Cable fault location in power cables

Pre-location with arc process

Contents:

1. Introduction
2. ARM®
3. ARM® Plus
4. DECAY Plus
5. ARM® - Burning

1. Introduction

More than 80% of cable faults are high-resistance faults. These faults generate no or
very slightly visible impedance changes and cannot be located with the classic
impulse reflection method.
The classic conversion of a high-resistance to a low-resistance fault with a powerful
burner devices is used increasingly more rarely. Powerful burner devices are used
today for modifying the fault resistance in wet cables and for the pre-location in
connection with the ARM® burner (arc burner). In the cable fault location using various
pre-location methods, the combination of a high-voltage process with the impulse
reflection method has always been implemented and proved to be successful. For an
arc burning on the fault location, the reflection factor is r = -1, because the fault
resistance there is approximately zero, so almost represents a short circuit. By
comparing a recorded reflection pattern without this burning arc (reference pattern)
with a reflection pattern recorded with a constant arc on the fault position, it is possible
to determine the fault location. In the process, the two measured curves diverge at the
position of the ignited arc which corresponds to the fault location. In igniting an arc on
the fault location, essentially three basic principles are used.

1. Igniting the arc as a result of a sudden discharge of a charged capacitor in the

cable. (application with all faults)
2. Igniting the arc by means of a DC voltage source as a result of charging the
cable until breakdown (application with cables that can be charged)
3. Igniting the arc with a powerful DC voltage burner device (application with
damp cable faults)

To enable a defined triggering of the reflectometer it is necessary to stabilise the arc

and extend the arc burning period. When the measurement technician decides on a
process it must still be checked whether a cable with a fault can actually be charged
and at which voltage it breaks down. Testing with DC voltage can establish the
breakdown voltage at the fault position. If, for example, the leakage current in the
cable is too large, the cable is not able to be charged. In this case a process which
involves charging the cable cannot be used, high voltage impulse reflection
processes have to be chosen which work on the basis of discharging an impulse
capacitor. However, this decision is made in any case, because a cable that cannot be
charged has a low ignition voltage which is the best condition for the ARM process.

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In principle, all devices which are used for the arc reflection process consist of the
following basic components.
1. A source of DC voltage (can also be the burning device)
2. An impulse generator, consisting of:
a. an impulse capacitor
b. A switch which discharges the impulse capacitor to the measure-
ment object
3. A filter which acts to extend the capacitor discharge which is necessary for
stabilising the arc.
a. Inductively, a coil effects the arc extension
b. Resistively, a resistance delays the discharge of the capacitor
c. Actively, via another impulse unit with a lower voltage
4. A coupling unit which generates the necessary impulses for measurement itself,
or couples the measurement pulses of the reflectometer to the high voltage.
High voltage High voltage

Power
separation End of the cable
High voltage source Cable fault
DC generator filter
Impulse generator Coupling Measured pulse
Burner device
unit

Reflection Reference pattern: without high voltage

measurement device Fault pattern: with high voltage
Teleflex MX
Measurement pulse
Teleflex T30E

Fig. 1: Simplified diagram of the pre-location of ARM® high voltage methods

The following processes for the measurement of HV arc reflection are available for
selection in addition to other processes:

ARM® for cable faults which can or cannot be loaded, short fault distances.
Resistive as well as inductive methods are regarded as ARM processes
LSG 3E
ARM® Plus for cable faults which can and cannot be charged, large fault distances
ARM® Burner for cable faults which can and cannot be charged, damp faults
DECAY Plus for cable faults which can be charged up to 80 kV

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 Reference pattern without arc at the fault visible at
the end of the cable – positive reflection

Fault pattern with arc at the fault

Fault visible – negative reflection

Fig. 2: Reference and fault pattern

As a power cable rarely generates a clean, unhindered reflection pattern but a

pattern which always shows modifications, sleeves and other influences, a fault can
only rarely be detected by the user in a reflectorgram which is measured normally.
Therefore the ARM processes consist primarily of an OK and fault pattern. Only direct
comparison allows the immediate and clear identification of the fault position. Both
measurements take place generally on the same wire. As the reference pattern is
measured with lower voltage or as a normal reflectogram without high voltage, the fault
is not visible there. Only the use of high voltage generates a clear negative reflection at
the fault position.
Exceptions to this are faults which appear in the OK pattern as negative reflection as a
result of their properties. In this case it is possible that the OK and fault patterns are
almost, or are completely identical. This fact, however, can be recognised in a
measurement cycle which is correctly carried out, by the fact that the fault resistance in
the insulation measurement is significantly below 100 Ohm.
Another problem is severed points. Various effects can occur in this situation.
a. The cable ends are so far separated from each other that there is no flashover.
It is important here to verify that the visible “end” is actually the cable end! If the fault
location shows that there could be a severed point, the far end should be earthed.
This procedure would immediately be established on the reflectometer in the case of
an intact cable (see fault classification). If this earthing is not visible at the far end, i.e.
there is no change of the polarity at the “end”, a severed point is most definitely the
problem. With impulses to the earthed end, a reverse behaviour is shown to the
normal parallel fault. (Frank, please create a reflection pattern with a severed point)
The OK pattern shows an “end”, the fault pattern shows a longer cable with a small
reflection at the fault position but with a negative reflection at the real end.

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b. Another problem which could occur in the case of complete severed points is the
breakdown in one of the parallel wires which should be earthed with the correct
connection and establishment of the measuring arrangement. This means that the
measurement pulse may possibly not run to the end of the cable but via the parallel
wire back to the earthed start of the cable. The resulting reflectogram in this case can
be very vexing owing to the completely unexpected course.

Above all, with such cable faults, it shows how important it is to following the general
rules and above all, the safety rules.
Whoever carries out the fault location in the correct sequence at the start will rarely
be in a situation in which the behaviour of the cable appears illogical and
incomprehensible. An even more technical fault location will not be successful if the
elementary rules of cable fault location are not followed.

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2. ARM® (Arc Reflection Method)

ARM® process (inductive)

The classic ARM® process was patented by HDW in 1965. In this process, the discharge
of an impulse capacitor is carried out via an optimised series impedance for the ignition
of the arc on the fault position. After the decay of travelling waves which would disrupt
the measurement, the decay process is carried out after a decaying sinusoidal vibration
with a frequency of about 300 Hz (dependent on the test object system).
Triggering the reflectometer and activating the measurement pulse takes place in the
first current maximum of the decaying vibration. The measurement pulse is
generated in the reflectometer. The maximum pulse amplitude that can be achieved
is about 65 V with a pulse width of 5 µs. This process is therefore particularly suitable
for the measurement of power cables with a total length of up to about 5 - 8 km.
Positive results were also achieved with fault distances of up to 10 km.
The measurement pulse from the reflectometer which is smaller in its amplitude has
the advantage that the start region on the reflectogram is not covered by the
measurement pulse itself. The ARM® process is therefore particularly well suited to
short cable lengths (up to 2 km) and small fault ignition voltages. The pulse width of
the measurement pulse should not be below 500 ns for the first measurement. With
short fault distances, the pulse width can be reduced in the second step.

Fig. 3: Simplified diagram for the ARM® process for arc stabilisation

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Double impulse process
With high impulse voltages over 12 or 16 kV, the double impulse is used to stabilise
the arc. (Centrix: 16/32 kV plus 4 kV, R30 system: 25/50 kV plus 12 kV impulse
generator). With a double impulse process the fault is only first ignited with the high
voltage. However, the ionisation phase, which takes place during ignition, would not
enable a stable pattern at such high voltages. Therefore, as soon as a sufficiently high
and stable current is flowing, another impulse capacitor with the aforementioned lower
voltage in the arc is discharged and extends this arc significantly which then enables a
reliable measurement.

ETF

HV impulse device

G Teleflex

MV impulse device

Fig. 4: Simplified diagram for the ARM® process for arc stabilisation by double impulses

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Fig. 5: ARM® process in a 8 km cable

Systems:
Surgeflex 8-1000
Surgeflex 15/25 kV
SPG 40/Compact city
Centrix 1 and 3
R30 system

Individual
M 219

ARM® process (active)

A similar process to the ARM® process and the double impulse process is the arc
stabilisation. In this process an arc, which has previously been ignited with a higher
voltage, is stabilised using an additional impulse capacitor and then measured with the
reflectometer in the arc. The LSG 3E can be used, with its 2 kV impulse capacitor, also
directly as a pre-location device in the low voltage supply. The pulse width of the
measurement pulse should not be below 500 ns for the first measurement. With short
fault distances, the pulse width can be reduced in the second step.

Systems:
Classic

Individual
LSG 3E

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ARM® process (passive / resistive)
The simplest way to extend an arc is carried out using resistances. Which means
discharging the impulse capacitor is extended by a resistance connected in series with
typically 300 Ohm. The method is called KLV (temporary arc process [Kurzzeit
Lichtbogen Verfahren]), or as SIM / S.I.M. (secondary impulse method). One of the
fundamental disadvantages of this method is that a voltage which is discharged using
a resistance, is also always reduced. Consequently it is not always possible to really
take the fault to breakdown with higher ignition voltage, or, that the previously
established breakdown voltage of the fault is not necessarily the same as the
performance parameters of the impulse generator used. Advantages include the handy
size, weight and the favourable price of such a simple filter. As a rule, several
measurements have to be taken. Storing the individual measurements is always
recommended, this is carried out automatically when using the Teleflex MX. The pulse
width of the measurement pulse should not be below 500 ns for the first measurement.
With short fault distances, the pulse width can be reduced in the second step.

Systems:
Surgeflex 32 kV
Classic (optional)

Individual
LSG 300

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3. ARM® Plus process

The ARM® Plus process is a process with active arc stabilisation for cable faults up to
a maximum impulse voltage of 32 kV. It is based on the production of a high voltage
measurement pulse for the running time measurement. From 16 kV using the so-called
double impulse principle, a stable arc with an adequately long burning period is ignited
in the fault position. The actual stabilisation of the arc is achieved by the coupling of
another impulse capacitor level (4 kV) which is charged to a defined value. The arc
burning period is dependent on the oscillating circuit parameters resulting from the
alignment of the test object - test system, and the insulation which is dependent on the
cable length, and lies in the range of a few ms. The measurement pulse for the fault
location arises from the impulse discharge of a pulse capacitor via spark gaps and has
a maximum pulse height of 1500 V. The measurement pulses which are very energetic
in comparison enable a fault location in power cables with up to approx. 10 km length.
Coupling out of the signals on the reflectometer is carried out by a Rogowski coil in
the low end of the pulse capacitor.
The fault position is detected by the divergence of the two curves (between the OK
and fault pattern) at the fault position.

HV impulse device
16 / 32 kV

G
DC supply

1 kV 200 V

MV impulse device
4 / 8 kV

Teleflex

Fig. 6: Simplified diagram for the ARM® plus process for arc stabilisation

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Fig. 7: ARM® plus process in a 8 km cable

Systems:
Centrix 1
Centrix 3

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4. Decay Plus process

The Decay Plus process allows the fault pre-location in chargeable cables with very
high ignition voltages of up to 80 kV. It extends the ARM® Plus process, which is
limited by the maximum charging voltage of the impulse capacitors by the amount of
the fault ignition voltage, to the test voltage limit of 80 kV.
The arc is ignited on a closed working spark gap by charging the cable until the
flashover at the fault position. The actual extension of the arc is achieved by the
coupling of a “lower” impulse capacitor level (4 kV) which is charged to a defined value.
A stable burning arc is obtained at the fault position which is used as the reflection
level for the measurement pulse. The measurement pulse also arises in this case by
the discharge of a pulse capacitor using spark gaps with a maximum pulse height of
1,500 V. With this process as well the measurement pulse, which is also very
energetic, enables a fault pre-location with power cables of up to approx. 10 km long.
The fault position is detected by the divergence of the two curves (between OK and
fault pattern) at the position of the fault and has, in principle, an identical course in
comparison with the ARM® Plus process.

DC generator
up to 80 kV
=
G

1 kV 200 V
Impulse device

Teleflex

Fig. 8: Simplified diagram for the Decay Plus process for arc stabilisation

Systems:
Centrix 1
Centrix 3

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Fig. 9: DECAY Plus, Reference and fault pattern

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5. ARM® – Burning

Despite all of the other available technologies, burning has not completely disappeared
from the process of cable fault location. Special wet sleeves and similar problems
quickly bring the majority of other methods to their physical limits. To design a burning
process that is as simple and effective as possible, ARM® and burning were combined,
i.e. during the burning process, a continuous arc reflection measurement also takes
place. In doing so this technique allows the tracing of the modification of the fault on
the display screen. The fault distance can be measured immediately and the system
stops the burning process automatically as soon as a stable low resistance state
is achieved. As with all the other arc processes a reference and fault pattern are
then compared.
An additional pre-location is not necessary, the process can go directly to the
pinpointing from the burning.
The advantage of this method compared with conventional burning is the controlled
procedure which restricts the actual burning to the shortest necessary time. As a
result, this burning takes place as quickly and as gentle on the cable as possible.

Ι ETF

R
Burner device

Teleflex

Fig. 10: Simplified diagram for the ARM® burning process

Systems
Centrix 1
Centrix 3
R30 system

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In addition to the arc reflection process, there are also the so-called transient
processes of current and voltage coupling.

These processes as well as their various application possibilities will be described in

one of the next reports.

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