Introduction To FFT Analysis

Test Technology: DSP (Digital Signal Processing)
Fourier transform – Aliasing & leakage – Measurement functions
Sales New Hires Training 2008

Bart Peeters
Lecture objectives
By completing this lecture, you will:
 Understand the importance

of the Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT)
 Be able to explain aliasing

and leakage
 See the advantages of

frequency-domain
measurement functions
7.70e-3
Amplitude
g
0.00
0.00 Hz 800.00
2 copyright LMS International - 2008

DSP in Test.Lab
Acquisition Time?
Frequency Resolution?

Signals and processing
 Signal: measurable quantity carrying information on some physical phenomenon

Pressure, displacement, acceleration, …

 Temperature, voltage, biomedical potential (EKG, EEG, ...)
 …
 Information contained in the variation of the quantity over time (space, …)
 This signal is measured with a sensor
 This signal is what you want to analyse in view of a particular problem
Analog Signal

Signals and processing
 Signal Processing: specific manipulations of the measured signals to:

 Extract the key information
 Understand the physical problem
 Provide input data for specific analysis or even simulations
 Modify the signal for specific applications
 Digital Signal Processing: doing all this using computer-based systems

 Transform the sensor signal in a stream of digital words
• Most sensors have an analog signal output
• Computers are limited to analysing finite datasets
 Discretisation in time and in amplitude

Signals everywhere …
Seat Vibration
Engine Wheel & Tire

Steering Wheel
Shake
Noise at Driver’s &
Passenger’s Ears
Turbomachinery Rearview mirror

Road vibration
Gearbox and
Rotor Transmission Cabin comfort
Cockpit vibration &
noise
Environmental
sources Structural Integrity
Accessories
X
System =
Source Receiver
Transfer

… and they can look … hmm … interesting
Ariane 5 launch and …

Joseph did help us a lot …
-1
-2
-3
 Joseph Fourier (º1768 - †1830)
-4  Théorie analytique de la chaleur
2.5
(1822)
 Fourier’s law of heat conduction
2
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
2 2
-1.5
u u u
-2
k
t x2 y2
-2.5
Any signal can be described as a  Analyzed in terms of infinite

combination of sine waves of different Useful by-product mathematical series
frequencies

Fourier transform
For mathematicians …
1
 To go from time to frequency domain and back Fxt X F X xt
 Fourier integral:
j t
X xt e dt
 Supported by modern signal analysers 1

‖Spectrum analysers‖ xt X e j td
 Basic function in all our software 2
For humans …
4
2.5
3 2
1.5
2
1
1
0.5
0 0
-1 -0.5
-1
-2
-1.5
-3
-4
-2
-2.5
f [Hz]
10 20 40
Detect sine waves in signal Draw line at frequency of sine wave

Some definitions
Time domain
T0
t [s] 1 rad
Period: T0 [s]
2
Frequency domain
f [Hz]
Frequency: f0 = 1/T0 [Hz]
f0
[rad/s]
Pulsation / circular frequency:
0 0 = 2 f0 = 2 /T0 [rad/s]

Frequency spectrum – Time history
 Selection of domain, depending on the application aims

 Equivalence of time and frequency domain: no loss of information
t f t f
t f t f
t f t f
Time Frequency Time Frequency

Examples – Fourier transform

Bridge Vibrations
Time domain Frequency domain
Shaker
Drop
weight
f
Traffic

There exist more domains
 Representation of signals for analysis
Time domain: Frequency domain: Amplitude domain:

The time history x(t) The signal spectrum X( ) The probability distribution P(A)
A
Gaussian
A2/ f P distribution
f A
t
A
A2/ f P
Uniform
distribution
f A
t
Nice theory … but we must do it on a computer
1  Sampled signals
Fxt X F X xt
 Discrete time history
 Discrete frequency spectrum
j t
X xt e dt
 Finite signal segments
 Limited number time samples
1  Limited number of frequency lines
xt X e j td
2
 Numerical representation
 Discrete number of possible amplitude
Consequences ? values
1 1.5
0.9
1
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.5 0
0.4
-0.5
0.3
0.2
-1
0.1
0 -1.5

Discretisation Effects:
Aliasing and Leakage
 Two most frequently occurring problems using discretisation:
 fs does not meet Shannon’s Theorem fs 2 f max

ALIASING
• Remedy
Use band-limited signals
Use low-pass filtering
 The sampled function is not transient and not periodic
LEAKAGE
• Remedy
Use periodic signals
Apply windowing (errors remain!)

Sampling
 Sine wave of 10 Hz, sampled at 100 Hz

 Digital representation looks like a perfect sine
sampling frequency = 1000 Hz

2
1.5 10 Hz harmonic function
0.5
amplitude
-0.5
-1
-1.5 T=N t
-2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time - seconds
 Following slides:
 Reducing sampling frequency

sampling frequency = 100 Hz
2
0.5
amplitude
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
T N t
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10
time - seconds
sampling frequency = 100 Hz. sampling frequency = 100 Hz.

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
amplitude
amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 4 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5
18 copyright LMS International - 2008 time - seconds time - seconds
sampling frequency = 40 Hz.
2
0.5
amplitude
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5 T=N t
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25
time - seconds

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
amplitude
0 amplitude
0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
10 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11 10 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11
time - seconds time - seconds
sampling frequency = 20 Hz.
2
0.5
amplitude
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5 T=N t
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50
time - seconds

2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
amplitude
amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-2 -2
20 20.2 20.4 20.6 20.8 21 20 20.2 20.4 20.6 20.8 21
time - seconds
time - seconds
Sampling: exploring the limits …
 Sampling frequency = sine wave  Sampling frequency = 2 x sine wave

frequency frequency
 fs = fsine  fs = 2 x fsine
 Observed frequency = 0 Hz (DC)  Observed frequency is correct, but it is

borderline (sampling frequency cannot be
lowered)

Sampling = only look from time to time …
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
1
fs
t t
Different interpretations possible … ???

Sampling – Potential source of trouble
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
20 Hz signal, sampled at 21.3 Hz, shows up as a 1.3 Hz signal  “Aliasing”

Correct Observed
20
f 1.3 20
f
“Sampled”
frequencies f /2
s
True
frequencies
0 fs/2 fs 2fs 3fs

Aliasing Protection
Low-Pass Filter
 Make sure the signal does not contain

frequencies above half the sample frequency fs
 Do this by applying a sufficient performing low-

pass filter
 Be aware that the amplitude of the last portion

of the spectrum is attenuated by the filter Alias-free
Automatically done in good data acquisition hardware

Example
Alias-free
Frequency range
suffering from aliasing

Aliasing – sometimes positive
 Something strange?
 Glass vibrates at 608
Hz, while we see it
vibrating at 2 Hz!
 Sampling by
stroboscope at 101 Hz
(Operating range is 0 –
120 Hz)
 6 x 101 Hz = 606 Hz
 For the human eye: 101

Hz = analog (we don’t
see the samples)


ALIASING
• Remedy
LEAKAGE
• Remedy

Finite Observation Length
Complete original signal
Limited observation
Discrete Spectrum  Periodicity Assumed
We are NOT analysing

the original signal !!

Finite Observation – Side Effect
1.00
2.5 Linear scale Expected spectrum of a
Amplitude
pure sine wave
2
( m/s )
2
1.5
0.5
0 0.00
-0.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
-1
-1.5 0.00
-2 Log scale
-2.5
( m/s 2)
dB
2.5
2 -60.00
1.5
0.00 Hz 100.00
1
0.5
-0.5 1.00
-1
Linear scale Adverse effects
 Wrong amplitudes
-1.5
Amplitude
2
( m/s )
-2
-2.5
 Smearing of the
0.00
spectrum
2.5 2.5 0.00 Hz 100.00
2 2
1.5 1.5
0.00
1
0.5
1
0.5
Log scale
( m/s 2)
dB
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
Leakage
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-60.00
-2 -2
-2.5 -2.5 0.00 Hz 100.00

Leakage – Amplitude Uncertainty
Periodic observation A-periodic observation

100% of amplitude 63% of amplitude
“ Boss, this 100.000$ system is giving me

something between 6 and 10g ”

Reducing Leakage by Applying Time Windows
 Leakage originates from finite observation

(discontinuity-error at edges)
 Original signal properties are best
represented in the middle of the observation
period : enhance information
 Practical implementation : multiplication
by window-function (time domain) to reduce
discontinuities
 Effects :
 Improved amplitude estimate ( flatten
central lobe)
 Reduce frequency range of smearing
( lower side lobes)
 Local smearing of spectral energy due
to wider central lobe effective
spectral resolution decreases
Window Types – Specific Characteristics
Rectangular, uniform Hanning Flat top

Time domain
Freq. domain

Example 1
 Periodically observed sine  Non-periodically observed sine

Rectangular window Rectangular window
Hanning window Hanning window
0.00 0.00
AutoPow er_Per_Hann
AutoPow er_Per_Rect
( m/s 2)
( m/s 2)
dB
dB
AutoPow er_Nonper_Hann
AutoPow er_Nonper_Rect
-100.00 -100.00
0.00 Hz 100.00 0.00 Hz 100.00

Example 2
 2 sines which are non-periodic within the measurement period. The amplitude of
the second sine is 100 lower than the amplitude of the dominant sine.
Rectangular Hanning
Flat top Kaiser-

Bessel
Alternatively: measure longer!


ALIASING
• Remedy
LEAKAGE
• Remedy
 And perhaps a 3rd one:

 Amplitude discretisation (e.g. 16/24 bit ADC)

Amplitude discretisation – problem
 Small variations are not

6 detected
5  Amplitudes are
approximated
4
 Small signals look ―bad‖

3

Amplitude discretisation – solution
MAXIMUM VOLTAGE
7
 Amplify signal to cover optimally
available input range
6
 Many bits in ADC to provide many
possible values
5
 So we can descrive accurately
small variations
4
 Currently 24 bit ADC
More in next lecture:

1 The measurement chain
0
MINIMUM VOLTAGE

So we need assistance for
 Filtering
 Several possible sample frequencies
 Windowing
 Amplification
 Sufficient possible amplitude values

Fourier & Co
Analog sensor signal Fourier transform (infinite integral)

8
8
… …
Sampled signal Discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT)
8
8
… …
Sampled time domain Repetition of spectra
Finite observation length Discrete Fourier transform (DFT)
Repetition of time blocks Sampled freq. domain (“spectral lines”)

DFT Parameters
Time domain Frequency domain
t
t f
0 fN fs
f
 Block size N  Sampling frequency fs = 1/ t

 Sampling interval t = 1/fs  Nyquist frequency (bandwidth) fN = fs/2
 Observation time T = N t  Spectral lines Ns = N/2
 Frequency resolution f = 1/T = fs /N

DSP in Test.Lab
Spectral test specification:

 Maximal signal frequency of
interest
 Bandwidth (fmax, fN)
 Sampling (fs, t)
 Frequency separation
requirement
 Resolution ( f)
 Observation time
(T) and block size (N)
 Aliasing prevention
 Sample high enough +
filtering
 Leakage prevention
 Periodic signals,
transient signals, or
windowing

Signal analysis measurement functions
 Time domain and frequency domain calculations to

extract specific information from the test signals
 Time history
Time w inr:61:+Z
 Time data segment statistics Averaging Time w inr:62:+Z
s
 Auto/cross correlation function
 Frequency spectrum, auto/cross power spectrum
 Rotating machinery tracked spectrum analysis (See
Signature Testing lecture)
 Coherence and Frequency Response Function (See
Structural Testing lecture)
-40
 The key issues to select a function are:
)
(m/s2)/N
dB
 What information is needed? How is this information
(
best brought forward from the signal?
-140 22.56 41.19
 Averaging to enhance weak signal components 0.00 Hz 80.00
 Absolute values

23/11/2002: Bradford City – Sheffield United: 0 – 5
Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5 End of game
0.02 0.20
)
)
m/s2
m/s2
Real
Real
(
(
F time_record roof:1:+X / Root Mean Square
B time_record roof:1:+X
-0.02 -0.20
0.00 s 15000.00
Filling Seated Half time Emptying Empty
 Data acquisition: 4 h
 Sampled at 80 Hz (down-sampled to 20 Hz)
 Sliding RMS value ( — )
 1000 samples, 50% overlap

Road load data analysis
3 : asphalt
4 : ramps
2 : ramps
5 : Belgian blocks
1 : runups

To design representative test scenarios
Accelerated durability testing cycles

 Meeting 1.2 million km durability
requirement
 Real tests would take 3 years
 Large-scale customer data collection
 5000 km Turkish public road data
Damage based on strain gage signals, full truck
 Ford Lommel proving ground
 Development of accelerated rig test
 Target setting
 Test schedule definition
 Resulting test schedule 8 weeks
1  Test acceleration of factor 100
LMS engineers performed dedicated data collection, applied extensive load

data processing techniques and developed a 6- to 8-week test track sequence
and 4-week accelerated rig test scenario that matched the fatigue damage
generated by 1.2 million km of road driving.

Applications: Electric Motor & Gear Mesh Analysis
 Electric motor powers machinery through

gear reduction drive units
 Increased vibration level from wear 0.04
 Gearbox geometry
Amplitude
)
m/s2
(
0.00 60.00 369.00
0.00 Hz 400.00
 Main shaft frequency: 59.7 Hz
 Final shaft frequency
• 59.7*(17/55)*(20/68) = 5.43 Hz
 Final gear mesh frequency
• 5.43*68 = 369 Hz
 Fs = 1024 Hz

Half of the main shaft frequency Harmonics of the main shaft frequency
Main shaft frequency Half of the gear mesh frequency Gear mesh frequency
0.10
)
m/s2
Log
(
10.0e-6 30 60 184 369

0.00 Hz 400.00

Current probe power spectra N = 1024, f = 1 Hz

Hanning N = 2048, f = 0.5 Hz
 Monitor current drawn by electrical
motor
0.00 N = 8192, f = 0.125 Hz
 Spacing and asymmetry in the
sidebands related to defects in the
motor
 Analysis
 60 Hz running frequency of motor
dB
A2
 Power line sidebands: 2.75
Hz/sideband away from 60 Hz
carrier
 Motor slip sidebands: 1.25 Hz
away from 60 Hz carrier
-100.00
35.00 Hz 85.00

Power spectra – N = 8192, f = 0.125 Hz Zoom
0.00 0.00
dB
dB
A2
A2
-100.00 -100.00
35.00 Hz 85.00 55.00 Hz 65.00
Rectangular window
Hanning window
Kaiser-Bessel window
Autopower Example:
Pump Vibration Signatures
0.10
Good
 Misalignment between motor and pump
Real
assemblies causes excessive bearing
g
wear Bad
 Good alignment shows up as reduced -0.10
0.00 s 52.00
harmonic content 10.0e-3
 Accelerometer measurement on the

motor bearing cap
 Computation of vibration signatures

 Power Spectra
Log
g
 Linear
 RMS
 Hanning
 Amplitude correction Good alignment
Bad alignment
 N = 1024
1.00e-6
 fs = 2048 Hz 0.00 Hz 1000.00

Autopower Example:
Harmonic cursor, display limited to 800 Hz, dB amplitude scale
10.0e-3
Log
g
Good alignment = reduced harmonic content

Bad alignment
1.00e-6 29.73
0.00 Hz 800.00

Autopower Example:
Linear amplitude scale
Good alignment = reduced harmonic content

7.70e-3
Bad alignment
Amplitude
g
0.00
0.00 Hz 800.00

Industrial Printer Noise Problem
1/3 octave band representation

 Story
 Industrial printer 70.00 70.00
Curve 25.0 20000.0 RMS Hz
 Excessive noise level
28.1 46.4 69.2 dB dB
 Measure effectiveness of noise 27.7 36.5 66.9 dB dB
abatement shroud
1.30
Pa
Pa
dB
dB
Real
Pa
-0.60
0.00 s 33.00
20.00 25.0 20000.0 20.00

Before noise shroud 22.39 Octave 1/3 22387.21 A L
Hz
With noise shroud

Course summary
Measurement
Amplitude DFT = Discrete
functions
discretisation Fourier
Transform
Skilled
experimentalist: Good acquisition
leakage system: aliasing
mitigation protection

Thank you
Sales New Hires Training 2008

Bart Peeters

Introduction To FFT Analysis

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Test Technology: DSP (Digital Signal Processing)

Fourier transform – Aliasing & leakage – Measurement functions

Sales New Hires Training 2008

By completing this lecture, you will:

 Understand the importance

 Be able to explain aliasing

 See the advantages of

2 copyright LMS International - 2008

3 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Signal: measurable quantity carrying information on some physical phenomenon

4 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Signal Processing: specific manipulations of the measured signals to:

 Digital Signal Processing: doing all this using computer-based systems

5 copyright LMS International - 2008

Engine Wheel & Tire

Turbomachinery Rearview mirror

6 copyright LMS International - 2008

Ariane 5 launch and …

7 copyright LMS International - 2008

Any signal can be described as a  Analyzed in terms of infinite

8 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Supported by modern signal analysers 1

Detect sine waves in signal Draw line at frequency of sine wave

9 copyright LMS International - 2008

10 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Selection of domain, depending on the application aims

11 copyright LMS International - 2008

12 copyright LMS International - 2008

Time domain Frequency domain

13 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Representation of signals for analysis

Time domain: Frequency domain: Amplitude domain:

15 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Two most frequently occurring problems using discretisation:

 fs does not meet Shannon’s Theorem fs 2 f max

 The sampled function is not transient and not periodic

16 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Sine wave of 10 Hz, sampled at 100 Hz

sampling frequency = 1000 Hz

1.5 10 Hz harmonic function

17 copyright LMS International - 2008

1.5 10 Hz harmonic function

sampling frequency = 100 Hz. sampling frequency = 100 Hz.

1.5 10 Hz harmonic function

sampling frequency = 40 Hz. sampling frequency = 40 Hz.

1.5 10 Hz harmonic function

sampling frequency = 20 Hz. sampling frequency = 20 Hz.

 Sampling frequency = sine wave  Sampling frequency = 2 x sine wave

 Observed frequency = 0 Hz (DC)  Observed frequency is correct, but it is

21 copyright LMS International - 2008

Different interpretations possible … ???

22 copyright LMS International - 2008

20 Hz signal, sampled at 21.3 Hz, shows up as a 1.3 Hz signal  “Aliasing”

0 fs/2 fs 2fs 3fs

23 copyright LMS International - 2008

 Make sure the signal does not contain

 Do this by applying a sufficient performing low-

 Be aware that the amplitude of the last portion

Automatically done in good data acquisition hardware

24 copyright LMS International - 2008

25 copyright LMS International - 2008

 For the human eye: 101

26 copyright LMS International - 2008