003).
Specifically SAP was introduced into Nigeria
when it became evident that the ad-hoc policies
of the past could not bring about the desired
change in the economy. It was aimed to achieve
the following restructuring and diversification of
the productive base of the economy, to achieve
fiscal and balance of payment, to lay the basis for
a sustainable non-inflationary or minimal
inflationary growth, to lessen the dominance of
unproductive investments in the public sector
and to improve the sector’s efficiency and
intensify the growth potential of the private sector.
Despite the comprehensive breath, and the radical
determination which characterised the progra-
mme, SAP was confronted with many problems
during implementation some of which include
substantial increases in prices of goods and
services. Since its implementation relied on market
forces to dictate the direction of the economy in
an environment of insufficient government
bureaucracy, relatively narrow and weak private
entrepreneurship, high dependence on foreign
input, it failed to produce the desired or optional
solutions envisaged. It led to the collapse of the
industrial sector as most industries could not cope
with the high cost of imported raw materials and
machinery. The housing and building materials
sector also collapsed and a temporary stagnation
was experienced in the construction and sus-
tainable urban development sectors of the
economy.
LEKE ODUWAYE
The New Partnership for Africa Development
(NEPAD) formulated by African leaders as a
roadmap to Africa’s development in the new
millennium is worth mentioning. The thrust of
NEPAD is that Africa’s development strategy
must be experimental and not imposed. It is also
aimed at new partnership that is both credible
and capable of reversing Africa protracted eco-
nomic and political backwardness and increasing
marginalisation in the world economy (Adeniji,
2003). This new policy is based on the condition
that African out of their own volition are ready to
take their destiny in their hands. That develop-
ment is about empowerment and self-reliance and
that its sustenance has to rest on the people and
not the foreign benevolent guardians (Omoweah,
2003). NEPAC is however a comprehensive
document on Africa future and position relative
to global development. It comprises of policies
on peace, security, democracy, politics, gover-
nance, infrastructure, human resource develop-
ment, agriculture, environment, culture, science
and technology, capital flow and market access.
Each theme has a programme of action. For
example under infrastructure, it highlights vision
on roads and highways, airports, seaports,
railways, waterways and telecommunications. It
states the need to increase investment in infras-
tructure and establishment of African institutions
that will train and produce highly skilled techni-
cians and engineers. Similarly under information
and communication technology sub-theme, it
stresses the need to work with regional agencies
such as the African Telecommunication Union to
design model policy legislation for telecommuni-
cation reform, regulatory capacity, establishment
of a network of training and research institutions
to built high-level manpower.
Despite the impressive aim of NEPAD many
scholars on Africa political economy are skeptical
about its prospect, as the restructuring of the
World Order has had many painfully con-
sequences for Africa. With the mutation of GATT
to WTO, for example, Africa forfeited a fairly
reliable platform for tabling her grievances relating
to multilateral trade agreement. Also, the greatest
strength of Africa in world trade which is export
of primary products have been eroded by bio-
technology through the development of synthetic
alternatives to primary commodities. This
definitely places Africa in a poor position in the
WTO, thus positioning Africa in a largely
unfavourable trading position in a global context.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON CITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
This situation Aderemi (2003), noted places Africa
in a peripheral position in the world economy as
it has increasingly declining demand of her
products in the world market. The option for
survival is to make her market open, its policies
structured to accommodate market signals with
limited negotiating strength to dictate market
prices. For NEPAC to survive therefore Africa
will have to pool her resources together in order
to place herself in a better position of negotiation.
This will entail a radical and combative approach
to solving the economy dilemma of Africa.
The third global economic policy ravaging the
world is the concept of privatisation, especially
of the State owned enterprises, services and
infrastructure. Generally it involve the selling or
leasing on State assets to the private sector. Its
merits include its ability to reduce financial
burdens on strained government budgets,
capacity to improve efficiency of services and
potential for attracting investment to capital
starved sectors. It has the capacity to offer the
chance of improving both the livelihoods of
individuals and the services which they depends
on in their day to day lives. Presently in Nigeria
and in most developing countries the State have
over-extended themselves, suffocating private
and community initiatives in the provision and
management of municipal services such as waste
management, rail transit, parks, parking, water
supply, electricity, telephone, amongst others.
Privatisation might not be total withdrawal leav-
ing everything to the private sector. Appropriate
government intervention such as in policy
formation and monitoring are always in the hands
of government. This demand highly skilled public
administrators capable of performing such
complex technically difficult and politically sensi-
tive tasks. These requirements are not presently
well developed in many developing countries
including Nigeria. This means that government
will have to prepare for this new role of transition
from providers to enablers. Also government will
not only make initial assessments on how
services should be supplied but also to administer
her role as supervisor once these establishments
are taken over by the private sector. The capacity
required should include ability to analyse and
maintain market conditions, manage and enforce
contracts, regulation of monopolists, coordinate,
finance and support producers, enable community
self provision and support consumers with infor-
mation and alternatives (Batley, 1994). This can
201
only be achieved with government institutions
sufficiently equipped to maintain the delicate
balance between supporting private and commu-
nity efforts. Towards achieving these objectives
the Nigeria government established the Bureau
of Public Enterprises (BPE) to facilitate the
privatisation of many government agencies in
various sectors which include the oil sector,
power, telecommunication, cement, hospitals,
hotels, steel, air lines amongst others. Apprecia-
ble progress have been made by the BPE,
however efforts towards privatisation in Nigeria
has been confronted with many teething
problems among which are underpricing,
unattractive incentives, instability in policies and
enforcement. Most of the implementation efforts
have been unfriendly to the people.
GLOBALISATION AND DEVELOPING
COUNTRIES
The issue of globalisation which seeks to
integrate various parts of the world into a global
economy and global finance system has
increasingly been attracting considerable debate.
The forging of a global economy is an intoxicating
and momentous process, one of the major
structural features of the contemporary age
(Castells, 1992). The concept of globalisation
views the global economy as one, which works
as a unit on real time on a planetary scale. It is an
economy concept where capital flows, labour and
commodity markets, information, raw materials,
management and organisation are internationali-
zed and fully interdependent throughout the
planet. It corresponds to an attempt at contraction
of space and time through the development of
new means of communication and information
technologies across the planet (Hammouda,
2000). Globalisation perceives the world as a trade
unit without socio-political barriers and cons-
traints. It is the process through which people,
goods and services, trades, ideas and information
flows across the borders of countries with ease
(Asaju, 2002). This has been enhanced greatly
by technological breakthrough through the
development of the computer and telecommuni-
cation. Globalisation is characterised by liberaliza-
tion of the world economies and economic
activities that are free from institutional control
and which fosters and promotes free market
mechanism, private enterprise, open competition,
professionalism and excellence in corporate
202
governance. It seeks to promote specialisation
and the principle of comparative advantage in
the production of goods and services on a global
scale. It is aimed at creating a new world economic
order, efficiency, competitiveness, efficient alloca-
tion of resources and speedy growth of the world
economy.
Since economic factors are very strong among
factors influencing the growth of cities, there is
no doubt that this new phenomena, like the
transportation and automobile revolution will
have pronounced effects on how cities will
develop. This will vary among different world
economic regions i.e. developing countries and
the developed countries. First it can be speculated
that globalisation would generate greater disparity
and increase poverty in developing countries as
these regions are not at equal levels and positions
to compete with developed countries. Also it
could be an attempt to impose western standards,
needs and values in developing countries as
successfully done with SAP, all to the benefit of
developed world through their multinational
corporations. This is in line with the view of Simon
(1997) in his historical excursion of Africa
economic path, Simon (1997) stated that over the
past millennium, developing countries particularly
in Africa have been subjected to dramatic external
interventions and influences enmeshing them
firmly within the emerging world system. He stated
further that with successive conquest, coloni-
zations and associated cultural imperialisms of
Arab and European, Islam and Christianity and
more recently the western imposed modernization
and spread of capitalist ideology all have trans-
formed and internationalized African culture in
all areas of life include the use of land as land use
concepts and standards adopted by many African
countries are reflections of their colonial masters
home standards.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION ON
CITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
In most developing countries cities globalisa-
tion impact will vary greatly in extent and intensity
over time, spatially, within and between cultures
and social class. Due to the weak financial base
and technology, developing countries will be at a
disadvantage position in a world of globalised
trading of industrial products. Though this may
vary within and among regions in developing
countries. In Africa and Lagos in particular it will
LEKE ODUWAYE
result into paucity of inward foreign direct
investment and export of secondary and tertiary
products as the traditional strengths of these
regions are production and export of primary
products, while a high proportion of manufactur-
ed goods are imported. Therefore globalisation
is likely to be of little advantage if any to develop-
ing countries as most of them will turn into con-
suming nations.
At the global seen the influence of global
economic direction have been documented in
Latin America and Asia (Rakodi, 1997) Caribbean
(Thrift, 1994). Their findings shows that
significant regional and local differences exists.
This reflect, the vulnerability of these regions to
external policies and the level of their integration
into the changing international economic order.
In the recently independent nations such as in
South Africa, strands of European colonial impact
still exist and Zimbabwe is rigorously battling the
aftermath of colonial land tenure policy.
Unfortunately for developing countries
globalisation is gradually resulting into a new
structure of global competition due to the
appearance of “global” markets and “global”
production complexes (Thirft, 1994). This
scenario has been influence greatly by many
factors among which are new innovations in
technology, such as micro-electronics, tele-
communication, material science all of which exert
profound impact on refashioning world produc-
tion systems. There has been tremendous growth
of transnational production and the increase
openness and interdependence among national
economies. Also there has been a great lip in
global financial market, with varsity improved
global telecommunication and infrastructure. This
can easily be noticed in the investment of trans-
national companies particularly in telecommuni-
cation and transportation in Nigeria especially in
Lagos. These changes have been manifesting at
both the national, the Lagos urban economy and
individual enterprises levels. At the national level
the impact has been on the intensification of
international and local competition for markets
and investments. It has also increase the rate of
employment into these new sectors though at
the detriment of the formal industrial sector which
is on the downward side. At the enterprises level,
it has opened up the need for adoption of new
process technologies, flexible working system,
and organisation and shifting towards flexible
rather than mass production system.
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON CITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
The concept of “space of flows” emerged from
the process of globalisation (Castells, 1989). Also
the emergency of “global or world cities” is fast
growing roots. These cities are the loci for new
international division of labour in manufacturing,
they are key hubs for the control and coordination
of global finance and producer services. Due to
the strategic positions of these cities as the
optimal beneficiaries of new, dynamic, high-
income growth sectors of the economy “global
city status” is something to be coveted, defended
and fought for (Dieleman and Hamnett, 1994).
The effects of globalisation on the city land
use is disturbing as it has both positive and
negative effects. However, since it is a global trend
it is better for cities to be positioned as a player in
the phenomena. Despite the fact that Lagos
within the African and particularly West African
sub-region context is a leading city it stands to
benefit in the new competition process through
efficiency and job creation. For many cities in
developing countries they will be left out of the
globalisation process as they are not in compara-
tive positions when compared with the developed
countries. This might be a clug in the process of
comparative development of the less developed
regions. This new international division of labour
characterised by export-processing manufactur-
ing may bypass many cites in less developed
world to the extent that the economic structure of
such nations will include the gradual depletion
of industrial and production land uses. These
nations will turn into merely consuming nations,
thus creating dangerous socio-economic crisis
in the immediate future.
Also, these regions lack basic conducive
environment for globalisation to strive. Apart
from their spatial locations, their geographical
significance is uncertain coupled with non-
existence of strong, and reliable state apparatus.
They also lack competitive technology and human
resource infrastructure. For Lagos, as in the case
of many cities in developing regions the pre-
conditions for global competition are not in
existence. Such condition include the capacity
to develop “niche product” which require flexi-
bility in the production process. This can only
be acquired through appropriate organisational
framework and human resource.
Due to instability, unreliable policy framework,
poor state of infrastructure and security in many
developing countries, a situation of which Lagos
is not an exception globalisation processes have
203
been stolled, with corresponding severe conse-
quences for urban economies and environment.
In terms of industrial investments and land use,
Rakodi (1997) noted that large foreign enterprises
have continuously shunned Africa, thus turning
Africa to be the only large and populous conti-
nent without a true newly industrializing country.
It is perhaps only the city of Johannesburg that
is presently aiming at attaining “world city” status
in this decade (Rogerson, 1994). Towards this,
the city has evolved strategies which include
building up the financial and producer service
sector, attracting the offices of international
organisations and developing a cultural strategy
to image the city better to foreign investors.
The formal economic sector in many develop-
ing countries is gradually on the decline due to
the impediments to growth generated by globali-
sation. This is a prominent feature in Lagos as
the informal sector has invaded the city economic
fabric. In many countries in sub-Saharan Africa,
regular urban wage employment opportunities
constitute between 5-10 per cent (ILO, 1992).
Recent studies shows a decline from this range
with Central African Republic (33.6%) and Gambia
(27%). Also the formal wage employment in the
public sector of these countries have been on
the increase with massive retrenchments accom-
panied by the declining absorptive capacity of
the formal private sector. Abiodun (1997) noted
that at least 70 per cent of the unemployed in
Lagos are aged between 15-29, while in Kenya
according to House (1993), the mostly affected
age group for unemployment comprises those
aged 20-29, who represent 65 per cent of all those
reported as unemployed.
Table 1 shows the trend of public sector
retrenchment in selected African countries in the
1980s to 1990s. Generally the consequences of
stalled generated by globalisation on the formal
economies of African cities have been
devastating.
The socio-economic and spatial conse-
quences of retrenchment is increasingly growing
of the informal sector. This sector is characterised
by small-scale, mostly family-operated or indivi-
dual activities. This is a common phenomena in
cities of the developing countries. In Africa
Rondinelli and Kasarda (1993), documented that
this sector provide jobs for about 63 percent of
total work force in urban Africa. ILO (1992)
estimates that in the 1990s about 93 per cent of
Africa urban labour force will be in the informal
204 LEKE ODUWAYE

Table 1: Public-Sector retrenchment in selected into the country to support the establishment of
African countries (1980s-1990s) these services have been majorly from foreign
Country Period Numbers % of investors as they possess the technology and
retrenched Total public high valued currency which can easily be
servants
converted into the local currency with good
Nigeria 1984-1988 156550 20
Kenya 1992-1997 149000 30
values. This has greatly revigorate the domestic
Zimbabwe 1990-1995 123000 25 economy of town and cities in Nigeria particularly
Ethiopia 1992-1995 80000 15 in Lagos.
Tanzania 1992-1995 80000 30 The city landscape has been significantly
Uganda 1991-1994 80000 26 transformed by the installation, erection and
Ghana 1987-1991 49873 15
Cameroon 1985-1992 47639 20 conversion of existing buildings to fit into the
Guinea 1986-1991 40000 20 new use of these global enterprises. This is more
Cote d’Ivoure 1986-1990 15000 15 pronounced in the telecommunication sectors
Togo 1983-1985 5000 10 where giant billboards are now corporate status
Gambia 1985-1986 na 17
symbols in the cityscape. This has generated
Source: ILO (1992) bandwagon effects into other sectors sense of
sector. Also this sector appear as survivalist and outdoor advertisement. This serves dual roles of
enterprises types. The survivalist are in form of income generation and improved cityscape.
people unable to secure regular wage employ- There has been improvement in the trans-
ment or access to economic sector of their choice. portation sector. This is presently more pro-
The enterprises group appears as small busi- nounced in the air transportation sector where
nesses employing between one to four paid the private sector consist of both local entre-
employees, they are predominantly in the trade preneur and foreign investors. This has improved
related activities. greatly the nature of air traveling in the country.
Despite the gloomy nature of the benefit A rapid transformation of the national
derivable from globalisation by cities in economy has been experienced. Unfortunately
developing countries it is important to note that this has been to the detriment of the industrial
these cities with Lagos as an example has sector as the economy is shifting towards the
benefited enormously from this process. Among services sector and importation of industrial
the notable gains of the city are: goods. Cultural transformation is also on the
· Emergency of new employment opportunities. increase as the opening-up of the economic
· Inflow of capital system allows exposure to cultures of other
· Improve telecommunications regions of the world particularly those of the home
· Improved city-scape origins of transitional enterprises of Europeans,
· Improved transport infrastructure Americans and Asian origins.
· Rapid changes in economic structure Tremendous financial gains have been
· Cultural integration experienced by all levels of government in Nigeria
· Generation of revenue to government generally especially in the areas of licencing,
· Improved local capacity. while state and local governments have also
Recently with the liberalization of many generated enormous revenues from the establish-
aspects of Nigeria economy such as in the mass ment of new enterprises brought into the
media (radio and television) in particular, the countries and various cities due to globali-sation
telecommunication sector particularly the trend.
telephone, inflow of computer networks such as The need to reap the benefit of these new
internet services etc.; all these have opened up service industries brought by globalisation has
new employment opportunities in Nigerian cities been a source of challenge to Nigerians, who at
in particular as most of these services have their various levels braced-up to improve their
operational bases in the cities where there is pool capacities to fit into the requirements of this
of consumers and skilled labour force. This is transformation.
very prominent in Lagos. These activities takes
place in space and specific locations, thus they RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
have contributed in opening up of hitherto
undeveloped areas in the city. Inflow of capital Unfortunately most developing countries of
EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION ON CITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
the world have been in the world trade system on
unfavourable terms in which they are dependent
on developed countries. Though attempts were
made in the 1960s to achieve autonomous
economic and political status by means of state-
centred and interventionist strategies they have
achieve very little. With this unsuccessful
attempts, developing countries are always vulner-
able to the policy dictates of the developed world
and international agencies especially the Inter-
national Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
Bank.
The practical effects of globalisation pheno-
mena embraces a wide range of issues at socio-
economic, geographical and political levels. This
paper has examined the diverse rhythms and
characteristics of effects of globalisation on the
future of cities in developing countries, with
emphasis on Lagos, Nigeria. Since globalisation
involve the process of building a world market
with the aim of integrating national economies
into the world market and the transition from a
high volume economy into a high value economy,
it will therefore require high level of political
commitment, good governance and policy
stability. Nations in developing regions will have
to refocus themselves by development of appro-
priate manpower through high yield capacity
building process. This will have the dual advan-
tage of technological development which is critical
in the world where biotechnology has made
nonsense of the traditional raw material export
advantage position of developing countries.
It is also necessary for developing country
especially in Africa to incorporate her NEPAD in
an advantageous position in the globalisation
process. This might require the development of
the hybrid version peculiar to Africa. There
should be value added to export and increase in
the level of domestic savings through which
appreciable capital base can be derived in a world
where there is internationalization of fund. The
issue of corruption should be addressed and the
provision of investment friendly infrastructural
facilities should be of prime concern of developing
countries. Effort should be made towards
achieving acceptable investment security and
security to life and property.
205
REFERENCES
Abiodun, J.O. 1997. “The Challenges of Growth and
development in metropolitan Lagos”, (pp. 192-225)
in C. Rakodic (ed.), The Urban Challenge in Africa:
Growth and Management of its Large Cities. Tokyo:
United Nations University Press.
Adedeji, A. 1990. Structural Adjustment for Socio-
economic Recovery and Transformation: The African
Alternative. Addis Ababa: ECA.
Adeniji, A. 2003. “Globalisation, NEPAD and African
Political Economy.” LASU Social Sciences Journal,
5(1): 5-16.
Aderemi, A. 2002. “Towards an Interpretation of
Africa’s Development Process: NEPAD and the New
Global Orthodoxy.” unpublished Paper Presented
at the International Cooperation and Peace Institute,
Yaounde.
Asaju, A.S. 2002. “Globalisation, Urban Property Market
and the Search for Sustainable City Development”,
(pp. 316-324) in A. Amole, A. Ajayi and A. Okewole
(eds.), A Conference Proceeding on the City in
Nigeria: Perspectives, Issues, Challenges, Strategies.
Ile-Ife: O.A.U.
Batley, R. 1994. “Privatization: Can Government
Manage it.” Urban Age, 2(4): 3-6
Castells, M. 1989. The Informational City. Oxford:
Blackwell.
Castells, M.1992. European Cities, the International
Society and the Global Economy. Amsterdam:
Centre for Metropolitan Research, University of
Amsterdam.
Dieleman, F.M. and C. Hamnett. 1994. “Globalisation,
regulation and the urban Systems.” Urban Studies,
31: 357-364.
Fuchs, N. 1994. “The localization of development in a
comparative perspective.” Economic Geography,
70:144-166.
Hammonda, H.B. 2000. “Perspective on Globalization
and its Structure.” CODESTRIA Bulletin, 1: 31-38.
House, W.J. 1993. “Urban self employment in Kenya:
Panacea on viable strategy?” World Development,
21: 1205-1223.
ILO. 1992. World Labour Report. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
Omoweah, D.A. 2003. “New Partnership for Africa’s
Development NEPAD. Another False Start.” The
Nigerian Social Scientist, Lagos, 6(1): 42 - 48
Rakodi, C. 1997. “Global forces, urban change and urban
management in Africa”, (pp. 17-73) in C. Rakodi
(ed.), The Urban Challenge in Africa: Growth and
Management of its Large Cities. Tokyo: United
Nations University Press.
Rogerson, C.M. 1994. “Flexible production in developing
world: The case of South Africa.” Geoforum, 25: 1-
17.
Roudinelli, D.A. and J. D. Kasarda. 1993. “Job creation
needs in third world cities”, (pp. 92-119) in Third
World Cities: Problems, Policies and Prospects.
London: Sage.
Thrift, N. 1994. “Globalisation, regulation, urbanization:
The Case of the Netherlands.” Urban Studies, 31:
365-380.