1

“Consequences of
transportation in
meat quality”
António J F Raimundo

challenge
Healthy animals for food production
production:: an European perspective
III IP Course on “Quality Assurance of Meat Products”
Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Lisboa, Portugal March 18th, 2001
18 April 2001
 2

Downgrading of meat quality

It is difficult to quantify the losses occurring

during the production of meat, due to a

decrease in meat quality ... i.e. ....

18 April 2001
 3
I Relevant Factors that decrease meat quality

II Meat quality

III Measurement of meat quality

IV Early post mortem

predictors of meat quality

V Meat Quality: Some Results of Transportation

18 April 2001
contents
 4
I Relevant
FACTORS

that decrease

MEAT QUALITY
Relevant FACTORS that decrease MEAT QUALITY

18 April 2001
 5
ATTENTION GIVEN to the ANIMAL
PROFIT to the OWNER

“... If ... attention be given to the animal’s comfort

and natural disposition, it will be at once evident

that a pig can be and will be fastidious, and in the

exercise of such fastidiousness there is much profit

to the owner. ....

“Food Supply - A Practical Handbook” Bruce (1898)

18 April 2001
The Prehistoric Hunter*** 6

“... It is even possible that the late prehistoric hunter

hunter,, expert
on animals as he was
was,, may have learned from experience
what science was later to confirm, that an animal placid at the
moment of slaughter provides sweeter meat than one that is
nervous or exhausted
exhausted.. ...
...””

“Food in History” Tannahill (1988

1988))

18 April 2001
 7
TRANSPORTATION A CHALLENGE FOR PIGS?

Our modern breeds of pig have suffered SELECTION for:

•large muscle blocks

•fast growth

•efficient feed conversion and nutrient

partition

Dämmrich (1987)
18 April 2001
 8
TRANSPORTATION A CHALLENGE FOR PIGS?

When the wild boar was compared with modern breeds

of pig, the modern German Landrace was found to have:

1. muscles with a greater distance from the centre to

the nearest blood-vessel

2. more anaerobic fibres

3. a relatively smaller heart

Dämmrich (1987)

18 April 2001
 9
TRANSPORTATION A CHALLENGE FOR PIGS?

The least well adapted pigs for the stresses* of transport are
those which are extreme in those (3 mentioned) effects, for
example those with the halothane-positive gene**

But all pigs have serious problems during transport,

which are generally reflected in some impairment of
MEAT QUALITY
Broom (2000)

18 April 2001
 10

challenge

body
ANIMAL
psychology*
18 April 2001
 challenge 11
Homeostasis

“StreSS”
Meat
Disease
_______________
quality
_ Characteristics
Hormonal
Physical
Psychological
Behavioural
Immunological
*
Acute
Chronic
18 April 2001
 12

Stress is generally accepted as being related

with meat quality

BUT! This is not always so
e.g. Cold temperatures will induce stress,
but, might improve meat quality results

18 April 2001
 13
STRESS INDICATORS = n

MORTALITY

a first and important indicator of stress, roughness of

preslaughter handling and final meat quality

18 April 2001
 14
RESULTS OF THE CHALLENGE
... Radical sport ... Odissey ...!??

MORTALITY in Pigs

Losses
Country Year (%) Source

UK 1970-72 0,07 Allen et al.

Sweden 1976-77 0,13 Fabianssen et al.
Norway 1978 0,13 Froysten
The Netherlands 1976 0,37 Corstiaensen et al.

18 April 2001
 E. U. - MORTALITY in Pigs 15

Country Genotype Mortality (%)

Denmark SR 0,03
UK SR 0,07
Italy SR 0,10
Netherlands SR 0,16
Portugal Mixed 0,16
Spain Not known 0,22
Belgium SS 0,30
Germany SS 0,50

18 April 2001
 16
MORTALITY in Different Species
Warriss (2000)

18 April 2001
Stress-resistant pigs
17
Blood
parameters:
farm
&
slaughter

Odink et al.
(1992)

18 April 2001
X PYSIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF STRESS 18
Physiological
Blood Plasma
Stressor indicator ()

Fasting glucose1  x
/Food deprivation
free fatty acids  x

glicerol1  x

urea1  x

gluthamate  x
desidrogenase1
acetate1, 3  x

-hidroxibutirate2  x

18 April 2001
 19

Stressor Physiological Blood Plasma

indicator
Dehydration protein1, 2, 4, 5  x x

albumin2  x

osmolarity  x x
1, 2, 5

haematocrit 
1, 2, 5

18 April 2001
 Stressor Physiological Blood Plasma 20
indicator
Exercise haematocrit1 

adrenalin1  x

noradrenalin1  x

potassium1  x

 - endorphin1  x

lactate1, 2  x x

creatine  x x
kinase1, 2
heart rate2 

respiratory rate2 
18 April 2001
 21
Stressor Physiological Blood Plasma
indicator

Motion cortisol1  x
sickness
intestinal  x
peptide1
vasoactive  x
vasopressin2

18 April 2001
 22
Stressor Physiological
Blood Plasma
indicator
Fear/alarm... adrenalin1  x
anxiety incitement
noradrenalin1  x

 x
ACTH1

cortisol1, 2  x

glucagon 1  x

prolactin1  x

 - endorphin1  x

haematocrit2 

heart rate2 

respiratory rate2 
18 April 2001
 Stressor Physiological 23
indicator Blood Plasma
Heat/Hiperthermia  x
ACTH 1

cortisol1  x

adrenalinn1  x

 - endorphin1  x

body temperaturel2 

cutaneous 
temperature2
Cold noradrenalin1  x

cortisol1  x

haematocrit1 

body temperature2 

cutaneous 
18 April 2001
temperature2
Some Immunological indicators of stress 24
Leucotriens 

Citokins 

Linfocites (circulating) 

Antibody production* 

Helper T Cell activity 

Citotoxic Cell activity 

18 April 2001
 25

Meat quality parameters

can be used as

stress indicators

18 April 2001
 26
Stress/Meat Quality Relationship
• This relationship is difficult to
establish 
Animal v
Situation Stress types
A 1 2 3 4 5 6

B 1 2 3 4 5 6

18 April 2001
CAUSES of stress/CHALLENGE
stress/CHALLENGE 27
and consequent diminished quality

Lister (1981) Few problems are predictable as to

their development/outcome and most of them
are only recognizable after the event that
originated them as taken place

It is, therefore, relatively easy to identify the

conditions that promoted stress, but is not easy to
predict them

18 April 2001
 Animals
28
“Animal Filter”
Genetic background
Coping ability Fitness Animals
Behavioural Previous experience
Physiological Health Fitness

Homeostasis

~ “Stress”
Disease
________________
Hormonal
Physical
Psychological

50%
Behavioural
Immunological

Meat
quality
Characteristics

“Microbiological”
“Technological”
Adapted/Lambooij (2000) “sensorial” “Eating”
Ethical

18 April 2001
 29

Halothane Gene - Ryanodine receptor protein*

PSS Porcine Stress Syndrome

18 April 2001
 Conception/Genetics
30
Environment Handling
Familiarity Treatment
Climate Attitude
Design
Food and water

~ Homeostasis
“Stress”
Disease
________________

50%
Hormonal
Physical
Psychological
Behavioural
Immunological

Meat
quality
Characteristics

“Microbiological”
“technological”
“sensorial” “eating”
ethical

18 April 2001
ENVIRONMENT and 31
“FROM CONCEPTION TO CONSUMPTION”

*++***************
Conception of animal/selection/manipulation of
genetics/resistance to disease and predictable
environment/erradicate halothane gene
(vide Dämmrich (1987) & Broom (2000)

Conception of production system

.... Avoidance of “Over-simplified environment”

Killey (1977)

18 April 2001
 MEAT 32

II QUALITY

QUALITY
MEAT

MEAT
QUALITY
MEAT QUALITY

18 April 2001
 33

WHAT
MEAT QUALITY???

18 April 2001
 34
Meat Quality means:

Fresh meat quality Characteristics

+ Hygienic
“Microbiological”
“Technological”
Quality of meat for
“Sensorial”
processing “Palatibility”
“Eating”
Nutritional
Ethical

18 April 2001
 35
*Groups: ...
 ... Sensorial ... Eating ... Palatibility ...
 Physical ...
 Technological ... Yield ...Texture ...
 Colour stability ... Salt absorption ...
 Hygienic ...
 Ethical ... Environmental ... Welfare ...

 Nutritional ...
18 April 2001
 36
sensorial
characteristics:
characteristics

Apperance (colour, brightness, general aspect*)

Tenderness (texture: physical hardness, consistency*)

*firm, soft, hard ...

Juiciness

Flavour

18 April 2001
 sensorial Characteristics 37

• Colour (1 objective or 2 subjective measurement)

1. L* a* b* and hue, lightness and chroma

(CIE 1976 or other systems, e.g. Hunter Lab)

2. Colour scales
...

18 April 2001
 38
Colour depends, among others , on:

% WATER

% PIGMENTS* (Myoglobin Haemoglobin)

STATE of PROTEINS*

18 April 2001
 39
sensorial Characteristics

• Texture ... Toughness/Tenderness

Shear-force values (... maximal)

 % IM fat and % Water

 Sarcomere Length and Contraction

18 April 2001
sensorial Characteristics 40

•Juiciness/Succulence

Water %

Type and % IM fat

18 April 2001
sensorial Characteristics 41

• Flavour
o % Water and dilution of molecules
which affect the expression of flavour

o IM type and % ...

o Molecules resulting from breaking

down of ATP and protein

o Membrane proteins ...

18 April 2001
Technological characteristics 42
in fresh and processed products

- Yield

- Emulsion

- Bind

- Texture (consistency ...)*

- Colour stability

- Hygienic stability ...

18 April 2001
III 43

18 April 2001
 44

18 April 2001
 45

?How do we measure meat quality

or Evaluate differences in the expression

of meat quality chracteristics?

?How do we diagnose meat quality problems

due to transportation

or ante mortem handling of animals?

18 April 2001
  Subjectively using senses
(visually, by touching, smelling ...)

 Objectively measuring
meat quality parameters

 Both: objective and subjective methods

Directly

18 April 2001
  Relationships between
different meat quality attributes (parameters)
and these
with meat quality characteristics

 Relationships between
different meat quality characteristics

18 April 2001
Composition of meat and meat 48
quality characteristics

IMPORTANCE of STATE % of WATER

 3/4 Water and meat quality characteristics

 3/4 Water and Weight Yield*

18 April 2001
Composition of meat and meat 49
quality characteristics
IMPORTANCE of STATE of PROTEINS

 1/5 Protein and meat quality characteristics

 1/5 Protein and Weight Yield*

18 April 2001
 50
Transformation of muscle to meat
and antemortem handling

Lactate

Glycogen

Adapated/Honikel (1992)

18 April 2001
 51
NORMAL Cell metabolism
(anaerobically) continues after death

Glycogen/energy store

Lactic acid

pH value Contraction
*

18 April 2001
 52
“UPs + Downs”
% Glycogen/energy store

%Lactic acid

pH value

18 April 2001
 53
pH value

and

Interfilament space

18 April 2001
 Interfilament space and WHC 54

18 April 2001
ABNORMAL Ante mortem exercise 55
long before stunning ... Chronic stress
Exhaustion* fatigue:

% Glycogen/energy

pH value [HIGH ULTIMATE pH]

18 April 2001
 56
ABNORMAL Ante mortem exercise
immediately before stunning ... Accute stress

+ % Glycogen before death

% Glycogen (speed of glycolisation )

pH value speed of pH decrease*)

Muscle temperature

18 April 2001
 57
ABNORMAL

Speed of + Muscle temperature

pH value decrease

= PROTEIN
DENATURATION

18 April 2001
 58
Muscle/meat proteins and quality

DENATURATION afects Protein Structure

This affects:

 Interfilament space and % Water

(Weight Yield Texture Juiciness Colour ...)

 Protein functionality:
- Myofibrillar (Bind Emulsion Salting
Texture ...)
- Sarcoplasmic (Pigments Colour ...)
18 April 2001
 59
ABNORMAL Ante mortem exercise/STIMULATION
immediately before/near/bad stunning:

Muscle temperature

MUSCLE CONTRACTION***

18 April 2001
 60
Sarcomere Length (CONTRACTION) and quality

1. [Might] Sarcomere volume*

% Water

2. sensorial* ... Technological

characteristics*
18 April 2001
 Interfilament space and WHC 61

18 April 2001
 Interfilament space and WHC 62

18 April 2001
 63

% WATER & PROTEIN

STATES

can be affected
by
transport

18 April 2001
Transportation affects, among others: 64

 WATER as a dilution factor

 Water as a diluter of toughening factors

 Water as a modelator of consistency and texture in general

 Water as a diluter of molecules that affect expression of flavour

 Water as a facilitator of microbiological and chemical activities*

 Proteins as emulsion agents

 Proteins *
 Proteins as binding agents ... structural functionality

18 April 2001
IV 65

Early post mortem

INDIRECT MEASUREMENT OF MEAT QUALITY

Making things faster, easier and cheaper

without loosing validity of results ...??!
18 April 2001
 66
Early post mortem predictors of quality

Early post mortem ways of

detecting/diagnosing ultimate
porcine meat quality

e.g.
Initial value of pH (pHi)
Rigor value
Carcass temperature

18 April 2001
 67
67
** Some ATTRIBUTES of fresh meat quality
which can be measured to study effects of
transportation:
 Initial value of pH (pHi, pH45 ...)**

 Reflection

 Colour (L*a*b* CIE 1976; Hunter Lab)

 Water-holding capacity or %drip loss***

 Palatibility (juiciness, tenderness and flavour)

 Conductivity (impedance capacitance)

Cont.
18 April 2001
 Cont
.
68
Some ATTRIBUTES of fresh meat quality which can
be measured to study effects of transportation

 Final value of pH (pHu, pH24h ...)**

 %Cooking loss

 % soluble proteins

 Shear force values

 Sarcomere length

 Microbiological counts

 Evaluation of microbiological metabolism ...

18 April 2001
 69
Meat quality categories:
 Separation of carcasses or meat portions according
to a combination of the values or expression of
certain meat quality parameters, attributes, or
characteristics ....

Based on the results of the measurement of indicators of

meat quality we can establish/define meat quality defects or
meat quality categories

18 April 2001
 70

Dark Pale

Firm Soft

Dry Exudative

Wengen (2000)

18 April 2001
 71
Incidence of different pork quality categories in a portuguese
slaughterhouse: A survey
Santos C. Roseiro L. C. Gonçalves H. Melo R. S. (1994) Meat Science, 38, 279-287
Barton-Gade (personal communication)

Category pH CIE L* Exsudate (%)

Extremely PSE pHi > 53 >5

PSE pHi > 53 >2

Probably PSE pHi >2

Normal <2

DFD pH24

18 April 2001
 72
Categorization/EXCEPTIONS

1. Systematization of meat quality into

categories can be/is “tricky”

2. You will get carcasses or meat portions

which do not fit in any of the appointed
categories

3. So, sometimes, authors just correlate

transportation effects with meat quality
isolated quality parameters

18 April 2001
 Incidence of different pork quality categories in a 73
portuguese slaughterhouse: A survey (1994)
Santos C. Roseiro L. C. Gonçalves H. Melo R. S. Meat Science, 38, 279-287

Kauffman et al. (1992) exsudate

Quality categories CIE L* (%)

DNE <47 >2
RNE >47<56 <2
PNE >56 <2
DE <47 >2
RE >47<56 >2
REE >47<56 >5
PE >56 >2
PEE >56 >5

DNE, dark non-exudative; RNE, reddish non-exudative; PNE, pale non-exudative;

DE, dark exudative; RE, red exudative; REE, red extremely exudative;
PE, pale exudative; PEE, pale extremely exudative

18 April 2001
 74
Colour and meat quality categories
Warriss (1999)

18 April 2001
 75

V
Some Results of
transportation

18 April 2001
 76
Results of transportation:

“Normal” meat

PSE meat

DFD meat

RSE meat reddish soft exudative meat

Cont.
18 April 2001
PSE DFD Meat
77
Parameter PSE DFD
pH value  initial pH  final pH
WHC  
% drip  
Cooked yield % 80-85 95*
Colour Pale Dark
 oxidation
Apperance unattractive unattractive
Texture (fresh) soft firm*
Texture (cooked) Tough (*tendency) Tender (viscous)
Coarser (processed meat)
Flavour  (*tendency) 
Shelf-life*  
Salting  (*tendency) 
Bind 
18 April 2001
 Cont.
78
Results of transportation:
 Back necrosis*

Broken bones*

Injuries Bruises Skin Blemishes Contusions*

Microbiological contamination*/ keepability

Reduced welfare*

Blood splash (petequiae, echimosis)

18 April 2001
 79
Blood splash

Characterized by petequial hemorrhages, which

reduce appeal

Exact aethiology not known

Increases with ante mortem stress, combined

with long stunning-to-sticking time

Probably due to increase in blood

pressure/excessive stimulation/reflex movements
/muscular contraction

18 April 2001
 80
Results from fighting
and bad
preslaughter handling

Negatively affects
carcass presentation

Produces
inflammatory tissues

“Gives microorganisms
a way into the meat”

Reduces ethical
characteristics of meat

18 April 2001
EU RESULTS 81
“An analysis of data relating to pig carcass quality and indices
of stress collected in the European Union” (DK I NL P UK)
Warriss, P. D., Brown, S. N., Barton Gade, P., Santos, C., Nanni Costa, L., Lambooij, E. and Geers, R. (1998)

Blood parameters (Cortisol, CPK, Lactate)

n = 2399 animals (UK; DK)

Skin blemish score

n = ca. 5484 animals

Meat quality measurements (pH, rigor score,

FOP, PQMu) n = ca. 5477 animals

18 April 2001
EU RESULTS 82
“An analysis of data relating to pig carcass quality and indices
of stress collected in the European Union” (DK I NL P UK)
Warriss, P. D., Brown, S. N., Barton Gade, P., Santos, C., Nanni Costa, L., Lambooij, E. and Geers, R. (1998)

...There were no apparent relationships

betwen these1 indices of stress and characteristics
associated with potentially PSE meat. ...

...However, there did seem to be some relation

with pHu in the AD muscle2. ...

1Cortisol;CPK; Lactate
2m. adductor

18 April 2001
 83
“An analysis of data relating to pig carcass quality and indices
of stress collected in the European Union” (DK I NL P UK)
Warriss, P. D., Brown, S. N., Barton Gade, P., Santos, C., Nanni Costa, L., Lambooij, E. and Geers, R. (1998)

... all DFD meat came from pigs which

showed signs of stress but not all

stressed pigs produced DFD meat. ...

18 April 2001
 Incidence of meat quality categories in 84
C.A.S.O.’s slaughterhouse
C Santos L C Roseiro H Gonçalves R S Melo (1994) PT

ca. 60%

ca. 30%
ca. 10%

18 April 2001
 Incidence of meat quality categories in 85
C.A.S.O.’s slaughterhouse
C Santos L C Roseiro H Gonçalves R S Melo (1994) PT

18 April 2001
 Incidence of meat quality categories in 86
Ponta Delgada’s (Azores) slaughterhouse
C Santos L C Roseiro (1995)

Muscles

Sm Ld Sm+Ld
(%) (%) (%)

pH45<5,9 10,7 20,4 5,6

pHu<6,0 41,0 14,5 14,5

18 April 2001
Ambient temperature and meat quality 87

18 April 2001
Ambient temperature and meat quality 88

18 April 2001
 89
Transport time and meat quality

18 April 2001
 90
Stocking density  meat quality 
EU Directive min. = 0,425 m2/100 kg or 235 kg/m2

stocking densities > 0,40 m2/100 kg pig produced

a better proportion of good meat quality:

less PSE DFD/PQM+pHu Gispert et al. (2000)

m2/100 kg pig normal PSE - PSE + normal DFD - DFD +

< 0,40 45,1 48,6 6,3 74,1 13,6 12,3

> 0,40 50,4 42,4 7,2 81,7 9,6 8,7

18 April 2001
Lairage time/ % PSE DFD NORMAL 91
Culau et al. distance (km)
(1991)

Muscle Cat. Lairage(h) 10 45 80 115

% % % %

Ld PSE 6 20 10 35 35

24 10 5 35 5

DFD 6 10 0 0 0

24 0 15 5 10

Sm PSE 6 10 5 5 30

24 0 20 20 0

DFD 6 5 5 5 5

24 0 20 25 20

18 April 2001
 92
PSE DFD incidence
Time of last feeding + Holding time in lairage

18 April 2001
 93
Transportation and Contamination

• Remember: possible  immunological response

• Preslaughter stress afects contamination of the

live animal ~  carcass/meat contamination

• In PSE DFD meat microorganisms may develop

better and to a greater extension

18 April 2001
 Salmonella* 94

1. The mechanism of distribution of microorganisms

by stressed animal carriers is not clear

2. However, it is known that preslaughter conditions

affect contamination rate of product postalughter

3. It is reccomended that more attention be given to

procedures before and during transport and in
lairage

*Mulder (1995)
18 April 2001
 95
Salmonella isolation

• At the farm = 0% positive

• Arrival slaughterhouse = 0,1% positive

• After slaughter = 0,7% positive

Conclusion: Stress factors responsible for

 in carrier %

Slavkov et al. (1974)

18 April 2001
 96

Salmonella cross contamination

• Longer lairage time + worse hygiene

•  Cross-contamination - by enteric Salmonella

Morgan et al. (1987)

18 April 2001
 97
18 April 2001