Automation of atomic clock intercomparison

AUTOMATION OF INTERCOMPARISON OF
A PAIR OF CESIUM ATOMIC CLOCKS
PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED BY

SATISH KUMAR
PROJECT GUIDE
Dr. P. Banerjee & Miss Pranalee P. Thorat
Time & Frequency Division
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Automation of inter-comparison

of a pair of Cesium atomic clocks” is a record of my work carried out at
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, during the period 6th July, 2009 to 8th
January, 2010, under the guidance of Dr. P. Banerjee, Scientist-“G” and Miss
Pranalee P. Thorat, Scientist-“B”, Time & Frequency Division, NPL, New
Delhi.
Satish Kumar
Roll No: 6110405723
E.C.E. (7th Sem.)
Adesh Institute of Engg. & Tech.
Faridkot, Punjab.
i
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work entitled “ Automation of inter-

comparison of a pair of Cesium atomic clocks” has been undertaken at
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi by Satish Kumar of Adesh Institute
of Engg. & Tech. from 6th July, 2009 to 8th January, 2010. The project is a
bonafide work of Satish Kumar and has been carried out under my guidance.
Signature of project guide
Dr. P. Banerjee,
Scientist ‘G’,
Time & Frequency,
NPL, New Delhi.
Signature of project guide
Miss Pranalee P. Thorat,

Scientist ‘B’,
Time & Frequency,
NPL, New Delhi.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to Dr.P.Banerjee,

(Scientist ‘G’) and Miss Pranalee P. Thorat (Scientist ‘B’) for their encouraging
nature, valuable guidance and inspiring words and invaluable co-operation
during the period of my work.
I am also thankful to Mrs. Arundhati Chatterjee (Scientist ‘E2’), Mr. Anil

Kumar Suri (Technical Officer) , Mrs. Aritri Nandi and Time & Frequency
Division, NPL , New Delhi for sharing their knowledge and for their support
and encouragement.
I am also grateful to Dr. R.K. Aggarwal, HRD Head, and other members of the
NPL group.
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Table of Contents
Contents Page No.
Declaration i
Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of graphs viii
List of tables ix
1. An introduction to National Physical Laboratory

1.1 NPL History 2
1.2 Main activities carried out at NPL 2
1.3 Technologies developed at NPL 5
1.4 Organizational Structure 5
1.5 Research Areas 6
2. Time & Frequency Division

2.1 What is time? 8
2.2 Need for measuring time accurately 10
2.3 Process of measurement of time 13
2.4 Time Interval Counter 16
3. Atomic Clock
3.1 Block diagram of a simple Clock 19
3.2 Accuracy, Precision & Stability of a Clock 20
3.3 Early Clocks 22
3.4 Atomic age of Time Standards 23
3.4.1 Atomic Clock 24
3.4.2 Why use Cesium atoms? 24
3.4.3 Cesium atomic clock 26
3.5 Frequency Stability 29
3.6 Common Methods of measuring Frequency Stability 35
3.6.1 Beat Frequency Method 35
3.6.2 Dual Mixer Time Difference system 36
3.6.3 Loose phase lock loop method 39
3.6.4 Tight phase lock loop method 41
3.6.5 Time difference method 42
iv
4. Automatic Switching Systems
4.1 Need for automatic switching system 44
4.2 Design requirements of automatic switching system 45
4.3 Internal Architecture of switching system 46
4.4 Circuit diagram of switching system 47
4.4.1 Power supply 48
4.4.2 Microcontroller 52
4.4.3 RS-232 59
4.4.4 Reed relay & Relay driver 63
4.4.5 Light emitting diode. 68
4.5 Front & Rear view of switching system. 70
4.6 Accessing the switching system. 72
4.7 Measurement of circuit delay of the Switching system. 76
5. Automated Data Acquisition System.

5.1 Block diagram of setup for inter-comparison of clocks 89
5.2 Universal Time Interval counter (SRS-620) 90
5.3 Interfacing SRS-620 to PC 91
5.4 Programming the TIC 94
5.5 Serial port programming using C++ 97
5.6 Flow chart 101
5.7 C++ program for automated measurement 102
6. Labs visited at National Physical Laboratory.

6.1 High voltage & High current lab 109
6.2 Energy & Power metering lab 112
6.3 Time & Frequency Research lab 113
7. References 115
v
List of Figures
Contents Page No.
1. National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India 1

2. Departments of NPL, India 5
3. Two dimensional time depicted in three dimensional space-time 9
4. Start and Stop Pulses of two Clocks 15
5. HP Time Interval Counter 16
6. Counting the time interval 17
7. Basic concept of a clock 19
8. Accuracy & Precision 20
9. High accuracy, but low precision 20
10. High precision, but low accuracy 21
11. Electron Transition 24
12. Cesium atom hyperfine structure 25
13. The 1955 Cesium Atomic Clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK 26
14. Beam tube of a Cesium atomic clock 27
15. Schematic diagram of a Cesium atomic clock 28
16. A sine function 29
17. Sine wave signal 30
18. Unstable & Stable Frequency 31
19. Beat frequency method- block diagram 35
20. Dual mixer time difference(DMTD) method- block diagram 36
21. Block diagram of loose phase lock loop method 39
22. Block diagram of tight phase lock loop method 41
23. Block diagram of Time interval counter 43
24. Internal architecture of switching system 45
25. Circuit diagram of switching system 47
26. Pin Diagram of ATmega8535 53
vi
27. Block diagram of ATmega8535 55
28. Asynchronous Data Transfer 60
29. DB9 Connector Configuration 61
30. Pin Diagram of MAX232 62
31. Relay & Reed Switches 63
32. Contacts of a Reed Switch (Side) 64
33. Contacts of a Reed Switch (Top) 64
34. Relay Driver 66
35. Parts of an LED 68
36. Inner workings of an LED 69
37. Packaged Tri-color LED 69
38. Internal Diagram of a Tri-Color LED 70
39. Front View of the Switching System 71
40. Rear View of the Switching System 71
41. Step 2 (Hyper Terminal) 72
46. Experimental Setup to measure cable delay 76
47. Automated Data Acquisition system for time scale generation 87
48. Block diagram of setup for intercomparison of clocks 89
49. Connection between PC and TIC (SRS620) 91
vii
List of Tables
Contents Page No.

1. Pin Configuration of 8535 51
2. Pin Configuration of MAX232 60
3. cmd Values and Functions 99
4. abyte Values and Meaning 100
5. Junction Design Parameters 111
viii
List of Graphs
Contents Page Number

1. Stability versus Frequency 19
2. Bridge Rectifier Output 48
3. Filter Output 49
4. Transfer Characteristics 67
5. Ohmic Region 67
6. Variation of average values of S1 78
13. Variation of Jitter for S1 81
20. Start Cable delay 85
21. Stop Cable delay 85
22. Back Cable delay 86
23. Constant voltage steps for a low capacitance junction 111
ix
1. An Introduction to National Physical Laboratory.
Figure 1: National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India
The National Physical Laboratory is the premier research laboratory in India in the field
of physical sciences.
It has developed core competencies in standards, apex level calibration, engineering
materials, electronics materials, materials characterization, radio and space physics,
global change and environmental studies, low temperature physics and instrumentation.
Established in 1947, it is one of the oldest laboratories of the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research. Its main activities are:
     Research and Development
 Consultancy
 Sponsored and contract research
 Calibration and testing
1
1.1 NPL history.
The National Physical Laboratory is one of the earliest national laboratories set up under
the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Late Sri Jawaharlal Nehru laid the
foundation stone of NPL on 4th January, 1947. Late Dr. K. S. Krishnan, FRS, was the first
director of the laboratory. The main building of the laboratory was formally opened by
Late Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel on 21st January, 1950.
The silver jubilee celebration of the laboratory was inaugurated by Late Prime Minister,
Smt. Indira Gandhi, on 23rd December, 1975.
1.2 Main activities carried out at NPL
1. Development, maintenance and up-gradation of primary / national standards:

 Traceability of primary / national standards to international standards
 Traceability / development, maintenance and up-gradation of primary /
national standards to international standards
 Calibration and consultancy service to calibration laboratories and
industries.
 R&D in the development of standards and sponsored research
 Awareness service amongst industry and testing laboratories about
measurement uncertainty and organize training for its estimation.
 Providing accreditation bodies such as National Accreditation Board
Laboratories (NABL) for calibration & testing.

2. Custodian of Measurement Standards:
National Physical Laboratory has the responsibility of realizing the units of
physical measurements based on the International System (SI units) under the
subordinate legislations of Weights & Measures Act 1956 (reissued in 1988 under
the 1976 Act). NPL also has the statutory obligation to realize, establish,
2
maintain, reproduce and update the national standards of measurement &
calibration facilities for different parameters.
The laboratory, at present, is maintaining six out of the seven SI base units. These
are meter, kilogram, second, Kelvin, ampere, candela. R&D work is under way
for realizing and establishing the seventh SI base unit of mole (mol). The SI
supplementary units are radian (rad) & steradian (sr).
The derived units for physical measurement that the laboratory currently
maintains are: force, pressure, vacuum, luminous flux, sound pressure, ultrasonic
power & pressure and the units for electrical and electronic parameters viz., dc
voltage, resistance, current and power; ac voltage, current and power; low
frequency voltage, impedance and power; high frequency voltage, power,
impedance, attenuation and noise; microwave power, frequency, impedance,
attenuation and noise.
3. International Traceability:
The national standards of physical measurement at NPL are traceable to
international standards. The laboratory periodically carries out inter-comparison
of national standards with the corresponding standards maintained by National
Metrology Institutes (NMIs) of other countries under the consultative committees
of the International Committee of Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the member
nations of Asia Pacific Metrology Program (APMP) The major implication of this
exercise of establishing equivalence of national standards on measurement at NPL
with those of other NMIs is that calibration certificates issued by NPL would have
global acceptability.
4. National Apex Body for Calibration:

The laboratory provides apex level calibration services in the country; offering
National Accreditation Board Laboratories (NABL) for testing and calibration.
The national accreditation body in the country provides
3
(i)its qualified assessors as needed for establishing best measurement capability
of the applicant laboratory; in particular its scientific,
(ii) its technical input to enable NABL to decide the suitability of the applicant
laboratory for accreditation, and
(iii) its faculty to train testing laboratories for estimation of uncertainty in their
measurement.
4
1.3 Technologies developed at NPL
Some of the important technologies developed by the National Physical Laboratory are
listed below:
• Teleclock Service
• Piezoelectric Accelerometer
• Carbon Composite Half Rings for Orthopaedic Applications
• Temperature Calibration Bath
• Magical Heat PAD/PACK (Reusable)
• Basic Sodar Operating in Monostatic/ Doppler Mode
• Long Afterglow Phosphor
• Force Transducer/ Load Cells
• Blood Glucose Digital Analyzer
1.4 Organizational Structure
Figure 2: Departments at NPL, India
5
1.5 Research Areas
• Physico Mechanical Standards

• Electrical & Electronic Standards
• Engineering Materials
• Electronic Materials
• Materials Characterization
• Radio & Atmospheric Sciences
• Superconductivity and Cryogenics
6
2. Time & Frequency Division
This section comes under the Electrical & Electronics Standards Branch and maintains
the Indian Standard Time (IST). Time & Frequency section is entrusted with the task of
synchronization and maintenance of international standards of time and dissimination.
The process is quite complicated and involves high degree of technical input. IST is the
Indian Standard Time corresponding to 82.5O E latitude (passing near Allahabad). The
time zone is five and half-hours ahead of the Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), which
was earlier called the Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT).
Atomic clocks across the globe monitor time and synchronize themselves with the help of
global positioning system (GPS) satellites, hovering over the earth. This data is collected
and transmitted via the Internet to the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM) in Paris. NPL is equipped with GPS receivers and follows the international
tracking schedule published and updated regularly by BIPM.
NPL has at present 5 atomic clocks namely NPL1, NPL3, NPL5, NPL6, NPL7 for
maintaining the time standard. The accuracy of each of these cesium atomic clocks is of
the order of 10-13. NPL is also involved in the dissemination of IST to the masses,
through the INSAT satellite or the telephone network. The service provided through the
satellite is known as the Standard Time & Frequency Signal (STFS), where any company
desiring the IST has to install necessary apparatus including a dish antenna. Its teleclock
service is available over the standard telephone line and can be accessed by a teleclock
with an inbuilt modem connected to a telephone line.
7
2.1 What is time?
Time is a component of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the
durations of events and the intervals between them and to quantify the motions of objects.
The American Heritage Dictionary defines time as “A non-spatial continuum in which
events occur in apparently irreversible succession from past through present to future.
An interval separating two points on this continuum, measured essentially by selecting a
regularly recurring event and counting the number of its recurrences during the interval
of duration.”
In physics as well as in other sciences, time is considered to be one of the few
fundamental quantities. Time is used to define other quantities – such as velocity,
acceleration, etc.
From the age of Newton up until Einstein's profound reinterpretation of the physical
concepts associated with time and space, time was considered to be "absolute" and to
flow "equably" (to use the words of Newton) for all observers.
In classical mechanics, Newton's concept of "relative, apparent, and common time" can
be used in the formulation of a prescription for the synchronization of clocks. Events seen
by two different observers in motion relative to each other produce a mathematical
concept of time that works pretty well for describing the everyday phenomenon of most
people's experience.
Einstein resolved the problems with the classical understanding of time by invoking a
method of synchronizing clocks using the constant, finite speed of light as the maximum
signal velocity. This led directly to the result that observers in motion relative to one
another will measure different elapsed times for the same event.
Time has historically been closely related with space, the two together comprising
space-time in Einstein's special relativity and general relativity. According to these
theories, the concept of time depends on the spatial reference frame of the observer. The
past is the set of events that can send light signals to the observer; the future is the set of
events to which the observer can send light signals.
8
Time appears to have a direction – the past lies behind, fixed and non-commutable,
while the future lies ahead and is not necessarily fixed. The Second law of
thermodynamics, states that entropy must increase over time, the cosmological arrow of
time points away from the Big Bang, and the radiative arrow of time is caused by light
only traveling forwards in time.
Figure 3: Two-dimensional space depicted in three-dimensional space-time.
One of the most peculiar qualities of time is the fact that it is measured by motion and it
also becomes evident through motion.
9
2.2 Need for measuring time accurately
Measurements in frequency and time are of fundamental importance for all experimental
work in science and engineering. For day to day timekeeping our personal watches and
household clocks are accurate enough. For example, a typical quartz clock can keep time
to within a second over a period of 10 days. When it comes to sending data over a phone
line or navigating by satellites, however, more precision is needed.
Telecommunications rely heavily on accurate timing to ensure that the switches routing
digital signals through their networks are synchronized and all run at the same time.
Otherwise, the switches running slow would not be able to cope up with the high traffic
volume and data would be lost. When speaking on the telephone, one might hear a click
or crackle if just one data packet is lost.
For the navigation of ships, aeroplanes, and more recently family care, global position
system (GPS) satellites that orbit the earth broadcast timing signals from their atomic
clock. By looking at the signal from four (or more) satellites, the user’s position can be
determined. The time has to be incredibly accurate as light travels thirty centimeters in 1
nanosecond (or 300 million meters in a second!) so that any small error in the time signal
could put you off course by a very large distance. This system has proved particularly
effective during sea rescue operations and in situations such as Arctic expeditions where
navigating by traditional landmarks and signposts is impossible.
While we are becoming more and more dependent on accurate time it is important to
know from where does this time come from and who looks after the master clock.
The international time standard is maintained by 62 time laboratories around the world
and is based on the average of some 350 atomic clocks. The diversity provides both
safety (a single clock in an earthquake zone would not be a good idea) and accessibility
(each major industrial nation contribute to the time standard, and hence has direct access
to the atomic clocks). In the UK, it is the National Physical Laboratory that maintains the
national time standard. The group of atomic clock at NPL keeps the UK’s time accurate
10
to within one second in a million years; which means that the error in a day or a week is
minuscule.
There is a need for making a precise comparison from the various sources of time. When
the sources were observed over a fixed period, it was seen that the variations they showed
were within specifications but these variations were not constant. All the sources showed
different variations. So the problem was to decide which one of the sources should be
considered as reference.
A method of ensembling (average) is adopted which shows that the average of all the
Measurements in frequency and time are of fundamental importance for all experimental
work in science and engineering. For day to day timekeeping our personal watches and
household clocks are accurate enough. For example, a typical quartz clock can keep time
to within a second over a period of 10 days. When it comes to sending data over a phone
line or navigating by satellites, however, more precision is needed.
Telecommunications rely heavily on accurate timing to ensure that the switches routing
digital signals through their networks are synchronized and all run at the same time.
Otherwise, the switches running slow would not be able to cope up with the high traffic
volume and data would be lost. When speaking on the telephone, one might hear a click
or crackle if just one data packet is lost.
For the navigation of ships, aero planes, and more recently family care, global position
system (GPS) satellites that orbit the earth broadcast timing signals from their atomic
clock. By looking at the signal from four (or more) satellites, the user’s position can be
determined. The time has to be incredibly accurate as light travels thirty centimeters in 1
nanosecond (or 300 million meters in a second!) so that any small error in the time signal
could put you off course by a very large distance. This system has proved particularly
effective during sea rescue operations and in situations such as Arctic expeditions where
navigating by traditional landmarks and signposts is impossible.
11
While we are becoming more and more dependent on accurate time, where does this time
come from? Who looks after the master clock?
As a matter of fact, there is no single master clock for the world. Instead, the international
time standard is maintained by 62 time laboratories around the world and is based on the
average of some 350 atomic clocks. The diversity provides both safety (a single clock in
an earthquake zone would not be a good idea) and accessibility (each major industrial
nation contribute to the time standard, and hence has direct access to the atomic clocks).
In the UK, it is the National Physical Laboratory that maintains the national time
standard. The group of atomic clock at NPL keeps the UK’s time accurate to within one
second in a million years; which means that the error in a day or a week is minuscule.
There is a need for making a precise comparison from the various sources of time. When
the sources were observed over a fixed period, it was seen that the variations they showed
were within specifications but these variations were not constant. All the sources showed
different variations. So the problem was to decide which one of the sources should be
considered as reference.
A method of ensembling (average) is adopted which shows that the average of all the
sources is to be considered as the reference. Output from these sources is taken into a
time interval counter and the comparison is made.
sources is to be considered as the reference. Output from these sources is taken into a
time interval counter and the comparison is made.
12
2.3 Process of measurement of time
The biggest problem with measurement of time accurately is its dynamic nature. Time
flows and cannot be held constant unlike other measurable quantities like length, mass or
temperature.
Every day we come across a term called “second”. But how long is a second? Is it the
same for all clocks or different for different clocks? A layman would describe one second
as seen by his wrist watch or his clock but for a scientist the definition of a second is of
prime importance.
Until 1956, the second was defined as 1/86400 of the mean solar day. As the
irregularities of the Earth’s rotation had become well known since the early 1930s using
quartz crystal clocks and with advanced astronomical instruments, a definition allowing
variations with time of the basic unit of measurement appeared no longer tolerable.
Thus, in 1956 a new definition was adopted based on ephemeris time One second being
re-defined as a fraction of 1/31556925.9747 of the tropical year. Even though this
definition was infinitely stable by definition it was not adopted for a long time. This is
because ephemeris second was difficult to determine as several years of observation was
required to reduce the probable error to a few parts in 109.
In the mean time during the Second World War, physicists had discovered many atomic
and molecular spectral lines in the centimeter wave band. The use of a particular
resonance as a possibly non-variant frequency led to the birth of a new device, the
“Atomic Clock” which is the modern time scale generators.
Hence, a new definition of a second was adopted in October 1967 during the XIIth
general conference on Weights and Measures and is as follows:
“One second is the time that elapses during 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation
produced by the transition between two hyperfine levels of the cesium 133 atom.”
13
An interesting thing to be noted in this definition is that the measured quantity is
frequency and not time. While in the old definition, the second was given as a small
fraction of a long period, the new definition gives the second as a large number of very
rapid oscillations. Hence, in the new definition longer time intervals are built up by
successively adding elementary time intervals.
Time is thus displayed using an oscillator – counter – display mechanism. However, there
is a problem with physical oscillators generating stable periodic oscillations. Strict
periodicity implies that each successive cycle is an exact copy of each preceding cycle.
We can start counting at any time i.e. there is no defined origin in the time coordinate.
This problem was overcome by synchronization according to a conventional origin,

which has been agreed on 1 January 1958 0h, 0m, 0s.
Modern clocks give time in terms of their frequency of oscillations. Hence, it is very
important for the frequency of the source in the clock to be very stable so that it gives
accurate time. Five cesium atomic clocks (NPL 1, NPL 2, NPL 3, NPL 6 and NPL 7) are
maintaining time at NPLI. However, it is not possible to maintain any absolute standard
for time. A reference is always required. Hence, NPL 7 is taken as the reference.
Time interval counters are used to measure the error between any two clocks. The signals
that fed into the counter are pulse trains coming from the clocks with a frequency of 1
pulse per second (pps). However, it is not necessary that a set of consecutive pulses from
both the clocks reach the time interval counter at the same time. There will always be
some time difference, which is measured by the time interval counter.
The two inputs to the time interval counter are start and stop. Whenever, a pulse reaches
the start input of the time interval counter, counting starts and it stops upon the reception
of the stop pulse.
14
Hence the time interval between the start and stop pulses is measured. The data obtained
from the time interval counter is used to estimate the stability of the clocks using “Allan
variance”.
START
STOP
Figure 4:Start and Stop pulses of two Clocks
The time interval counter shows a new reading after each second. However, it is not
possible to note down the readings manually every second. But it is necessary to take
large number of readings, since more readings give a better estimation of the stability of
the clocks. This calls for a need of a software program so that readings from the serial
port of the time interval counter can be sent to the computer so that evaluation can be
done. NPLI uses this procedure to take readings from the interval counter.
15
2.4 Time Interval Counter
Figure 5 Time Interval Counter
An instrument used to measure the time interval between two signals is time interval
counter. A time interval counter (TIC) has inputs for two electrical signals. One signal
starts the counter and the other signal stops it.
TIC’s differs in specification and design, but they all contain several basic parts known as
the time base, the main gate and the counting assembly.
The time base provides evenly spaced pulses used to measured time interval. The time
base is usually an internal quartz oscillator. It must be stable because time base errors will
directly affect the measurements.
The main gate controls the time at which the count begins and ends. Pulses passing
through the gate are routed to the counting assembly, where they are displayed on the
TIC’s front panel or read by computer.
The TIC begins measuring a time when the start signal reaches its trigger level and stops
measuring when the stop signal reaches its trigger level. The time interval between the
start and stop signals is measured by counting cycles from the time base.
16
The measurements produced by a TIC are in time units such as microseconds or
nanoseconds.
Figure 6: Counting the time interval
The most important specification of a TIC is resolution. In traditional TIC designs, the
resolution is limited to the period of the TIC’s time base frequency. For example, a TIC
with a 10 MHz time base would be limited to a resolution of 100 ns. This is because
traditional TIC designs count whole time base cycles to measure time interval and cannot
resolve time intervals smaller than the period of one cycle.
To improve this situation, some TIC designers have multiplied the time base frequency to
get more cycles and thus more resolution.
For example, multiplying the time base frequency to 100 MHz makes 10 ns resolution
possible, and 1 ns counters have even been built using a 1GHz time base.
17
Presently, there are two Time Interval Counters are available in Time & Frequency
division at NPL, New Delhi. Anyone of them can be used to measure the time difference
between any two of the Cesium clocks. The time difference measured is then used for
generating Time Scale of NPL India.
1 Universal Counter(HP53131/32) 300/500ps
2. Universal Time Interval Counter (SR620) 50ps
18
3. Atomic Clock
3.1 A Clock
Figure 7: Basic concept of a clock
The basic block diagram of a clock indicates that a clock consists of three components:
1.Frequency Source :
The frequency source used should be stable, precise and accurate for a good clock.
Quartz crystals, microwave oscillators etc. are the examples of some of the frequency
sources that are used. The common quartz wrist watch uses a quartz crystal as a source of
its frequency. The basic formula for calculating the frequency of a quartz tuning fork as a
function of its dimensions (quadratic cross-section) are as follows:
2.Counter –:
The output from the frequency source is next fed to a counter. What the counter actually
does is that it counts the number of pulses from the frequency source. Using some logic
gates and/or functions, the pulses from the frequency source are sequentially counted.
3.Display :
The display is used to show the output of the counter. What the counter counts is
displayed in the display.
19
3.2 Accuracy, Precision & Stability of a Clock
Accuracy is the degree of closeness of a measured or calculated quantity to its true value.
Precision is defined as,

1. The ability of a measurement to be consistently reproduced.
2. The number of significant digits to which a value has been reliably measured.
Accuracy is the degree of veracity while precision is the degree of reproducibility.
Figure 8: Accuracy & Precision
The closer a system's measurements to the accepted value, the more accurate the system
is considered to be.
Figure 9: High accuracy, but low precision
The more a system's measurements are reproducible, the more precise the system is
considered to be.
20
Figure 10: High precision, but low accuracy
Stability is defined as the tendency to recover from perturbations.
Graph 1: Stability versus Frequency
21
3.3 Early clocks
The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to
consistently measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units, the day, the lunar
month, and the year. Such measurements require devices. Devices operating on several
different physical processes have been used over the millennia, culminating in the clocks
of today.
Sundials: The sundial, which measures the time of day by the direction of
shadows cast by the sun, was widely used in ancient times. A well-designed sundial can
measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, and sundials continued to be used to
monitor the performance of clocks until the modern era. However, its practical limitations
- it requires the sun to shine and does not work at all during the night - encouraged the
use of other techniques for measuring time. In India, the King of Jaipur the Pink City, Jai
Singh II constructed many instruments and sundials in the observatories in cities Jaipur,
Varanasi, Ujjain, Mathura between 1724-1730 A.D. He had a good interest in astronomy
and town planning.
Water Clocks: Water clocks were among the earliest timekeepers that didn’t
depend on the observation of celestial bodies. One of the oldest was found in the tomb of
the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I, buried around 1500 BCE. Later named clepsydras
(“water thieves”) by the Greeks who began using them about 325 BCE, these were stone
vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small
hole near the bottom. Other clepsydras were cylindrical or bowl-shaped containers
designed to slowly fill with water coming in at a constant rate. Markings on the inside
surfaces measured the passage of “hours” as the water level reached them. These clocks
were used to determine hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well.
Another version consisted of a metal bowl with a hole in the bottom; when placed in a
container of water the bowl would fill and sink in a certain time. These were still in North
Africa in the 20th century.
22
3.4 The Atomic age of Time standards
Scientists had long realized that atoms (and molecules) have resonances; each
chemical element and compound absorbs and emits electromagnetic radiation at its own
characteristic frequencies. These resonances are inherently stable over time and space.
An atom of hydrogen or cesium here today is (so far as we know) exactly like one a
million years ago or in another galaxy. Thus atoms constitute a potential "pendulum"
with a reproducible rate that can form the basis for more accurate clocks.
The development of radar and extremely high frequency radio communications in the
1930s and 1940s made possible the generation of the kind of electromagnetic waves
(microwaves) needed to interact with atoms. Research aimed at developing an atomic
clock focused first on microwave resonances in the ammonia molecule. In 1949, NIST
built the first atomic clock, which was based on ammonia. However, its performance
wasn't much better than the existing standards, and attention shifted almost immediately
to more promising atomic-beam devices based on cesium.
23
3.4.1 Atomic Clock
Atomic clocks make use of the ability of atoms to emit or absorb electromagnetic
E E
waves of a characteristic oscillation frequency
- f0 during transitions between two energy
h
states. The value f0 corresponds to the energy
2 difference
1 between the two states, divided
by Planck's constant.
f0 =
Figure 11 Electron Transition
Atomic clocks make use of transitions between such energy levels whose natural
lifetime is long and whose energy is not significantly affected by electric fields or
magnetic fields or other perturbations.
3.4.2 Why use Cesium(Cs-133) atoms?
1. Cesium is used because its electronic levels can be excited with radiofrequencies
(microwaves) produced by an electronic circuit and then they de-excited easily. This
process cannot be done in such a simple way with other equivalent atoms.
2. In all frequency standard oscillators, the element used is in vapor form in order to
allow all the atoms to undergo the same (almost exactly) energy transitions.
24
There are several choices of metal, in principle, but they all need to be on the left side
of the periodic table having a single electron in their outermost shell. Cs is the best
and most stable among them for making an atomic clock.
3. Cs has only one stable isotope; meaning that one does not have to bother about
any issues arising from having multiple isotopes around, or having to purify it.
4. Cesium has the advantage of having the largest hyperfine structure, i.e. the energy
difference of the two electron spin states in the presence on the nucleus's magnetic
field is large. This means for a given interrogation time, you will maximize the
number of oscillations between these two states, giving a more precise measurement.
Figure 12: Cesium atom hyperfine structure
5. At an oven temperature of not more than 100 °C, the vapor pressure is high
enough to furnish an intense atomic beam.
25
3.4.3 Cesium Atomic Clock
A cesium atomic clock is a device that uses as a reference the exact frequency of the
microwave spectral line emitted by atoms of the element Cs-133. The integral of
frequency is time. So this frequency of 9,192,631,770 hertz provides the fundamental
unit of time, which may thus be measured by cesium clocks.
Figure 13: The 1955 Cesium Atomic Clock at the National Physical Laboratory,
UK.
Today, cesium clocks measure frequency with an accuracy of from 2 to 3 parts in

1014. This corresponds to a time measurement accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day or
one second in 1,400,000 years. A cesium clock operates by exposing cesium atoms to
microwaves until they vibrate at their resonant frequencies and then counting the
corresponding cycles as a measure of time. The frequency is that of the energy
absorbed from the incident photons when they excite the outermost electron in a
cesium atom to make a transition from a lower orbit to a higher orbit.
26
Detailed functioning of the Cesium Atomic Clock
Figure 14: Beam tube of a Cesium atomic clock
In a cesium clock, liquid cesium is heated to a gaseous state in an oven. A hole in the
oven allows the atoms to escape at high speed. These particles pass between two
electromagnets whose field causes the atoms to separate into two beams, depending
on which spin energy state they are in. Those in the lower energy state pass through
the ends of a U-shaped cavity in which they are irradiated by microwaves of 3.26-cm
wavelength.
The absorption of these microwaves aids the transitions of many of the atoms from
the lower to the higher energy state. The beam continues through another pair of
electromagnets, whose field again divides up the beam.
Those atoms in the higher energy state strike a hot wire, which ionizes them.
Thereafter, a mass spectrometer selects only the cesium atoms from any impurities
and directs them onto an electron multiplier.
The frequency of the microwaves is adjusted until the electron multiplier output
current is maximized, constituting the measurement of the atoms' resonance
27
frequency. This frequency is electronically divided down and used in a feedback
control circuit (servo-loop) to keep a quartz crystal oscillator locked to a frequency of
5 megahertz (MHz), which is the actual output of the clock, along with a one-pulse-
per-second signal. The entire apparatus is shielded from external magnetic fields.
Figure 15: Schematic diagram of a Cesium atomic clock
28
3.5 Frequency Stability
A sine wave signal generator produces a voltage that changes in time in a sinusoidal way
as shown in figure. The signal is an oscillating signal because the sine wave repeats itself.
A cycle (2 � radians of phase) of the oscillation is produced in one period "T".
Figure 16: A repeating sine function is the basis of an oscillating signal.
It is convenient for us to express angles in radians rather than in units of degrees, and
positive zero-crossings of the voltage will occur every 2 � radians. The frequency "� " is
the number of cycles in one second (Hz), which is the reciprocal of period (seconds per
cycle). The expression describing the voltage "V" out of a sine wave signal generator is
given by
V(t) = V0[1 + a(t)]sin[� (t)]
where V0 is the peak voltage amplitude, and � (t) is the total accumulated phase.
Equivalent expressions are:
V(t)=V0[1+a(t)]sin(2�t / T)
and
V(t)=V0[1+a(t)]sin(2�vt)
29
For the following discussion, we will assume the amplitude noise a(t) is zero. Consider
figure 17. Let's assume that the maximum value of "V" equals 1, hence "V0" = 1. We say
that the voltage "V(t)" is normalized to unity.
Figure 17: For a given phase, �V vs. �t of the sine-wave signal corresponds to a
unique minimum frequency called the instantaneous frequency if �t is
diminishingly small. .
If we are given the frequency of the sine-wave, then no matter how big or small � t may
be, we can determine � V. Let us look at this from another point of view. Suppose we
can measure � V and � t. From this, there is a sine wave at a unique minimum frequency
corresponding to the given � V and � t. For infinitesimally small � t, this frequency is
called the instantaneous frequency at this t. The smaller the interval � t, the better the
approximation of instantaneous frequency at t. In practice, because of finite bandwidths,
we cannot measure the instantaneous frequency.
When we speak of oscillators and the signals they produce, we recognize that an
oscillator has some nominal frequency at which it operates. The "frequency stability" of
an oscillator is a term used to characterize how small the frequency fluctuations are of the
oscillator signal. The IEEE now has a formal definition for "frequency stability". One
30
usually refers to frequency stability when comparing one oscillator with another. As we
shall see later, we can define particular aspects of an oscillator's output then draw
conclusions about its relative frequency stability. People often speak of "frequency
stability" when they mean "frequency instability." Frequency stability is the degree to
which an oscillating signal produces the same value of frequency for any interval, � t,
throughout a specified period of time. An internationally recommended definition of
"frequency instability" is: "The spontaneous and/or environmentally caused frequency
change within a given time interval."
Let's examine the two waveforms shown in figure 18. Frequency stability depends on the
amount of time involved in a measurement. Of the two oscillating signals, it is evident
that "2" is more stable than "1" from time t1 to t3 assuming the horizontal scales are linear
in time. From time t1 to t2, there may be some question as to which of the two signals is
more stable, but it's clear that from time t2 to t3, signal "1" is at a different frequency from
that in interval t1 to t2.
Figure 18: Top: Instantaneous frequency is inconsistent and less stable from t2 to t3.
Bottom: Instantaneous frequency is consistent and more stable throughout.
31
If we want an oscillator to produce a particular frequency � 0, then we're correct in
stating that if the oscillator signal frequency deviates from � 0 over any interval, this is a
result of something which is undesirable. In the design of an oscillator, it is important to
consider the sources of mechanisms which degrade the oscillator's frequency stability.
These undesirable mechanisms cause random (noise) or systematic processes to exist on
top of the sine wave signal of the oscillator. To account for the noise components at the
output of a sine wave signal generator, we can express the output as
V(t)=V0[1+a(t)]sin(2v0t+�(t)) (1.1)
where V0 � nominal peak voltage amplitude, a(t) = deviation of amplitude from nominal,
i.e., � V/V0 � 0 ��nominal fundamental frequency, � (t) = deviation of phase from
nominal.
Ideally "a" and " � " should equal zero for all time. However, in the real world there are
no perfect oscillators. To determine the extent of the noise components "a" and "� ", we
shall turn our attention to measurement techniques.
The typical precision oscillator, of course, presumably has a stable sinusoidal voltage
output with a frequency � and a period of oscillation T, which is the reciprocal of the
frequency (� = 1/T). One goal is to measure the frequency and/or the frequency stability
of the sinusoid. Instability is actually measured, but with little confusion it is often called
stability in the literature. Naturally, fluctuations in frequency correspond to fluctuations
in the period. Almost all frequency measurements, with very few exceptions, are
measurements of phase or of the period fluctuations in an oscillator, not of frequency,
even though the frequency may be the readout. As an example, most frequency counters
sense the zero (or near zero) crossing of the sinusoidal voltage, which is the point at
which the voltage is the most sensitive to phase fluctuations.
One must also realize that any frequency measurement involves two oscillators. In some
instances, one oscillator is in the counter. It is impossible to purely measure only one
oscillator. In some instances one oscillator may be enough better than the other that the
32
fluctuations measured may be considered essentially those of the latter. However, in
general because frequency measurements are always dual, it is useful to define:
as the fractional frequency difference or deviation of oscillator one, � 1, with respect to a

reference oscillator � 0 divided by the nominal frequency � 0. Conceptually, we can also
think of eq. (1.2) as the free running frequency of an individual oscillator, � 1,
differenced with its own nominal value, � 0. Now, y(t) is a dimensionless quantity and
useful in describing oscillator and clock performance; eg., the time deviation, x(t), of an
oscillator over a period of time, t, is simply given by:
(1.3)
We see that the time deviations and the phase deviations are related by a constant,
1/2 � � 0. Since it is impossible to measure instantaneous frequency, any frequency or
fractional frequency measurement always involves some sample time, � t or "� "--some
time window through which the oscillators are observed; whether it's a picosecond, a
second, or a day, there is always some sample time. So when determining a fractional
frequency, y(t), in fact what is happening is that the time deviation is being measured say
starting at some time t and again at a later time, t + � . The difference in these two time
deviations divided by � gives the average fractional frequency over that period � :
Tau, � , may be called the sample time or averaging time; it may be determined, for
example, by the gate time of a counter.
33
What happens in many cases is that one samples a number of cycles of an oscillation
during the preset gate time of a counter; after the gate time has elapsed, the counter
latches the value of the number of cycles so that it can be read out, printed, or stored in
some other way. Then there is a delay time for such processing of the data before the
counter arms and starts again on the next cycle of the oscillation. During the delay time
(or process time), information is lost. We have chosen to call it dead time and in some
instances it becomes a problem. Unfortunately for data processing in typical oscillators
the effects of dead time often hurt most when it is the hardest to avoid. In other words, for
times that are short compared to a second when it is very difficult to avoid dead time, that
is usually where dead time can make a significant difference in the data analysis.
Typically, for many oscillators, if the sample time is long compared to a second, the dead
time makes little difference in the data analysis, unless it is excessive. New equipment or
techniques are now available which contribute zero or negligible dead time.
In reality, of course, the sinusoidal output of an oscillator is not pure, but it contains noise
(frequency) fluctuations as well. This section deals with the measurement of these
fluctuations to determine the quality of a precision signal source.
We will describe five different methods of measuring the frequency fluctuations in

precision oscillators which do not include measuring the frequency directly in a
frequency counter. The direct frequency counter technique is often very limiting because
the number of resolvable digits on the counter are often inadequate for precision
oscillators.
34
3.6 Common Methods of measuring Frequency stability
3.6.1 Beat Frequency method
The first technique is called a heterodyne frequency measuring method or beat frequency
method. The signal from two independent oscillators are fed into the two ports of a
double balanced mixer as illustrated in figure 19.
Figure 19: Measurement of the frequency difference (“beat note”) between

oscillators can increase measurement precision. State-of-the-art oscillators can
readily be measured by this method.
The difference frequency or the beat frequency, ν b, is obtained as the output of a low
pass filter which follows the mixer. This beat frequency is then amplified and fed to a
frequency counter and printer or to some recording device. The fractional frequency is
obtained by dividing ν b by the nominal carrier frequency ν 0. This system has excellent
precision; one can measure essentially all state-of-the-art oscillators.
35
3.6.2 Dual mixer time difference(DMTD) method
This system has proved to be very popular. A block diagram is shown in figure 1.5. To
preface the remarks on the DMTD, it should be mentioned that if the time or the time
fluctuations can be measured directly, an advantage is obtained over just measuring the
frequency. The reason is that one can calculate the frequency from the time without dead
time as well as know the time behavior. The reason, in the past, that frequency has not
been inferred from the time (for sample times of the order of several seconds and shorter)
is that the time difference between a pair of oscillators operating as clocks could not be
measured with sufficient precision. The system described in this section has demonstrated
a precision of 10-13 seconds. Such precision opens the door to making time measurements
as well as frequency and frequency stability measurements for sample times as short as a
few milliseconds and longer, all without dead time.
Figure 20: Measurement of the time difference between two beat notes from two
36
oscillators with a common transfer oscillation can further increase measurement
precision. Instability of transfer oscillator cancels to first order.
In figure 20, oscillator 1 could be considered under test and oscillator 2 could be
considered the reference oscillator. These signals go to the ports of a pair of double
balanced mixers. Another oscillator with separate symmetric buffered outputs is fed to
the remaining other two ports of the pair of double balanced mixers. This common
oscillator's frequency is offset by a desired amount from the other two oscillators. Then
two different beat frequencies come out of the two mixers as shown. These two beat
frequencies will be out of phase by an amount proportional to the time difference
between oscillator 1 and 2--excluding the differential phase shift that may be inserted.
Further, the beat frequencies differ in frequency by an amount equal to the frequency
difference between oscillators 1 and 2.
This measurement technique is very useful where oscillator 1 and oscillator 2 are very
near the same frequency. This is typical for atomic standards (cesium, rubidium, and
hydrogen frequency standards).
Illustrated at the bottom of figure 20 is what might represent the beat frequencies out of
the two mixers. A phase shifter may be inserted as illustrated to adjust the phase so that
the two beat rates are nominally in phase; this adjustment sets up the nice condition that
the noise of the common oscillator tends to cancel (for certain types of noise) when the
time difference is determined. After amplifying these beat signals, the start port of a time
interval counter is triggered with the positive zero crossing of the other beat. Taking the
time difference between the zero crossings of these beat frequencies, one measures the
time difference between oscillator 1 and oscillator 2, but with a precision which has been
amplified by the ratio of the carrier frequency to the beat frequency (over that normally
achievable with this same time interval counter). The time difference x(i) for the
ith measurement between oscillators 1 and 2 is given by eq (1.5).
37
where Δ t(i) is the ith time difference as read on the counter, τ b is the beat period, ν 0 is
the nominal carrier frequency, ф is the phase delay in radians added to the signal of
oscillator 1, and k is an integer to be determined in order to remove the cycle ambiguity.
It is only important to know k if the absolute time difference is desired; for frequency and
frequency stability measurements and for time fluctuation measurements, k may be
assumed zero unless one goes through a cycle during a set of measurements. The
fractional frequency can be derived in the normal way from the time fluctuations.
In eqs (1.5) and (1.6), assumptions are made that the transfer (or common) oscillator is
set at a lower frequency than oscillators 1 and 2, and that the voltage zero crossing of the
beat ν 1 - ν c starts and that ν 2 - ν c stops the time interval counter. The fractional
frequency difference may be averaged over any integer multiple of τ b:
where m is any positive integer. If needed, τ b can be made to be very small by having
very high beat frequencies. The transfer (or common) oscillator may be replaced with a
low phase-noise frequency synthesizer, which derives its basic reference frequency from
oscillator 2. In this set-up the nominal beat frequencies are simply given by the amount
that the output frequency of the synthesizer is offset from ν 2. Sample times as short as a
few milliseconds are easily obtained. Logging the data at such a rate can be a problem
without special equipment.
38
3.6.3 Loose phase lock loop method
This first type of phase lock loop method is illustrated in figure 21. The signal from an
oscillator under test is fed into one port of a mixer. The signal from a reference oscillator
is fed into the other port of this mixer. The signals are in quadrature, that is, they are 90
degrees out of phase so that the average voltage out of the new mixer is nominally zero,
and the instantaneous voltage fluctuations correspond to phase fluctuations rather than to
amplitude fluctuations between the two signals. The mixer is a key element in the system.
The advent of the Schottky barrier diode was a significant breakthrough in making low
noise precision stability measurements. The output of this mixer is fed through a low pass
filter and then amplified in a feedback loop, causing the voltage controlled oscillator
(reference) to be phase locked to the test oscillator. The response time of the loop is
adjusted such that a very loose phase lock (long time constant) condition exists. This is
discussed later in section VIII.
Figure 21: Direct measurement of the phase difference between two oscillators
yields excellent precision. The technique requires electronic frequency control of a
clean reference oscillator to maintain a loose phase lock, hence a zero beat.
The response (or attack) time is the time it takes the servo system to make 70% of its
ultimate correction after being slightly disturbed. The response time is equal to 1/ π wh,
where wh is the servo bandwidth. If the response time of the loop is about a second, then
39
the voltage fluctuations will be proportional to the phase fluctuations for sample time
shorter than one second. Depending on the coefficient of the tuning capacitor and the
quality of the oscillators involved, the amplification used may vary significantly but may
typically range from 40 to 80 dB via a good low noise amplifier. In turn this signal can be
fed to a spectrum analyzer to measure the Fourier components of the phase fluctuations.
It is of particular use for sample times shorter than one second (for Fourier frequencies
greater than 1 Hz) in analyzing the characteristics of an oscillator. It is specifically very
useful if one has discrete side bands such as 60 Hz or detailed structure in the spectrum.
One may also take the output voltage from the above amplifier and feed it to an A/D
converter. This digital output becomes an extremely sensitive measure of the short term
time or phase fluctuations between the two oscillators. Precisions of the order of a
picosecond are easily achievable.
40
3.6.4 Tight phase lock loop method
The second type of phase lock loop method (shown in figure 22) is essentially the same
as the first in figure 21 except that in this case the loop is in a tight phase lock condition;
i.e., the response time of the loop is much shorter than the sample times of interest--
typically a few milliseconds. In such a case, the phase fluctuations are being integrated so
that the voltage output is proportional to the frequency fluctuations between the two
oscillators and is no longer proportional to the phase fluctuations (for sample times
longer than the response time of the loop). A bias box is used to adjust the voltage on the
varicap to a tuning point that is fairly linear and of a reasonable value. The voltage
fluctuations prior to the bias box (biased slightly away from zero) may be fed to a voltage
to frequency converter which in turn is fed to a frequency counter where one may read
out the frequency fluctuations with great amplification of the instabilities between this
pair of oscillators. The frequency counter data are logged with a data logging device. The
coefficient of the varicap and the coefficient of the voltage to frequency converter are
used to determine the fractional frequency fluctuations, yi, between the oscillators, where
i denotes the ith measurement as shown in figure 22. It is not difficult to achieve a
sensitivity of a part in 1014 per Hz resolution of the frequency counter, so one has
excellent precision capabilities with this system.
Figure 22: Tight phase loop lock method
41
3.6.5 Time difference method
The last measurement method we will illustrate is very commonly used, but typically
does not have the measurement precision more readily available in the first four methods
illustrated above. This method is called the time difference method and is shown in figure
23. Because of the wide bandwidth needed to measure fast rise-time pulses, this method
is limited in signal-to-noise ratio. However, some counters are commercially available
allowing one to do signal averaging or to do precision rise-time comparison (precision of
time difference measurements in the range of 10 ns to 10 ps are now available). Such a
method yields a direct measurement of x(t) without any translation, conversion, or
multiplication factors. Caution should be exercised in using this technique even if
adequate measurement precision is available because it is not uncommon to have
significant instabilities in the frequency dividers shown in figure 23--of the order of a few
nanoseconds.
The technology exists to build better frequency dividers than are commonly available, but
manufacturers have not yet availed themselves of state-of-the-art techniques in a cost
beneficial manner. A trick to bypass divider problems is to feed the oscillator signals
directly into the time interval counter and observe the zero voltage crossing into a well
matched impedance. (In fact, in all of the above methods one needs to pay attention to
impedance matching, cable lengths and types, and connectors). The divided signal can be
used to resolve cycle ambiguity of the carrier, otherwise the carrier phase at zero volts
may be used as the time reference. The slope of the signal at zero volts is 2 p V0/t 1,
where t 1 = 1/n 1 (period of oscillation). For V0 = 1 volt and a 5 MHz signal, this slope is
3m volts/ns, which is a very good sensitivity.
42
Figure 23: Measurement of the time difference between two oscillators, usually after
division by N to obtain 1 pulse-per-second, yields only moderate measurement performance
compared to previous methods. The technique is dependent on several properties of the
counter and its trigger circuits.
43
4. Automatic Switching system
4.1 Need for an automatic switching system
At present, NPLI has 5 cesium atomic clocks (NPL 1, NPL 2, NPL 3, NPL 6 and NPL 7).
Data from all the clocks is taken in order to
• Measure their stability by calculating their Allan variance.

• Generation of time scale which can be done in three ways
1. Weighted average
2. Kalman filter
3. Fuzzy logic
Moreover, the data is to be sent to BIPM, Paris which is the central organization for
standards in the world.
Since there can be 7 cesium atomic clocks at NPLI, we can have 42 combinations for
selecting any two clocks and taking the data. This procedure if followed manually is a
very cumbersome process. Hence, this demands for a switching system which can have 7
inputs for the 7 cesium atomic clocks and have 2 outputs corresponding to any pair of
clocks.
44
4.2 Design requirements of automatic switching system
The design of the switching system demands that:

• The time delay of the clock pulses through the switching system should be as low as
possible.
• The delay involved should be constant i.e. it should not change with time. This pre-
requisite eliminates the use of logic gates in the system. This is because the delay
involved with the logic gates is not uniform. It varies with time.
• A mechanism should be present which should indicate that which two clocks have
been selected for start and stop.
• The design requires uninterrupted power supply so that there is no interruption while
readings are being taken.
• The system should be programmable so that the entire process of taking the
measurement is automatic. However, it should also be manually controllable so
that readings can be taken even if the system is not being controlled by a
computer.
45
4.3 Internal architecture of automatic switching system.
Figure 24: Internal architecture of switching system.
• The signals to select a pair of Cesium atomic clocks, either manually or

automatically are fed into the microcontroller. The output of the microcontroller is
then fed to the relay drivers.
• The relay drivers provide the necessary current to drive the relays.
• There are two sets of 7 relays each, for the start pulse and the stop pulse. Apart
from them, the relays also take the output pulse of 1pps from the Cesium atomic
clocks as inputs.
• The combination of the signals from the Cesium atomic clocks and the relay
divers selects the desired relays for the start and stop signals.
• The output of the relays, through LED indicates which Cesium atomic clock has
been selected as the source of the start pulse and which as the source of the stop
pulse.
46
4.4 Circuit diagram of switching system.
Keeping in mind the above design requirements various stages of the automated
switching system design is given below along with the detailed description of each part,
their specification and need for their usage.
• Power Supply
• Microcontroller
• RS-232
• Relays and Relay Drivers
• LED’s
Relays
Drivers
Rectifier
Filter
Transformer
Regulator MAX232 Microcontroller
Figure 25: Circuit of the Switching System
47
4.4.1 Power supply
One of the pre-requisites of the switching system is an uninterrupted power supply. There
cannot be a power failure while measurements are being done.
The system requires two voltage levels

• +5V for the TTL driven components like 8535 microcontroller, MAX 232, LED’s,
7805 regulator.
• +24V for biasing the relay drivers.
The different components of the power supply are as follows:

1. Transformer: Standard secondary center tapped 9V-0-9V transformer is used and
both the 9V terminals are taken out to form the 18V a.c.power supply while the 0V
terminal is kept grounded.
2. Bridge Rectifier: The bridge rectifier consisting of four diodes is used to rectify the
voltage so as to make the voltage waveform unidirectional.
Graph 2: Bridge Rectifier Output
48
3. Capacitive Filter: The output of the bridge rectifier contains ripples. Hence, three
capacitors are used to filter out the a.c. component of voltage from the output of the
bridge rectifier. Two of the capacitors are electrolytic having a value of 1000µF while
the other one is a small ceramic capacitor whose value is of the order of nF.
Graph 3: Filter Output

4. Regulator: Since a supply of +5V volt is required for the TTL driven devices, hence
LM 7805 regulator is used for regulating the output from SLB2040 to +5V. It is a
standard IC which is easily available. It has three terminals one for the input, second
for the output and third is ground.
5. Backup: The system has a provision of two backup supplies since the system can
never be turned off. One of the supplies is from the output of the rectifier whereas the
other backup supply, which consists of two supplies, is from the battery room of the
time and frequency section and is of +24V D.C.
6. Protection Devices: Diodes are connected in front of all the power supplies in order
to avoid back charging of the power supplies. The diodes allow current to flow from
the power supplies to the load but not into them since in such a situation the diodes
will become reversed biased and will not conduct any current.
49
0
LM 7805
C7
C12
U1
24Vdc
D9
SLB2040
+24V
UNREGULATED
50
• 220V a.c. is fed to the center tapped transformer which steps it down to 18V a.c.
• Output of the centre tapped transformer is fed to the bridge rectifier which makes the
voltage and current unidirectional.
• This voltage has some ripples which are filtered using capacitors.
• This voltage is fed at the intersection point of the two backup supplies through a
diode to prevent back flow of current into the supply. Diodes are also used in front of
the backup supplies as well to prevent overcharging of the backup batteries.
• The +24V supply thus generated is then used to bias the relay driver i.e. MOSFET
2N7000.
• The +24V supply is further fed to a LM 7805 regulator which regulates the voltage to
+5V which is necessary for devices operating on transistor - transistor logic (TTL).
51
4.4.2 Microcontroller
A large number of microcontrollers are available for usage - 8051 and PIC being the most
famous ones. Yet the switching system uses ATmega 8535 microcontroller. This is
because the microcontroller offers many features not available in other microcontrollers:
• Low power consumption - This is essential since the microcontroller is enclosed

in a metallic case and there is no provision of cooling.
• 32 general purpose 8 bit registers.
• Byte oriented two wire serial interfaces.
• Programmable USART (universal synchronous asynchronous receiver
transmitter).
• Its machine cycle is same as its clock cycle whereas standard 8051 has a machine
cycle equal to twelve clock cycles which makes 8535 twelve times faster than 8051.
The microcontroller is used to select the desired pair of atomic clocks.
One port of the microcontroller, consisting of eight pins, is connected to the thumb wheel
pair, TW1 and TW2. The signal from the thumb wheels are fed into the microcontroller
where they are processed and the outputs from the microcontroller are fed to
corresponding relay drivers. The relay drivers then produce a low output current which
ultimately drives the relays to select the desired pair of atomic clocks.
Two pins (14 and 15) of Port D of the microcontroller are connected to the MAX232 IC.
The other side of the MAX232 IC is connected to the DB9 connector. The function of
MAX232 IC is to convert the RS-232 (supported by COM port) to TTL (supported by
microcontroller).
The signal from the computer is fed into the microcontroller where they are processed
and the outputs from the microcontroller are fed to corresponding relay drivers. The relay
52
drivers then produce a low output current which ultimately drives the relays to select the
desired pair of atomic clocks.
The process involving thumb wheels constitute the manual selection mode while the
process involving the computer and MAX232 constitute the automatic selection mode.
Figure 26: Pin Diagram of ATmega8535
53
VCC Digital supply voltage.
GND Ground.
Port A serves as the analog inputs
to the A/D Converter. Port A also
Port A (PA7 - PA0) serves as an 8-bit bi-directional I/O
port, if the A/D Converter is not
used.
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O
Port B (PB7 - PB0) port. Port B also serves the
functions of various special features
of the ATmega8535.
Port C (PC7 - PC0) Port C is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O
port.
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O
Port D (PD7 - PD0) port. Port D also serves the
functions of various special features
of the ATmega8535.
RESET Reset input.
Input to the inverting Oscillator
XTAL1 amplifier and input to the internal
clock operating circuit.
Output from the inverting Oscillator
XTAL2 amplifier.
Supply voltage pin for Port A and
AVCC for the A/D Converter.
AREF is the analog reference pin
AREF for the A/D Converter.
54
Table 1: Pin Configuration of 8535
Figure 27: Block diagram of ATmega8535
In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the microcontroller uses Harvard

architecture – with separate memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the
program memory are executed with a single level pipelining. While one instruction is
being executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from the program memory. This
concept enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The program memory is
In-System Re-Programmable Flash memory.
1. General Purpose Register

There are 32 x 8 general purpose registers with a single clock cycle access time. Six of
the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit indirect address register pointers.
55
2. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
The ALU operations are divided into three main categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-
functions.
3. Status Register
The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently executed
arithmetic instruction. The Status Register is updated after all ALU operations.
4. Stack Pointer
The Stack is mainly used for storing temporary data, for storing local variables and for
storing return addresses after interrupts and subroutine calls.
5. Flash Program Memory

The ATmega8535 contains 8K bytes on-chip In-System Reprogrammable Flash memory
for program storage.
6. SRAM(Static RAM) Data Memory

The 608 Data Memory locations address the Register File, the I/O Memory, and the
internal data SRAM.
7. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) Data Memory

The ATmega8535 contains 512 bytes of data EEPROM memory.
56
TW2 TW1 8535
1 40
2 PB0 PA0/ADC0 39
3 PB1 PA1/ADC1 38
4 PB2 PA2/ADC2 37
5 PB3 PA3/ADC3 36
6 PB4 PA4/ADC4 35
7 PB5 PA5/ADC5 34
8 PB6 PA6/ADC6 33
PB7 PA7/ADC7
14
MAX232 15 PD0
6 16 PD1
V- 2 17 PD2 29
V+ 5 18 PD3 PC7/TOSC2 28
C2- 4 19 PD4 PC6/TOSC1 27
C2+ 3 20 PD5 PC5 26
C1- 1 21 PD6 PC4 25
C1+ PD7 PC3 24
7 10 12 PC2 23
14 T2OUT T2IN 11 13 XTAL1 PC1/SDA 22
T1OUT T1IN XTAL2 PC0/SCL 32
9 8 11 AREF
12 R2OUT R2IN 13 9 GND 31
R1OUT R1IN RESET GND
10 30
U4 VCC AVCC
P1
0
(GND) 5
(RI) 9
(DTR) 4
(CTS) 8
(TxD) 3
(RTS) 7
(RxD) 2
(DSR) 6
(DCD) 1
CONNECTOR DB9
Connection b/w Microcontroller & MAX-232
57
• For manual mode of operation, the two thumbwheels, TW1 and TW2, are used,
whose signals are fed to the microcontroller.
• The microcontroller processes the signals from TW1 and TW2 and generates output
signals to select the desired pair of relay drivers and eventually the relays.
• When using the PC mode, the desired pair of clocks are selected using a software pro-
gram. The signal is sent to MAX232 through the DB9 connector.
• MAX232 converts the RS-232 logic into TTL and sends the output signal to pins 14
and 15 of the microcontroller.
• The microcontroller processes the signals from MAX232 and generates output signals
to select the desired pair of relay drivers and eventually the relays.
58
4.4.3 RS-232
RS-232 was created to interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data
Communications Equipment (DCE) employing serial binary data interchange. So as
stated the DTE is the terminal or computer and the DCE is the modem or other
communications device.
Most equipment using RS-232 serial ports use a DB-25 type connector. Many PCs today
use DB-9 connectors since all you need in asynchronous mode is 9 signals. Normally the
male connector is on the DTE side and the female connector is on the DCE side even if
this is not always the case.
• Serial Communication
In serial communications data is transferred from sender to receiver one bit at a time
through a single link. The serial port takes 8, 16 or 32 parallel bits from the computer bus
and converts it as an 8, 16 or 32 bit serial stream. The name serial communications comes
from the fact that each bit of information is transferred in series from one location to
another.
In theory a serial link would only need two wires, a signal line and a ground, to move the
serial signal from one location to another. But in practice this doesn't really work for a
long time, some bits might get lost in the signal and thus altering the ending result. If one
bit is missing at the receiving end, all succeeding bits are shifted resulting in incorrect
data when converted back to a parallel signal. Hence, to establish reliable serial
communications these bit errors must be overcome.
• Methods of Serial Transmission
Two common methods are deployed:

1. Asynchronous Mode
2. Synchronous M ode
59
In synchronous data transfer, the receiving system and the transmitting system are
synchronized using a single clock that precisely times the period separating each bit. By
checking the clock the receiving end can determine if a bit is missing or if an extra bit has
been introduced in the stream. One important aspect of this method is that if either end of
the communication loses its clock signal, the communication is terminated.
In asynchronous data transfer, data bits are added at the beginning and end of the data
stream to mark the start and end of data transmission. By introducing a start bit which
indicates the start of a short data stream, the position of each bit can be determined by
timing the bits at regular intervals, by sending start bits in front of each 8 bit streams, the
two systems don't have to be synchronized by a clock signal, the only important issue is
that both systems must be set at the same port speed. When the receiver receives the start
bit it starts a short term timer. By keeping streams short, there's not enough time for the
timer to get out of synchronization.
Figure 28: Asynchronous Data Transfer
60
• DB9 Connector
The different pins and their functions are enumerated below.
Figure 29: DB9 Connector Configuration
61
The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to
signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual
driver/receiver.
The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs from a single + 5 V supply.
The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs to standard 5 V TTL levels.
Logic ‘1’ of TTL corresponds to the range of -3V to -24V and logic ‘0’ corresponds to
+3V to +24V.
Figure 30: Pin Diagram of MAX232
VCC +5V supply voltage

GND Ground
C1+,C1-, C2+,C2- Capacitor
T1IN, T2IN Transmit in
T1OUT, T2OUT Transmit out
R1IN, R2IN Receive in
R1OUT, R2OUT Receive out
Vs+ Connected to VCC through a capacitor
Vs- Connected to GND through a capacitor
Table 2: Pin Configuration of MAX232
62
4.4.4 Reed relay & Relay driver
The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. It was
invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by W. B. Ellwood.
The reed switch contains a pair of magnetizable and electrically conductive metal reeds
which have end portions separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are
hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.
A magnetic field (from an electromagnet or a permanent magnet) will cause the contacts
to pull together, thus completing an electrical circuit. The stiffness of the reeds causes
them to separate, and open the circuit, when the magnetic field ceases.
Reed relays are relatively small in comparison to other electro-magnetic relays. The use
of flexible reeds and self-attraction distinguishes the reed relay from other electro-
magnetic relays.
Figure 31: Reed Relay & Reed Switches
63
The reed relay consists of a pair of contacts on ferrous metal reeds in a hermetically
sealed glass envelope. This tube is surrounded by a magnetic coil which, when activated,
magnetizes the reeds and causing them
to attract each other which closes the contacts. When the coil is de-energized, the spring
tension in the reeds causes them to separate again.
Figure 32: Contacts of a Reed Switch (Side)
Figure33:Contacts of a Reed Switch (Top)
One or more reed switches inside a coil forms a reed relay. Reed relays are used when
operating currents are relatively low, and offer high operating speed, good performance
with very small currents which are not reliably switched by conventional contacts, high
reliability and long life. The inert atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that
oxidation will not affect the contact resistance.
64
1
COIL
D C S1 S2
Diagram of Reed Relay & Its Protection Devices
When current flows through the coil of the relay, a magnetic field is developed around it.
As a result the contact switches ‘S1’ and ‘S2’ are attracted towards the coil. Hence, the
switches are closed and provide a path for the current to flow.
The diode D and capacitor C are used as protection devices. When the current through the
relay coil ceases to exist, the magnetic field around the relay coil disappears. As a result
the switches ‘S1’ and ‘S2’ move to their initial state; hence breaking the closed loop. But
the current in the inductor cannot go to zero instantaneously. As the result the current can
flow out through the terminal A and damage the relay driver. To prevent it, a diode has
been used to provide a closed loop path for the current to flow. The capacitor C also helps
in the process of discharging the relay coil.
This type of design has the advantages of high speed operation, long life, and very low
price.
65
 Relay Driver
There are 14 relay drivers for the 14 relays. MOSFET 2N7000 has been used as a
component of the relay driver. A schematic diagram of the relay driver has been shown
below.
From
Microcontroller
2N7000
0
+5V
D C
S2 S1
+24V To LED From

To start or stop CLOCK
Of TIC
Figure 34: Relay Driver
• +24V is required to bias the MOSFET 2N7000, and bring it into the conduction
mode. The +24V is supplied from the power supply.
• +5V is required to turn ON the LED.
• When the MOSFET is biased using +24V and current flows through the relay
coil, a magnetic field is developed around it. As a result, the switches are closed.
• Once the switch S1 is closed, the LED gets a path to +5V and glows to indicate
the start/stop pulse of the clock.
• Simultaneously, the switch S2 also gets closed. Hence, the desired clock is
selected whose signal of 1pps is obtained at the output terminal of the selector switch.
66
The transfer characteristics (ID vs. VGS) and the Ohmic region characteristics (ID vs. VDS)
of MOSFET 2N7000 has been shown below.
Graph 4: Transfer Characteristics
Graph 5: Ohmic Region
67
4.4.5 Light Emitting diode(LEDs)
LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased, the
electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the form of light.
This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is determined by the
energy gap of the semiconductor.
• The Physics behind LED
Figure 35: Parts of an LED
Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material impregnated
with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the
p-side to the n-side, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carriers—electrons and
holes—flow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron
meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a
photon.
68
Figure 36: Inner workings of an LED
The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap
energy of the materials forming the p-n junction.
The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to
near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.
• Tri-color LED
In tri-color LED more than one LED is housed in one package. Tri-color LEDs may have
two or three leads depending on intentional connection method.
Three lead LEDs have common cathode lead to which both LEDs are connected
internally.
Figure 37: Packaged Tri-color LED
69
In order to turn one of the LEDs or both at the same time connect cathode to ground via
current limiting resistor whose value is equal to one LED required limiting.
The most popular type of tri-color LED has a red and a green LED combined in one
package with three leads. They are called tri-color because mixed red and green light
appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are ON.
Figure 38: Internal Diagram of a Tri-Color LED
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-color LED. The centre lead (k) is the
common cathode for both LEDs; the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs
allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the third color.
70
4.5 Front & Rear view of switching system
Front View:
POWER
RESET THUMB WHEEL SUPPLY
SELECTION
LED
MANUAL / START STOP

AUTOMATIC MODE OUTPUT OUTPUT
SELECTION
Figure 39: Front View of the Switching System
24V BATTERY CESIUM CLOCK INPUTS

INPUT
220V A.C. INPUT DB9 CONNECTOR PORT
Figure 40: Rear View of the Switching System
71
4.6 Accessing the switching system.
The switching system supports standard RS-232 serial port (1200 baud rate, 8 data bits,
No parity, 1 stop bit, no hardware flow). The switching can easily be controlled by a PC
equipped with a RS-232 port. Hyper terminal is windows based software which can be
used to access the Switching system.
Step 1: Open Hyper Terminal from

Start  All Programs  Accessories  Communications  HyperTerminal
Step 2: Establish connection.
Figure 41 Step 2
72
Step 3: Setting up usage port which through which the computer is configured to
connect to the selector switch (here it is COM1).
Figure 42: Step 3
Step 4: Next set the baud rate, data bits, parity, stop bits and flow control as per the
configuration of the system (here baud rate is 1200 bps, data bits is 8, parity is none, stop
bits is 1 and flow control is none).
Figure 43 Step 4
73
Step 5: Follow the following path to enable echo of characters.
FileProperties Settings ASCII Setup
Then enable “Echo Typed Characters Locally”.
Click OK and then start sending data through Hyper Terminal.
Figure 44 Step 5
74
Step 6: Now we can select any pair of clock as desired. For eg. If we want to select
clock1 and clock2, then we will send “12” prefixed with character “S”. ‘S’ is just a
signature to indicate that new pair of clocks are being selected.
Figure 45: Step 6
75
4.7 Measurement of Circuit delay of the Switching system
Figure 46: Experimental Setup
There are 5 Cesium atomic clocks at NPLI. The difference between their respective start
and stop pulses is of the order of micro-seconds. Since this difference is very small, the
cable delay also needs to be taken into account for accurate and precise measurement
which is of the order of nanoseconds. The time taken for a signal to travel along a
distance of one meter is 3 nanoseconds. But, this may vary with different signals. Hence
it becomes essential to determine the delay of cables prior to their use and use those
cables only. The device that can be used for measurement of time delay along a cable is
time interval counter. It tells the time delay between receptions of two pulses.
In order to calculate the delay of a cable a signal is applied to the start input of the time
interval counter and the cable whose delay is to be found carries the signal from the start
to the stop of the time interval counter. Hence the time interval counter shows the time
taken for the signal to travel along the cable.
76
In order to measure the delay of the signal through the switching system, a single clock
source is used and is fed to any two inputs of the selector switch. The two inputs are
selected either manually or using a program. The outputs of the switching system are fed
into a time interval counter whose delays are known.
The cable delays and the selector switch delays are important as we are working in the
areas of ultra-high precision and accuracy. Hence, if a delay of the order of few
nanoseconds is compensated for, the result will be even more precise and closer to the
global accepted standard and will help in making a better and precise time scale.
The average value of the circuit delays (taking into account cable delays) and the
variation of the corresponding jitter are graphically shown below.
77
AVG NET S1
11
10
9
9.084 8.949 9.009 9.219 9.084
8.959
8
7
Average (ns)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S12 to S17
Graph 6: Variation of average values of S1
AVG S2 NET
11
10 10.614
9
9.029 8.944 8.914 9.069 8.954
8
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S21 to S27
78
AVERAGE NET S3
11
10
9
8.844 9.044 9.114 8.979 9.054 8.894
8
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S31 to S37
AVERAGE NET S4
11
10
9
8.864 8.989 8.949 8.704
8 8.494 8.639
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S41 to S47
79
AVERAGE NET S5
11
10
9
9.259 8.869
8.579 8.874
8 8.399 8.439
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S51 to S57
AVERAGE NET S6
11
10
9
8.729 8.854
8 8.474
8.214 8.259
8.064
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S61 to S67
80
AVERAGE NET S7
11
10
9
8.609
8 8.244
7.789 7.934 8.084
7.819
7
Average (ns)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S71 to S76
JITER S1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
JITTER(ns)
0.6 0.680626 0.674364 0.633049

0.587534 0.590924 0.635911
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S12 to S27
Graph 13: Variation of Jitter for S1
81
JITTER S2
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.690969
0.6 0.650877 0.644858
JITTER(ns)
0.626683 0.643898
0.614257
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S21 to S27
JITTER S3
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.637596 0.652024

JITTER(ns)
0.643431 0.638657 0.627295

0.616981
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S31 to S37
82
JITTER S4
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.650547 0.657746

JITTER(ns)
0.611971 0.600660
0.603173 0.586635
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S41 to S47

JITTER S5
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.660654
0.6
JITTER(ns)
0.620833 0.616326 0.635581 0.613994 0.628562
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S51 to S57
83
JITTER S6
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.684699
0.6 0.661880 0.655096
JITTER(ns)
0.636439 0.609039 0.634436

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S61 to S67

JITTER S7
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.663461 0.661681
0.6
JITTER(ns)
0.652690 0.621516
0.628079 0.608246
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
S71 to S76
84
start cable delay
10
7
value of sampls(ns)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
number of samples
Graph 20 Start Cable delay
stop cable delay
10
7
value of samples(ns)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
number of samples
Graph 21: Stop Cable delay
85
cable delay back
10
7
value of samples(ns)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
number of samples
Graph 22: Back Cable delay
86
5. Automated Data Acquisition System
PC NPL3
NPL7
FREQUENCY
& PHASE
OFFSET
GENERATOR NPL2
50 ps SELECTOR
COUNTER SWITCH
SRS-620
NPL6
HP53131
TIC
NPL1
Figure 47:
Automated Data Acquisition system for time scale generation
87
The automated Data acquisition System consists of the following:
1.) 5 Cesium Atomic clocks. :- Cesium atomic clocks are used for generating
time. IST (Indian standard time) is generated using ensemble of these clocks.
They are named as NPL1, NPL2, NPL3, NPL6, and NPL7.
2.) Automatic Selector Switch:- It is a system used for selecting any pair of the
cesium clocks.
3.) PC:- This PC will be used to store the data i.e. the time difference b/w clock,
which will be later on used for time scale generation.
4.) Time Interval Counter: A time interval counter is used for computing the
time difference between two cesium atomic clocks. Presently at NPL, there
are two Time interval counter available
i) Universal Time interval counter ( SR620)
ii) Universal Counter(HP53131/32)
5.) HROG-5:- It is a high resolution phase and frequency offset generator.
88
5.1 Block diagram of setup for intercomparison of clocks
Figure 48: Block diagram.
• One pulse per second (1pps) signal from all seven cesium atomic clocks are fed
into the selector switch whose function is to give a constant delay path to the
clock pulses.
• Selector switch selects any two of the seven clock pulses. It can either be done
manually by using two thumbwheel switches for start and stop or using a
software program.
• The two clock signals viz. start and stop are fed into the time interval counter
whose function is to calculate the delay between start and stop pulses at the two
inputs. The data from the time interval counter can also be received at the
computer terminal by a program.
• The data thus collected from the time interval counter can be used to make time
scales namely paper time scale and physical time scale.
89
5.2 Universal Time interval Counter (SRS-620)
The SR620 Time Interval Counter performs virtually all of the time and frequency
measurements required in a laboratory or ATE environment. The instrument's single-shot
timing resolution and low jitter make it the counter of choice for almost any application.
The SR620 measures time interval, frequency, pulse-width, rise and fall time, period,
phase and events. Time intervals are measured with 25 ps rms resolution, making the
SR620 one of the highest resolution counters available. The instrument's high single-shot
timing resolution, low jitter, and reciprocal counting architecture allow rapid, high
resolution measurements.
Some main features of Time interval counter:

• 25 ps single-shot time resolution
• 1.3 GHz frequency range
• 11-digit frequency resolution (1 s)
• 0.001° phase resolution
• Statistical analysis & Allan variance
• Graphical output to X-Y scopes
• Hardcopy to printers and plotters
• GPIB and RS-232 interfaces
• Optional ovenized timebase
Our main purpose of using the counter is to measure time interval between two cesium
clock with accuracy in nanoseconds. Using SRS-620 model Time intervals from -1ns to
1000 s or +- 1000 s may be measured.
90
5.3 Interfacing SRS-620 to PC
Figure 48: Connection b/w PC and TIC (SRS620)
The SR620 Universal Time Interval Counter may be remotely programmed via either the
RS232 or GPIB (IEEE-488) interfaces. Any computer supporting one of these interfaces
may be used to program the SR620. Both interfaces are active at all times: the SR620 will
send responses to the interface which asked the question. All front and rear panel features
(except power) may be controlled.
91
Communicating with RS232
The SR620 is configured as a DCE (transmit on pin 3, receive on pin 2) and supports
CTS/DTR hardware handshaking. The CTS signal (pin 5) is an output indicating that the
SR620 is ready, while the DTR signal (pin 20) is an input that is used to control the
SR620's transmitting. If desired, the handshake pins may be ignored and a simple 3 wire
interface (pins 2,3 and 7) may be used. The RS232 interface baud rate, number of data
bits, and parity must be set. These may be set in the CTRL submenu of the
CONFIGuration menu. The RS232 delay programs the time interval between the SR620's
transmitted characters if no handshaking is used. The delay is equal to 2ms times the
setting and is usually set to 0 (no delay). However, some slower computers may require a
delay. The RS232 echo should be set OFF if the SR620 is connected to a computer. It
may be ON if connected to a terminal or a terminal emulation program.
The RS-232 baud rate, number of bits per character, and parity bit definition must be set
in the "ctrL" section of the CONFIG menu. The SR620 always sends two stop bits, and
will correctly receive data sent with either one or two stop bits. When connecting to a PC,
use a standard PC serial cable, not a "null-modem" cable. The SR620 is a DCE (Data
Communications Equipment) device, and so should be connected with a "straight" cable
to a DTE device (Data Terminal Equipment). The "minimum" cable will pass pins 2,3
and 7. For hardware handshaking, pins 5 and 20 (CTS and DTR) should be passed.
Occasionally, pins 6 and 8 (DSR and CD) will be needed: these lines are always asserted
by the SR620. There are several software problems which may occur when using the RS-
232 interface:
1) You have sent the wrong command to ask for data from the SR620. Your program
may wait forever for a response which will not come. This may not be your fault: we
have seen Microsoft's Interpreted Basic on an IBM PC occasionally send a curly bracket
(ASCII 253) when it was suppose to have sent a carriage return (ASCII 13).
2) Your computer's baud rate was changed by a previous program and no longer matches
the baud rate set for the SR620. Good programming practice requires that you set the
computer's baud rate at the start of each application program.
92
3) The initial command sent to the SR620 was invalid due to a garbage character left in
the SR620's command queue from power-up, or, the first character in your computers
RS-232 UART is garbage from when the SR620 was turned "ON". It is good practice to
send a few carriage returns to the SR620 to flush its command queue. Also, your program
should read and ignore any characters which may be left in the computer's UART.
4) The SR620 is not sending the correct 'end-of record' marker for your computer. For
Example, it appears that some FORTRANs require two carriage returns for an end-of
record marker. The "ENDT" command may be used to set the end-of-record sequence.
(The end-of-record marker is that sequence which indicates a response is complete. From
a keyboard, a single carriage return is the end-of- record marker.)
5) Answers are coming back from the SR620 to fast, overwriting previous responses
before the computer can get them. To increase the dwell time between characters, use the
"WAIT" command. The dwell time between characters will be 2n ms.
6) The RS-232 echo must be "OFF", otherwise all characters sent to the SR620 will be
echoed back to the source. (See the section on "Configuration Menus" for details on
RS232 configuration.) The computer will most likely confuse echoed commands with the
desired data.
RS232 echo and no echo operation

When the RS232 echo mode is ON the SR620 will echo all characters sent to it , will
send linefeeds in addition to carriage returns, and will return the prompts -> and ?> to
indicate that a command was either processed correctly or contained errors. The RS232
echo mode is good way to become familiar with the commands that the SR620 expects
and the values that it will return. When the unit is controlled by a computer, the echo
feature should be turned OFF.
93
5.4 Programming the Time interval counter
Command Syntax
Communications with the SR620 use ASCII characters. Commands may be in either
UPPER or lower case and may contain any number of embedded space characters. A
command to the SR620 consists of a four character command mnemonic, arguments if
necessary, and a command terminator. The terminator may be either a carriage return
<cr> or linefeed <lf> on RS232, or a linefeed <lf> or EOI on GPIB. No command
processing occurs until a command terminator is received. All commands function
identically on GPIB and RS232. Command mnemonics beginning with an asterisk "*"
are IEEE-488.2 (1987) defined common commands.
These commands also function identically on RS232. Commands may require one or
more parameters. Multiple parameters are separated by commas ",".Multiple commands
may be sent on one command line by separating them by semicolons ";". The difference
between sending several commands on the same line and sending several independent
commands is that when a command line is parsed and executed the entire line is executed
before any other device action proceeds. This allow synchronization to be achieved using
the synchronization commands.
Taking time interval measurement through Time interval Counter

1.) Initializing Time interval counter
By sending the following command we can configure the Counter for Time interval
measurement
“*RST;MODE0;SRCE0;SIZE10;AUTM0”
The meaning of different mnemonics Is as follows:
*RST = It is an interface control command. The *RST common command resets the
SR620 to its default configurations. It is the same as holding down "clr rel" at power on.
All modes are set to their default conditions.
94
MODE0 = It is a measurement control command. Its format is MODE(?)
The MODE command sets the instrument measurement mode according to the following
table: j mode
0 time
1 width
2 rise/fall time
3 frequency
4 period
5 phase
6 count
SRCE0 = The SRCE command sets the source of the measurement. The parameter j = 0
set the source to A, j = 1 sets the source to B, and j = 2 sets the source to REF.
Additionally, in frequency, period, and count modes j = 3 sets the source to ratio (A/B).
In phase mode the source is fixed and may not be set while in rise/fall time REF may not
be selected as the source.
SIZE10 = The SIZE command sets the number of samples in a measurement. The
parameter x may be between 1 and 10^6 in a 1,2,5 sequence. The SIZE? query returns a
floating point number with one significant digit.
AUTM0 = The AUTM command sets the auto measurement mode. The parameter j = 1
sets the AUTO mode "ON" and the SR620 will automatically start a new measurement of
N samples when the old one is complete. The parameter j = 0 sets the AUTO mode
"OFF" and requires an individual command to start each measurement. It is
recommended that auto measurement be OFF if a computer is being used to take data as
this allows synchronizing of the measurements with the returned answers.
2.) Taking reading from TIC

"STRT;*WAI;XAVG?"
By sending the above command line to the TIC we can read the value of the time interval
between any pair of clock.
95
The different mnemonics are explained as follows:
STRT = The STRT command is equivalent to pushing the front panel START button. It
starts the measurement.
*WAI = The *WAI (wait) common command is a synchronization command that holds
off all further command execution until all in progress measurements/scans/prints are
complete. This command ensures that a particular operation is finished before continuing.
An example of the usefulness of this command is ensuring that a measurement is
complete before reading the answer. The command line STRT;*WAI; XAVG? will start
a measurement, wait until it is done, and send back the mean value.
XAVG? = The XAVG? query returns the value of the mean of the last completed
measurement. The number returned is a floating point value with up to 16 digits of
precision. If the REL is set the number returned is the REL'D value.
96
5.5 Serial port programming
There are two popular methods of sending data to or from the serial port in Turbo C. One
is using outportb(PORT_ID, DATA) or outport(PORT_ID,DATA) defined in “dos.h”.
Another method is using bioscom() function defined in “bios.h”.
Using outportb() :
The function outportb () sends a data byte to the port ‘PORT_ID’. The function
outport() sends a data word. These functions can be used for any port including serial
port, parallel ports. Similarly to receive data these are used.
• inport reads a word from a hardware port

• inportb reads a byte from a hardware port
• outport outputs a word to a hardware port
• outportb outputs a byte to a hardware port
Declaration:
• int inport(int portid);

• unsigned char inportb(int portid);
• void outport(int portid, int value);
• void outportb(int portid, unsigned char value);
Remarks:
• inport works just like the 80x86 instruction IN. It reads the low byte of a word
from portid, the high byte from portid + 2.
• inportb is a macro that reads a byte
• outport works just like the 80x86 instruction OUT. It writes the low byte of
value to portid, the high byte to portid + 1.
• outportb is a macro that writes value Argument
97
portid:
• Inport- port that inport and inportb read from;

• Outport- port that outport and outportb write to
value:
• Word that outport writes to portid;

• Byte- that outportb writes to portid.
If you call inportb or outportb when dos.h has been included, they are treated as
macros that expand to inline code.
If you don't include dos.h, or if you do include dos.h and #undef the macro(s),
you get the function(s) of the same name.
Return Value:
# inport and inportb return the value read
# outport and outportb do not return
Using bioscom:
The macro bioscom () and function _bios_serialcom() are used in this method in the
serial communication using RS-232 connecter. First we have to set the port with the
settings depending on our need and availability. In this method, same function is used to
make the settings using control word, to send data to the port and check the status of the
port. These actions are distinguished using the first parameter of the function. Along with
that we are sending data and the port to be used to communicate.
98
Here are the deatails of the Turbo C Functions for communication ports.
Declaration:
bioscom(int cmd, char abyte, int port)

_bios_serialcom(int cmd ,int port, char abyte)
bioscom() and _bios_serialcom() uses the bios interrupt 0x14 to perform various
communicate the serial communication over the I/O ports given in port.
cmd: The I/O operation to be performed.
cmd (boiscom) cmd(_bios_serialcom) Action

0 _COM_INIT Initialise the parameters to the port
1 _COM_SEND Send the character to the port
2 _COM_RECEIVE Receive character from the port
3 _COM_STATUS Returns rhe current status of the
communication port
Table No.3
portid: port to which data is to be sent or from which data is to be read.
0:COM1
1:COM2
2: COM3
abyte:
When cmd =2 or 3 (_COM_SEND or _COM_RECEIVE) parameter abyte is ignored.
When cmd = 0 (_COM_INIT), abyte is an OR combination of the following bits (One

from each group):
99
value of abyte Meaning
Bioscom _bios_serialcom
Action
0x02 _COM_CHR7 7 data bits
0x03 _COM_CHR8 8 data bits
0x00 _COM_STOP1 1 stop bit
0x04 _COM_STOP2 2 stop bits
0x00 _COM_NOPARITY No parity
0x08 _COM_ODDPARITY Odd parity
0X10 _COM_EVENPARITY Even parity
0x00 _COM_110 110 baud
0x20 _COM_150 150 baud
0x40 _COM_300 300 baud
0x60 _COM_600 600 baud
0x80 _COM_1200 1200 baud
0xA0 _COM_2400 2400 baud
0xC0 _COM_4800 4800 baud
0xE0 _COM_9600 9600 baud
Table no.4
100
For example, if
abyte = 0x8B = (0x80 | 0x08 | 0x00 | 0x03) = (_COM_1200 | _COM_ODDPARITY |

_COM_STOP1 | _COM_CHR8)
the communications port is set to

1200 baud (0x80 = _COM_1200)
Odd parity (0x08 = _COM_ODDPARITY)
1 stop bit (0x00 = _COM_STOP1)
8 data bits (0x03 = _COM_CHR8)
To initialise the port with above settings we have to write,
bioscom(0, 0x8B, 0);
To send a data to COM1, the format of the function will be bioscom(1, data, 0).
Similarly bioscom(1, 0, 0 ) will read a data byte from the port.
101
5.6 Flow chart
Set “S”
Initialize TIC
N Y
Check T
Select One pair
Take measurement
N Y
All pairs meas
Completed
Select next pair
S= No of data for each measurement (e,g. 1 or 10) for averaging. S

should be a multiple of 10.
T= 0h or 4h or 8h or 12h or16h or 20h.
TIC initialize= 1. Mode set in time interval mode.
2. Port A in Start
Port B in Stop
102
5.6 C++ program for automated measurement.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <dos.h>
#include <bios.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h> /*Header files for accessing different pre-defined functions*/
#include <string.h>
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0
#define COM1 0
#define COM4 3 /* Serial Communication Ports defined */
#define SETTINGSS (0x80 | 0x00 | 0x00 | 0x03)

/* Port settings for COM4
0x80 -> 1200 BAUD RATE
0X00 -> 1 STOP BIT
0x00 -> NO PARITY
0x03 -> 8 DATA BITS */
#define SETTINGS (0xE0 | 0x00 | 0x00 | 0x03)

/* Port Settings for COM1
0xE0 -> 9600 BAUD RATE
0X00 -> 1 STOP BIT
0x00 -> NO PARITY
0x03 -> 8 DATA BITS */
char *datef(); //Function for generating filename
long julian(); // Function prototype for calculating the MJD
void main() // Beginning of the main function

{ clrscr();
struct time t;
FILE *Dfile;
char *fname; //fname-name of file
long jd=0;
struct date d;
getdate(&d);
char select[][2]={{'1','2'},{'1','3'},{'1','6'},{'1','7'},{'2','3'},{'2','6'},{'2','7'},
{'3','6'},{'3','7'},{'6','7'}};
int store,intt=0,in,date;
char s,hour,minute,second;
103
char reading;
int status,i=0,ch=0,l;
int DONE = FALSE,DONE2=OFF;
char str[20],*endptr;
double value,value1,value2;
char arr110[]="*RST;MODE0;SRCE0;SIZE10;AUTM0\n";
/* Commands to set TIC mode.
*RST = Clear instrument to default setting
MODE0 = Set TIC mode to TIME INTERVAL
SRCE0 = Set measurement source to A
SIZE10 = Set number of sample to 10
AUTM0 = Auto measurement off. */
char arr120[]="STRT;*WAI;XAVG?\n";
/* Command to Receiving data from TIC
STRT = Start measurement
*WAI = Wait unitl measurement is complete
XAVG? = Return the average. */
clock_t start, end;
struct tm *ltime; /* Time and timezone structure */
time_t system_time,t1; /* The system time in seconds from 1970 */
system_time=time(NULL);
ltime=localtime(&system_time);
if(ltime==NULL)
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
bioscom(0,SETTINGS,COM1); /* Initializing the TIC with defined settings */

status=bioscom(3,0,COM1);
if(status!=0)
{ printf("Initialising the TIC%s");
while(arr110[i]!='\0')
{
bioscom(1,arr110[i],COM1);
delay(200);
i++;
}
}
else
cout<<"No status:\n";
delay(1000);
fname=datef();
Dfile=fopen(fname,"w+");
fprintf(Dfile,"S.No.\t Date\t MJD\tClockPair\tTime(us)\tHrs.\tMin.\tSec.%s\n\n");
bioscom(0,SETTINGSS,COM4);
date=d.da_day;
104
while(1)
{ gettime(&t);
if((t.ti_hour==00 && t.ti_min==40 && t.ti_sec==00) ||
(t.ti_hour==04 && t.ti_min==42 && t.ti_sec==00) ||
(t.ti_hour==8 && t.ti_min==00 &&t.ti_sec==00) ||
(t.ti_hour==20 && t.ti_min==00 && t.ti_sec==00))
{getdate(&d);
if(d.da_day!=date)
{
fname=datef();
Dfile=fopen(fname,"w+");
fprintf(Dfile,"S.No.\t Date\t MJD\tClockPair\tTime(us)\tHrs.\tMin.\tSec.%s\n\n");
date=d.da_day;
}
status = bioscom(3, 0, COM4);
if(status) //IF STATUS IS CORRECT PROCEED
{ delay(300);
for(int m=0;m<10;m++)
{ DONE=FALSE;
DONE2=OFF;
intt++;
cout<<"\nS.No."<<intt;
fprintf(Dfile,"%d\t",intt);
jd=julian();
fprintf(Dfile,"%d.%d.%d ",d.da_day,d.da_mon,d.da_year);
fprintf(Dfile,"\t%ld\t",jd);
julian();
bioscom(1,'S', COM4); //S SENT i.e. THE
SIGNATURE
fprintf(Dfile,"NPL");
for(int n=0;n<2;n++)
{ bioscom(1,select[m][n], COM4); /* Selection of Clock Pair */
fprintf(Dfile,"%c",select[m][n]); /* Write Clock Pair No. prefixed to
reading*/
delay(250);
}
while(!DONE)
{ l=0;
i=0;
while(arr120[i]!='\0')
105
{ bioscom(1,arr120[i],COM1);
i++;
}
while(!DONE2)
{ reading=bioscom(2,0,COM1);
if(reading)
{ printf("%c",reading);
str[l]=reading;l++;
//reading=bioscom(2,0,COM1);
if(reading=='\r')
{ //ch--;
t1=time(NULL);
ltime=localtime(&t1);
{ value = strtod(str, &endptr);
if(value>0.9)
{
value2=(1-value)*1000000;
printf("\nValue2 is:-%.6f",value2);
fprintf(Dfile,"\t\t-%.6f",value2);DONE =
TRUE;DONE2=ON;
}
else
{
value1=1000000*value;
printf("\nValue is:%.6f",value1);
fprintf(Dfile,"\t\t%.6f",value1);DONE =
TRUE;DONE2=ON;
}
}
printf("instant time----->\t%d\t%d\t%dsecs\t",ltime-
>tm_hour,ltime->tm_min,ltime->tm_sec);
fprintf(Dfile,"\t%d\t%d\t%d\n",ltime->tm_hour,ltime-
>tm_min,ltime->tm_sec);
}
}
}//on
} sleep(15);
}
}
fclose(Dfile);
Dfile=fopen(fname,"a+");
}
if(kbhit())
{ if((in = getch())==27)
cout<<"\nUser stopped the measurement process. Program will exit:";
106
break;
}
}
cout<<"\nEnter to exit:";
getch();
}
long julian() /* Function for calculating the MJD & write it to a

file */
{
int ch,year,day,month,c=1,c1=0;
struct date d;
unsigned int mjd=54832,mjd1,count=0;
getdate(&d);
year=d.da_year;
day=d.da_day;
month=d.da_mon;
if(year!=2009)
{
for(int j=2009;j<year;j++)
{ count+=365;
if(j%4==0)
c1++;
}
}
if(year%4==0)
c+=2;
else c+=3;
for(int i=1;i<month;i++)
{
if(i==11 || i==4 || i==6 || i==9)
c++;
count+=31;
}
mjd1= count + day + mjd - c + c1;
return mjd1;
}
char *datef() //function for generating file name

{ struct date d;
getdate(&d);
char *str,*day,*mon,*year;
if(d.da_mon==1) mon="ja";
else if(d.da_mon==2) mon="fe";
else if(d.da_mon==3) mon="ma";
107
else if(d.da_mon==4) mon="ap";
else if(d.da_mon==5) mon="ma";
else if(d.da_mon==6) mon="ju";
else if(d.da_mon==7) mon="jy";
else if(d.da_mon==8) mon="au";
else if(d.da_mon==9) mon="se";
else if(d.da_mon==10) mon="oc";
else if(d.da_mon==11) mon="no";
else if(d.da_mon==12) mon="de";
itoa(d.da_day, day, 10);
itoa(d.da_year,year,10);
strcpy(str,day);
strcat(str,mon);
strcat(str,year);
strcat(str,".txt");
return str;
}
108
6. Labs Visited at National Physical Laboratory
6.1 High Voltage & High Current Lab
• A.C. is generated at the generating station.

• High current at low voltage is produced at the generating station. By using a step-up
transformer voltage is increased and current is reduced. As we know that when
current at high voltage is transmitted there is less power loss.
• Power at generating station is to be measured and is also to be measured at the load
center.
• Since the voltages and currents involved are very high, it is not possible to measure
them directly using ammeter and voltmeter.
• Hence voltage and current are stepped down using current transformer and potential
transformer. The parameter of a typical current transformer as shown on its name
plate is as follows:
Power Factor : 0.9

Power Loss : 15 % -18 %
Ratio : 300/5 = 60
Every current transformer will have an output current of 5A. Hence the ratio helps
in determining the input current which is 300A in this case.
• Class
Class of any current transformer tells its accuracy. For example, class 1 current
transformer has an accuracy of 1%.
• Standard current transformer at NPL (Primary Standard) has an accuracy of 10 ppm

(0.001 %).
109
Josephson Voltage Standards
V
• To maintain a primary voltage standard, Josephson Voltage Standard (JVS)
R
method is implemented. For maintaining a current standard, the following
equation is used,
I=
For maintaining a resistance standard, Quantum – Hall resistance method is

employed.
• JVS is used to calibrate the secondary standards.
• For maintaining a secondary standard, 4 banks of Zener reference standard is
used, having output voltages of +10V and +1.018V (standard voltages).
• A calibrator is used as the working standard.
The a.c. Josephson Effect is now used by several national laboratories as the reference a
standard for the unit of d.c. voltage.
Large arrays of 2000 or more Josephson junctions have been used in many laboratories to
generate reference voltages on the order of 1 V. These devices can be used to calibrate
standard cells and other reference devices at the 1V level without the use of a voltage
divider. This has resulted in substantial improvements in accuracy and has greatly
simplified the operation of ∫Josephson voltage standards.
4* *e
π Vdt
h
Brian Josephson derived an equation for the current that would flow through a tunnel
junction formed by a thin insulating barrier separating two superconductors:
I = IO sin { }
110
e
h
In this equation, I is the junction current, IO is the critical current (a constant of the
2 * e * Vis the ratio of the elementary charge to

junction), V is the junction voltage and
h
Planck’s constant.
h* f
When an ac current at frequency f = 2 * e is applied to the junction, the junction
oscillation tends to phase-lock to the applied frequency. During this phase lock, the
h* f
2 * ejunction voltage must equal to
average .
This effect, known as the ac Josephson Effect, is observed as a constant-voltage step at
V= in the current-voltage curve of the junction.
Graph 23: Constant voltage steps for a low capacitance junction driven with
microwave current.
The important parameters for the Josephson junction are its length, width, critical current
density and the RF-drive frequency.
Junction Material Nb/A12O3/Nb

Length 18 µm
Width 30 µm
Critical Current Density 20 A/cm2
RF-Drive Frequency 75 GHz
Table5: Junction Design Parameters
111
6.2 Energy & Power metering lab.
• The lab deals with testing and calibration of energy meter.

• The procedure used for calibration uses the concept of time and frequency.
• A standard pre-calibrated energy meter and meter to be calibrated is fed with the
same current and voltage.
• The standard meter is set to dissipate 1kwh of energy for a specified number of
pulses (for example, 8000).
• The meter to be tested would also perform the same procedure in a different time
or with a different number of pulses.
• Hence the error is computed.
112
6.3 Time & Frequency Research lab.
Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock

The basic principle of the working of the Cesium fountain atomic clock is graphically
shown below.
Figure 47: Stage 1
A gas of cesium atoms is introduced into the clock's vacuum chamber. Six infrared laser
beams then are directed at right angles to each other at the center of the chamber. The
lasers gently push the cesium atoms together into a ball. In the process of creating this
ball, the lasers slow down the movement of the atoms and cool them to temperatures near
absolute zero (0OK or -273OC).
Figure 48: Stage 2
113
The ball is tossed upward by two laser beams through a cavity filled with microwaves.
All of the lasers are then turned off.
Figure 49: Stage 3
The round trip up and down through the microwave cavity lasts for about 1 second.
During the trip, the atomic states of the atoms might or might not be altered as they
interact with the microwave signal.
Figure 50: Stage 4
When their trip is finished, another laser is pointed at the atoms. Those atoms whose
atomic states were altered by the microwave signal emit light. The photons emitted are
measured by a detector. The entire process is repeated until the maximum fluorescence of
the cesium atoms is determined. This point defines the natural resonance frequency of
cesium, which is used to define the second.
114
7. References
1. IEEE transactions on Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 7, No. 2, June 1997

2. IEEE transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 38, No 2, April 1989
3. India Journal of Pure & Applied Physics, Vol. 45, December 2007
4. Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia
5. Google Search Engine
6. National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) – Website
7. National Physical Laboratory, India (NPLI) – Website
8. National Institute of information & communication technology, Japan- Website
115

Automation of atomic clock intercomparison

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AUTOMATION OF INTERCOMPARISON OF

A PAIR OF CESIUM ATOMIC CLOCKS

PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED BY

I hereby declare that the project work entitled “Automation of inter-comparison

This is to certify that the project work entitled “ Automation of inter-

Signature of project guide

Signature of project guide

Miss Pranalee P. Thorat,

It gives me great pleasure to express my sincere gratitude to Dr.P.Banerjee,

I am also thankful to Mrs. Arundhati Chatterjee (Scientist ‘E2’), Mr. Anil

1. An introduction to National Physical Laboratory

2. Time & Frequency Division

5. Automated Data Acquisition System.

6. Labs visited at National Physical Laboratory.

Contents Page No.

1. National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India 1

Contents Page No.

Contents Page Number

Figure 1: National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi, India

1.2 Main activities carried out at NPL

1. Development, maintenance and up-gradation of primary / national standards:

4. National Apex Body for Calibration:

1.4 Organizational Structure

Figure 2: Departments at NPL, India

• Physico Mechanical Standards

Figure 3: Two-dimensional space depicted in three-dimensional space-time.

This problem was overcome by synchronization according to a conventional origin,

Figure 5 Time Interval Counter

Figure 6: Counting the time interval

Figure 7: Basic concept of a clock

Precision is defined as,

Accuracy is the degree of veracity while precision is the degree of reproducibility.

Figure 8: Accuracy & Precision

Figure 9: High accuracy, but low precision

Stability is defined as the tendency to recover from perturbations.

Graph 1: Stability versus Frequency

Figure 11 Electron Transition

3.4.2 Why use Cesium(Cs-133) atoms?

Figure 12: Cesium atom hyperfine structure

Today, cesium clocks measure frequency with an accuracy of from 2 to 3 parts in

Figure 14: Beam tube of a Cesium atomic clock

Figure 15: Schematic diagram of a Cesium atomic clock

Figure 16: A repeating sine function is the basis of an oscillating signal.

V(t) = V0[1 + a(t)]sin[� (t)]

as the fractional frequency difference or deviation of oscillator one, � 1, with respect to a

We will describe five different methods of measuring the frequency fluctuations in

3.6.1 Beat Frequency method

Figure 19: Measurement of the frequency difference (“beat note”) between

Figure 22: Tight phase loop lock method

4.1 Need for an automatic switching system

• Measure their stability by calculating their Allan variance.

The design of the switching system demands that:

Figure 24: Internal architecture of switching system.

• The signals to select a pair of Cesium atomic clocks, either manually or

Regulator MAX232 Microcontroller

Figure 25: Circuit of the Switching System

The system requires two voltage levels

The different components of the power supply are as follows:

Graph 2: Bridge Rectifier Output

Graph 3: Filter Output

• Low power consumption - This is essential since the microcontroller is enclosed

The microcontroller is used to select the desired pair of atomic clocks.