British aged Trae iatlgThe Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and other Industries by John Knapton BSc PhD CEng FICE FlStructE FIHT Marios Meletiou BSc MSc CEng MBA FICE MCIT Published by: The British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd for Interpave Interpave in a product association 60 Charles Street of the British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd. Leicester LE1 1FB Biiish Ports Associaton twerpave F Tiaaws Biv Bavemant Nacinn Manna Kapton & Molotiou iFor further information please contact: Interpave 60 Charles Street Leicester LE1 1FB Telephone: 0116 253 6161 Facsimile: 0116 251 4568 Interpave is a Product Association of the British Precast Concrete Federation Lid Published and distributed by the British Precast Concrete Federation Ltd, 60 Charles Street, Leicester LE1 1FB for Interpave, the Precast Concrete Paving and Kerb Association First Edition published by British Ports Association, 1984 Second Edition published by British Ports Federation, 1986 ISBN 0 900337 22 2 This third edition published 1996 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 0 9500347 1 1 © Interpave 1996 All rights, including translation reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior written permission from The Secretary, interpave, 60 Charles Street, Leicester, LE1 1FB Every effort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this Publication provide a safe and accurate guide; however, no liability or responsibility of any kind (including liability for negligence) can be accepted in this respect by the publishers or the authors. The assistance of Associated British Ports in allowing the reproduction of the front and rear cover photographs is gratefully acknowledged. These depict the Nor-Cargo Terminal at Grimsby and the Nordic Terminal at Immingham, respectively. Photographs by Geoff Byman Photography Printed and bound in Great Britain by Leicester Printers Ltd Biiish Ports Association/iaterpave " Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou iiContents Introduction 1 Summary 1 Scope of the Manual 2 Acknowledgments 2 Design Principles 2 Analysis Technique 3 Calibration of the Design Method 3 Paving Materials 6 Part 1: Load Assessment 8 Wheel Load Value 8 Tyres 10 Dynamics 10 Lane Channelisation "1 Static Loading 1 Wheel Proximity Factors 12 Wheel Load Calculations for Handling Plant 13 Part 2: Pavement Materials 20 Different Base Materials 20 Surfacing Materials 24 Part 3: Construction and Material Specifications 23 Construction 23 Wet Lean Concrete 25 Cement Bound Materials 25 Fibre Reinforced Concrete 28 Unbound Sub-base Materials 33 Part 4: Design Example 37 Part 5: Design Table & Charts 42 Table 19: Sub-base & Capping Thickness 42 Thickness of Surface Materials 42 Base Thickness Design Chart for Equivalent Loads not exceeding 300kN 43 Base Thickness Design Chart for Equivalent Loads exceeding 300kN 44 Container Stacking Areas Base Design Chart 45 References 46 Appendix 47 Silsh Pors ResacatonTierpave Tisany Duty Pavorvent Delgn Manvel itoton oat iiAuthors John Knapton is Professor of Structural Engineering at The University of Newcastle upon Tyne. His research in the 1970's led to the publication of the first two editions of the British Ports Association Heavy Duty Pavement Design Manual. He has developed design methods for aircraft pavements and highway pavements surfaced with pavers. During the 1980's he was engaged in the design of many pavements on a worldwide basis. He has published over 70 papers in the field of pavement design and is Chairman of the Small Element Pavement Technologists Group (SEPT) which perpetuates the series of International Conferences in concrete block paving. Marios Meletiou is Head of the Civil Engineering Section at Cyprus Ports Authority and is responsible for the development of the Country's ports. He is regularly consulted by other port authorities and has been responsible for many innovations in port development. In particular, he has pioneered many innovative engineering concepts relating to the ports industry (eg the use of gravel beds for container storage) and was awarded the Akiyama Prize in 1985 by |APH for his work in increasing container handling efficiency. He is Visiting Professor in Port Planning & Development at The University of Newcastle upon Tyne where he collaborates with the first Author in port pavement research and design. His publications for the United Nations and the International Association of Ports and Harbours on Container Terminal Pavement Management represent the definitive word on the subject! Bilish Ports Assocatio/inrpre - eany Duy Pavement Design Mandal Knapton & Meletiou Vv youy *Introduction The aim of the port pavement design process is to safeguard the pavement from failure over a predetermined period of time. There are three categories of failure associated with port pavements, viz: ~ structural failure ~ surface failure — operational failure. Each of these categories may influence failure in one of the other two so a complete port pavement design must address all of the issues which might on a particular project lead to one or more of these categories of failure. For example a full port pavement design might comprise the following elements: ~ structural design — drainage design — surface characteristics — provision of underground services ~traffic and storage management markings, signs and structures — interface with other facilities and structures — selection of appropriate construction techniques — environmental issues — aesthetics. This Manual is concerned specifically with the structural design of pavements serving ports and other industries. Designers are advised to take into account all of the above issues plus others which are not listed but which might be of relevance in a specific project. Ignoring one or more components of the whole design process can lead to progressive reduction in pavement serviceability and performance so that ultimately one or more of the three categories of failure will occur. Many of these broader issues are dealt with in a previous publication by the Authors*. Summary This is the Third Edition of the British Ports Association heavy duty pavement design manual. For the first time, a radically new way of analysing pavements is incorporated in the design method. The original research upon which the First Edition’ was based was undertaken in the 1970's and pavements were analysed by programmable calculator technology”. This meant that stresses and strains could be calculated accurately at only one or two special points in the proposed pavement structure. This has allowed design to be based upon the concept of Equivalent Single Load. Also, it has allowed the research leading to this Edition to show that design of the whole pavement can be separated into design of the base and design of the foundation. In making this separation, no accuracy is lost and the design exercise has been greatly simplified such that only one Chartis now required for design. That Chart is presented in Part 5 of this Edition and may be used to proportion the base course of a heavy duty pavement. Table 14 in Part 5 can then be used to select the pavement foundation according to ground conditions. The resulting pavement should remain serviceable throughout its life. Biiah Pops AssosatonTinerme Teavy Duy Pavernent Deign Manval Knapton & Meletiou 1 youlyPart 1 describes loading conditions likely to be experienced and gives information from which the design load may be established. Part 2 describes the choice of materials available and Part 3 includes information regarding material specification and construction. This aspect of the manual has been expanded such that the user now has a wider range of materials available, including materials reinforced with polypropylene and steel fibres. During the last 10 years, a good deal of experience has been gained in the use of Material Conversion Factors or Material Equivalence Factors so that they can now be used as a means of effectively swapping one material for another during the design process. This means that when a design has been produced using the Chart in Part 5, the designer can generate alternative design solutions using different materials and so investigate a full range of solutions. Table 10 in Part 2 gives Material Conversion Factors for a full range of commonly used base materials. This Edition differs from previous ones in that Material Conversion Factors were used previously only in overlay design. Overlay design has been deleted from this Edition: it has been found to be less relevant than was expected to be the case when the First Edition was published in 1984. Difficulties associated with drainage and with changes in levels have meant that overlaying existing pavements has failed to become a cost effective solution to either rehabilitation or strengthening of existing pavements. Finally Part 4 includes an example showing how pavement design can be undertaken Scope of the Manual The manual may be used to design all common types of pavements serving ports and similar cargo handling facilities. It can in fact be used also to design highway pavements subjected to either highway loading or greater loads. A particular feature of this Third Edition is its ability to facilitate design of container storage areas. In the previous Editions, container corner casting loads were converted to Port Area Wheel Load (PAWL) units. Because corner castings apply significantly higher levels of stress than do pneumatic tyres, the conversion caused some designers to experience difficulties. In this Edition, the corner casting load situation has been modelled and a design curve has been developed specifically for such situations. Acknowledgments Much of the information in this edition of the Manual has been developed from the Second Edition of the British Ports Association Manual. The research leading to this revision was carried out by S.D. Troup at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne’ under the supervision of Professor J Knapton. Design Principles The design procedure set out in this Edition is based upon the principle that pavements are designed to remain serviceable throughout the design life of the pavement. In terms of structural performance, serviceability failure in a heavy duty pavement usually occurs by either excessive vertical compressive strain in the subgrade or excessive horizontal strain in the base. For pavements with stabilised bases the tensile strain in the base is the active design constraint whereas subgrade compressive strain is the active design constraint for pavements with granular bases. Surface deformation in the order of 50 mm to 75 mm will normally exist at failure. Bilish Ports Assoclation/interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou,Analysis Technique In order to produce the Charts in Section 5, pavements have been analysed using the finite element method in which a model was developed to representall components of the pavement. Elastic properties and Poisson's ratio values were chosen to describe the behaviour of each pavement component. Fatigue is taken into account by defining limiting stresses to which the pavement can be exposed for one load pass and then reducing those stresses to account for multiple load repetitions. The Appendix provides details of the finite element model used. ‘A new method of design is introduced allowing a simpler design procedure. This involves dividing the pavement into foundation and structure so that the base thickness can be proportioned to withstand the applied load regime and the foundation can be proportioned to develop adequate support to the upper layers taking into account ground conditions. The rationale behind this is that it was found during the research leading to the publication of this Edition that present highway pavement design procedures include pavement foundation guidance which relates sub-base and capping specification to subgrade strength such that the subgrade is always stressed to a level commensurate with its strength. Essentially, recent developments in pavement design procedures have separated design into foundation design which is based upon subgrade strength and base design which is based upon loading regime Calibration of the Design Method All design procedures based upon mechanistic analysis require proven criteria for levels of stress or strain which define limiting permissible values. Usually, these criteria are stresses or strains known to exist in successful designs produced by empirical design methods. By this means, the mechanistic model is effectively calibrated and designs produced by it have the same level of integrity as those produced by the design method used in the calibration exercise. In this manual the calibration limiting stresses upon which the design curves in Part 5 are based are determined as follows. A proven semi-empirical pavement design method has been used to assess the levels of stress at critical positions in the following manner. BS 7533° has been used to produce a number of design examples covering a wide range of pavement design situations which have then been analysed using the same linear elastic finite element model as is used in this manual to establish permissible stresses. The stresses which the finite element model has demonstrated to exist in pavements designed according to BS 7533 are used in this manual as the critical design stresses in pavement design. In other words, the design charts in Part 5 of this manual have been produced using the same finite element model which has been used to back-analyse a range of pavements produced by BS 7533. This means that the experience and methodology underpinning BS7533 has been extended in this manual to deal with all those pavements likely to be encountered in heavy duty pavement design situations. A benefit of this technique is that should the finite element model include inaccuracies, then those inaccuracies should largely cancel in that they will have been included in the BS7533 back-analysis calibration exercise in exactly the same way as they have been included in the design charts in Part 5. Fifteen pavements designed according to BS 7533 were analysed using the finite element model to determine stresses and strains at critical locations in each pavement. The pavement sections developed from BS7533 are shown in Table 1. Table 1 shows the design thicknesses adopted for each course when designed according to BS7533. All of the pavement structures presented in Table 1 were analysed using the finite element model in conjunction with a standard axle load of 8 tonnes. Bilich Ports Ascociaton/interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 3Table 1: BS7533 pavement course thicknesses used in finite element analysis. CBR of Subgrade 1% 2% 5% Capping 600 mm 350 mm Omit Sub-base 150 mm 150 mm 150 mm Millions of Standard Base Thicknesses Axles Oto 1.5 100 mm 130 mm 130 mm 1.5104 130 mm 130 mm 130mm 4108 165mm 165mm 165mm Bto 12 200 mm 200 mm 200 mm 12 to 25 230 mm 230 mm 230 mm Preliminary analysis using the finite element program confirmed that the critical stresses occur at the underside and at the upper side of the base directly beneath the applied load Values of stresses at these critical locations are shown in Tables 2 & 3. (In the first Edition of the British Ports Association Manual, compressive stress in the sub-base was also assessed, but in all practical cases, this has been found to be not critical) Table 2: Maximum principle stresses (tensile) at the underside of the base course in those BS7533 pavements back-analysed in the calibration exercise (N/mnt) MSA/CBR 1% 2% 5% Oto 1.5 2.38 2.452 2.323 1.5to4 1.817 1.866 1.749 4to8 1.363 1.394 1.300 8to 12 1.049 1.069 0.9959 12 to 25 0.8539 0.8678 0.8098 Table 3: Minimum principle stresses (compressive) at the upper surface of the base course in those BS7533 pavements back-analysed in the calibration exercise (N/mm) MSA/CBR 1% 2% 5% Oto 1.5 1.829 -1.856 1.772 1.5to4 1.602 1.621 1.547, | 4to8 -1.363 1.412 1.359 8to 12 -1.269 1.274 71,239 12 to 25 1.191 1.193 1.169 The values in Tables 2 & 3 are shown graphically in Figure 1. Brtish Ports Assoclation/Interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 4Figure 1: Relationship between permissible stresses and number of passes of a standard axle. The values above the axis represent tension and are the limiting design stresses. Stress induced by Standard Axel (Nimm2) TD Woximum Prnope 5 2 Minimum Princ From Figure 1 it can be seen that the stresses induced in the base of the pavement are very similar for each subgrade CBR value and that they diminish with increasing levels of traffic. Figure 1 enables design stresses to be selected for all pavement types (although it unlikely that traffic levels will exceed 4 MSA on a specific area during its design life in a typical port operation, the inclusion of higher levels of traffic widens the applicability of the Manual to pavements serving other industries and indeed to highway pavements). Figure 1 indicates that the value of the maximum compressive stress varies little with an increase in the number of load repetitions and is of less importance in design since in general materials used to construct the base of a heavy duty pavement are stronger in compression than they are in tension, often by an order of magnitude. A small stress range in compressions to be expected owing to the equilibrium of vertical forces through the pavement from the point of load application down to other areas. Compressive stresses are important in surfacing materials where concentrated point loads applied by eg container corner castings, small steel wheels from specialised plant, stabilising jacks in mobile cranes may cause localised surface distress. In conclusion the tensile stress at the underside of the base is the limiting stress for structural design purposes in all practical pavements. Table 4 shows average values of the three stresses existing in pavements designed over subgrades with CBR's of 1%, 2% and 5% for each of the five fatigue levels (1.5 MSA to 25 MSA) used in the analysis. In this Manual, the values in Table 4 are used as permissible design stresses and the Design Charts have been constructed using these values. It is customary to use unfactored stress levels in pavement design since the failure limit state is essentially one of serviceability. Table 4: Average tensile stresses to be used as design stresses (N/mnr) MSA/CBR 1% 2% 5% Average Oto 1.5 2.38 2.452 2.323 2.4 1.5 to4 1.817 1.866 1.749 1.8 4to8 1.363 1.394 1.300 1.4 8to 12 1.049 1.069 0.9959 1.0 12 to 25 0.8539 0.8678 0.8098 0.8 Bilish Ports Ascocation/inerpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 5Having used the finite element model to calculate the stresses shown in Table 4 which exist in pavements designed according to BS7533, it is possible to analyse a range of typical pavements in order to establish the loads which generate similar stress values for a given number of load passes. This exercise has been carried out to produce the curves in the design charts in Part 5. The Appendix includes diagrams showing contours of stress in pavement bases designed according to the design chart in Part 5. Fifteen bases are shown, corresponding with CBR values of 3%, 5% and 30%. For each of these three CBR values, a C10 concrete base has been designed to accommodate 1,000,000 repetitions of an equivalent wheel load of 100kN, 200kN, 300KN, 400kN and 500KN. The Figures in the Appendix show that pavements designed using the charts in Part 5 incorporating C10 concrete as the base develop tensile stresses of between 0.8N/mm’ and 1.8N/mm’. These values should be compared with the values in Table 4 of between 0.8N/mm® (12 to 25MSA) and 2.4N/mm’ (zero to 1.5MSA). This indicates that there might be a little conservatism in the design process which is considered to be appropriate in view of the limitations of the finite element model and of the limited data upon which pavement design is frequently based. In particular, pavements designed to withstand greater loads have a greater degree of conservatism The finite element model used in developing the design charts and in the calibration exercise comprised an axi-symmetric idealisation in which a cylindrical layered system of diameter 7m and depth 2.5m was modelled by 63 rectangular elements each having a node at each corner and midway along each side. Each model perimeter node was restrained horizontally and each node at the lowest level was restrained both horizontally and vertically. A single point load was applied at the uppermost node at the centre of the model. In order to simulate the effect of a circular patch load accurately, an extra very stiff axi-symmetric element, of radius equal to the radius of the load patch was generated above the cylinder. The load patch radius was determined by assuming the load to be applied as a pressure of 0.8N/mm?. The model was graded such that smaller elements were concentrated near the point of load application where stress variation was steep and larger ones were generated at greater depth and radius. The Lusas finite element package licensed to the Civil Engineering Department at Newcastle University, UK, was used to generate the model‘. Output took the form of contours of stress and strain and the Appendix shows typical patterns of stress generated in those critical elements of the base close to the point of application of the load. The Appendix includes full details of the finite element model including typical command and data files used to analyse pavements. Paving Materials The material properties used in the analysis upon which the design charts in Part 5 are based are presented in Table 5. Part 3 provides detailed specifications for the materials. The design charts allow designs to be developed for pavements including a base comprising C10 concrete with an assumed flexural strength of 2N/mm*(CBM3). Itis assumed that the surface comprises 80mm thick concrete pavers bedded in 30mm thickness sand. Experience has shown that alternative pavement surfacing materials have little influence on overall pavement strength and alternative surfacing materials can be substituted with little influence on overall structural performance. In the finite element analysis, the surface has been modelled as a homogeneous 110mm thick layer of material having an elastic modulus of 4000N/mm? and a Poisson's Ratio of 0.15. This has been found to equate closely with the properties of both concrete block paving and bituminous bound surfacing materials. In the case of concrete Bileh Pors Associalon/inerpave Teawy Duty Pavernent Design Wanval Knapton & Meletiou ™ 6 vy Duly igblock paving, 80mm thick rectangular units laid to a herringbone pattern have been found to. exhibit a high level of stability and strength. Other types of paving units and other laying patterns may also be satisfactory but care should be exercised when deviating from the proven rectangular units laid to a herringbone pattern. In some situations, consideration should be given to a paver joint stabilisation material in order to ensure that the requisite surfacing properties are maintained. With bituminous bound surfacing care needs to be exercised in mix design to ensure surface stability, especially in extremes of climate and in container storage areas. Once a pavement section has been developed using C10 concrete, it can be “exchanged” for ‘one incorporating base material of either greater of lesser flexural strength with the base thickness being adjusted accordingly. For example, a rigid concrete pavement can be designed by replacing the CBM3 base produced in the Chart with a Pavement Quality concrete base, using the Material Equivalence Factors in Table 9. The pavement surface selection is considered to depend on its resistance to wear and other surfacing requirements rather than the contribution which it might make to overall pavement strength, consequently any suitable surface material may be used regardless of the ground conditions. Table 5: Pavement material properties used in producing design charts Layer Elastic Modulus, E (N/mm*) Poisson's Ratio Surfacing ( pavers) 4,000 0.15 Base (C10 Concrete) 35,000 “0.15 Sub-base 300 0.20 Capping 150 0.25 Subgrade 10x CBR 0.25 Surface Structure — Base Foundation — Sub-base and Capping Formation — Subgrade Figure 2: Pavement Components Bish Pots Aszodalioninpae Tieany Duty Pavernent Design Manval eee eer ecan 7Part 1: Load Assessment The loading regime to be used with the design Chart in Part 5 is rationalised to a single equivalent load describing the actual regime. When the design process is started there is usually no unique load value which characterises the operational situation. Consequently it is necessary to gather information known about the loading environment in order to derive the equivalent single load to be used with the design chart. Firstly information regarding the types of loads that can be expected is given with factors that should be considered. This is followed by a rational method of deriving the single equivalent pavement load required for use with the design chart through proximity and dynamic factors. Wheel Load Value The value of the design wheel load depends upon the range of container weights being handled. Design should be based upon the Critical Load which is defined as the load whose value and number of repetitions leads to the most pavement damage. Relatively few repetitions of a high load value may inflict less damage than a higher number of lesser load values. The entire load regime should be expressed as a number of passes of the critical load. The evaluation of the critical load and the effective number of repetitions of that load is as follows. Table 6 shows the distribution of container weights normally encountered in UK ports for different proportions of 20ft and 40ft containers. Where local data is available, it can be used in place of Table 6. For each of the container weights shown in Table 6, calculate the damaging effect caused when plant is handling containers of that weight from the following equation: D = (W/12000)*"*(P/0.8)'*5.N Where: D= Damaging effect W = Wheel load corresponding with specific container weight (kg) P = Tyre Pressure (N/mm?) N = % figure from Table 6 The container weight leading to the greatest value of D is the critical weight container and all subsequent wheel load calculations should be based upon this load. Experience in the use of the previous Editions of the manual indicates that when the containers being handled comprise 100% 40ft containers, the critical load is commonly 22000kg and when 20ft containers are being handled, the critical load is 20,000kg. In general, mixes of 40ft/20tt containers have a critical container weight of 21,000kg. These values may be used in preliminary design studies. The number of repetitions to be used in design can be calculated accurately using a load value weighted system. However, if the total number of repetitions calculated solely from operational datas used, a negligible error will be generated. Inthe case of pavements trafficked by highway vehicles, an equivalent wheel load of 100kN may be used. Bilish Ports Associationfinterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 8Container Weight Proportion of 40ft to 20ft Containers (Kg) 100/0 60/40 50/50 40/60 0/100 0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1000 000 | 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2000 0.00 0.18 0.23 0.28 0.46 3000 0.00 0.60 0.74 0.89 1.49 4000 0.18 1.29 1.57 1.84 2.95 5000 0.53 1.90 2.25 2.59 3.96 6000 0.98 217 2.46 2.76 3.94 7000 1.37 241 2.67 2.93 3.97 8000 2.60 3.05 | 3.16 3.27 3.72 9000 2.82 3.05 3.11 3.17 3.41 10,000 3.30 3.44 3.48 3.52 3.66 11,000 4.43 4.28 4.24 420 4.04 12,000 5.73 5.24 5.12 4.99 4.50 13,000 5.12 4.83 4.76 4.69 4.41 14,000 5.85 5.38 5.26 5.14 4.67 15,000 4.78 5.12 5.21 5.29 5.63 16,000 5.22 5.58 5.67 5.76 6.13 17,000 5.45 5.75 5.83 5.91 6.21 18,000 555 | 5.91 6.00 6.10 6.46 19,000 6.08 6.68 6.83 6.98 7.58 | 20,000 7.67 8.28 8.43 8.58 9.19 21,000 10.40 8.93 8.56 8.18 6.72 22,000 9.95 7.60 7.02 6.43 4.08 23,000 5.53 431 4.00 3.69 2.47 24,000 2.75 1.75 1.50 125 | 0.24 25,000 0.95 0.63 0.55 0.47 0.15 26,000 0.67 0.40 0.33 0.27 0.00 27,000 0.72 0.43 0.36 0.29 0.00 28,000 0.53 0.32 0.27 0.21 0.00 29,000 0.43 0.26 0.22 0.17 0.00 30,000 0.28 0.17 0.14 0.41 0.00 31,000 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 32,000 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.00 33,000 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 34,000 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.00 Table 6. Percentages of containers of different weights for five different combinations of 40ft to 20ft containers derived from statistics provided by UK ports. Brien Poris Assoclaionitaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Kapton & Meletiou 9Tyres The contact area of a tyre of handling plant is assumed to be circular with a contact pressure equal to that of the tyre pressure. Some larger items of plant may be fitted with tyres for operating over soft ground. When such tyres travel over a paved area the contact area is not circular and the contact stress under the tread bars is greater than the tyre pressure. Although this affects the stresses in the surfacing material, stress concentrations are dissipated substantially at lower levels of the pavement. Some terminal trailers are fitted with solid rubber tyres. The contact stress depends upon the trailer load but a value of 1.7N/mm®is typical and the higher pressure is dispersed satisfactorily through the pavement Dynamics The effects of dynamic loading induced by cornering, accelerating, braking and surface unevenness are taken into account by the factor fg. Where a section of a pavement is. subjected to dynamic effects the wheel loads are adjusted by the factors given in Table 7 as explained in the notes to the Table. Table 7: Table of dynamic load factors(tg). Static loads are increased by the percentage figures in the Table. Condition Plant Type tg Front Lift Truck 430% Straddle Carrier +50% Braking Side Lift Truck 420% Tractor and Trailer 410% Front Lift Truck 40% traddle Carrier 60% Cornering Side Lift Truck 30% Tractor and Trailer 30% Front Lift Truck 10% i Straddle Carrier 10% Acceleration Side Lift Truck 10% Tractor and Trailer 10% Front Lift Truck 20% Straddle Carrier 20% Uneven Surface Side Lift Truck 20% Tractor and Trailer 20% Note: Where two or three of these conditions apply simultaneously, fg should take into account multiple dynamic effects. For example, in the case of a Front Lift Truck comering and accelerating over uneven ground, the dynamic factor is 40%+10% +20% i.e 70% so that the static wheel load is increased by 70%. In the case of braking, the dynamic factor is additive for the front wheels and subtractive for rear wheels. In the case of plant with near centrally located wheels (eg straddle carriers), braking and accelerating dynamic factors to be applied to the near central wheels are reduced according to geometry. Bilioh Ports Assooiaton/intepave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletion 10Lane Channelisation Plant movements over a wide pavement do not follow exactly the same course, but wander to one side or the other. If there are lane markings with the lane approximately the same width as the plant, then channeling becomes significant. As the lane width increases relative to the width of the plant the channelisation becomes less significant with the less channelised travel causing an ironing out effect more evenly over the area. For straddle carriers stacking containers in long rows the wheels are restricted to very narrow lanes and consequently severe rutting may take place. In such a case the operation techniques of the plant in that area should be reviewed periodically. Static Loading Static loads from corner casting feet apply very high stresses to the pavement. In the case of the storage of empty containers a pavement designed to carry repetitive wheel loads will be able to carry the associated static loads without structural failure. This may also be the case for full containers in low stacks. However the surface must be designed to withstand high contact stresses and loads. In the previous Editions of the manual, some users found that pavements could not be designed to withstand the effect of containers stacked more than three high. In this Edition, container storage areas are dealt with specially. The design chart in Part 5 includes a design curve which relates to corner castings. Container Corner Casting Load Values Containers are usually stacked in rows or blocks and until recently usually no more than three high, with a maximum of five high. However, in recent times containers have been stacked up to 8 high in a few locations and this may become more common. Corner castings measure. 178mm x 162mm and frequently they project 12.5mm below the underside of the container. Table 8 gives the maximum loads and stresses for most stacking arrangements. Since it is unlikely that all containers in a stack will be fully laden the maximum gross weights will be reduced by the amounts shown. The values shown in Table 8 can be used directly in the design chart. In the case of empty containers pavement loads can be calculated on the basis that 40ft containers weigh 3000kg and 20ft containers weigh 2000kg. Table 8: Pavement loads from stacking full containers Stacking | Reductionin | Contact |Load on Pavement (kN) for each stacking Height Gross Weight Stress arrangement (N/mm?) Singly Rows Blocks 1 0 2.59 76.2 152.4 304.8 2 10% 4.67 137.2 274.3 548.6 3 20% 6.23 182.9 365.8 731.5, 4 30% 7.27 213.4 426.7 853.4 5 40% 7.78 228.6 457.2 914.4, 6 40% 9.33 274.3 548.6 1097 7 40% 10.9 320.0 640.0 1280 8 40% 12.5 365.8 731.6 1463.2 Bilish Pors Assodation/inerpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 1Trailer Dolly Wheels There are often two pairs of dolly wheels on trailers which are 88mm wide x 225mm in diameter. When the trailer is parked, the contact area of each wheel is approximately 10 x 88mm and stresses are 40N/mm*. Some trailers have pivot plates which measure 150mm x 225mm and produce contact stresses of 2.0N/mm?, which is sufficiently low to be evenly distributed through to the base structure of the pavement. Wheel Proximity Factors The active design constraint is horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the base course. If one wheel only is considered, the maximum horizontal tensile strain occurs under the centre of the wheel and reduces with distance from the wheel. If two wheels are sufficiently close together, the strain under each wheel is increased by a certain amount owing to the other wheel Wheel loads are modified by the appropriate proximity factor from Table 9. These factors are obtained as follows. If the wheel proximity were not considered, the relevant stresses would be the radial tensile stress directly beneath the loaded wheel. If there is a second wheel nearby, it generates tangential stress directly below the first wheel. This tangential stress is added to the radial stress contributed by the primary wheel. The proximity factor is the ratio of the sum of these stresses to the radial tensile stress resulting from the primary wheel. The following equations are used to calculate the stress: Ww 3rz 1-2v ] one — f Qn as? + Z.0"” on Ut) eae] Where: o, = radial stress , = tangential stress W = load r =horizontal distance between wheels z = depth to position of stress calculations v_ = Poisson's ratio a =Pez? When more than two wheels are in close proximity, the radial stress beneath the critical wheel may have to be increased to account for two or more tangential stress contributions. Table 9 shows that the proximity factor depends on the wheel spacing and the Effective Depth to the bottom of the pavement base. The Effective Depth can be approximated from the following formula and represents the depth from the pavement surface to the underside of the base should the base have been constructed from subgrade material. British Ports Assoclationvinterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 12«35000 ~ Where CBR = California Bearing Ratio Effective Depth = 300.1 CBR y 19 of the subgrade. As an example, consider a front lift truck with three wheels at each end of the front axle. The critical location is beneath the centre wheel. Suppose a pavement were designed on ground with a CBR of 7% and the wheel lateral centres were 600 mm. From the formula, the approximate Effective Depth of the bottom of the pavement base is Effective Depth = 300.3) 35000 _ - 2381mm \ 7x10 By linear interpolation from Table the proximity factor is 1.86. This should be applied twice for the central wheel. This means that the effective single load scaled up by 0.86: twice i.e. 1 +0.86 + 0.86 = 2.72. Note that this is approximately 10% less than 3 so that this type of wheel arrangement effectively reduces pavement load by 10%. For wheels bolted side by side where the wheel centres are separated by less than 300mm, the entire load transmitted to the pavement through one end of the axle can be considered to represent the wheel load. An investigation of the actual equivalent wheel load indicates that the actual equivalent wheel load is approximately 1.97 times one wheel load when there are two wheels bolted together at an axle end Table 9: Wheel proximity factors Wheel Proximity factor for effective depth to base of: Spacing (mm) 1000 mm 2000 mm 3000 mm 300 1.82 1.95 1.98 600 1.47 1.82 1.91 900 1.19 1.65 1.82 1200 1.02 1.47 1.74 1800 1.00 1.19 1.47 2400 1.00 1.02 1.27 3600 1.00 1.00 | 1.02 4800 1.00 1.00 1.00 Wheel Load Calculations for Handling Plant The following formulae are for guidance only and relate to plant having wheel configurations as illustrated in the diagrams. In cases where plant has an alternative wheel configuration, the loads can be derived from first principals, following a similar approach. In many cases wheel loads are provided by plant manufacturers and if this is the case, those values should be preferred. For each pass of the plant, a specific spotin the pavementis loaded by all of the wheels at one side of the plant. Therefore in the wheel load calculations, only one side of the plant is considered. In the case of assymetrical plant, the heavier side should be chosen. Brith Ports Association interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletion 13Front Lift Trucks ye AnWe+ By W= fy M Lx A..We + By 2 Where: W, = Load on front wheel (kg) W. = Load on rear wheel (kg) W. = Weight of Container (kg) M__ = Number of wheels on front axle (usually 2, 4 or 6) f, = Dynamic factor A,, Ay B; and B, are A- =X X,—X W,(X;— Xs) Ba XX W,(X,— Xi) XX, X,, X-and W, are shown in the diagram W, = Self Weight of the truck Bilish Ports Ascooiaton/inerpave Heavy Duly Pavernent Design Manual Kapton & Meletiou 14Straddle Carriers OO 1 OO wi we pp =— 3 se = = We We fx [U+5e] Where: W, = Wheelload of laden plant (kg) U, = Wheel oad of unladen plant (kg) W. Weight of Container (kg) M_ = Total number of wheels on plant f, = Dynamic factor British Ports Assodlationvtaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 15Side Lift Trucks = wi wa wa wa We fx [y+ Where: W, = Wheel load of laden plant (kg) U, = Wheel load of unladen plant (kg) W. = Weight of Container (kg) M_ = Total number of wheels on plant f, = Dynamic factor Brash Pons Aesooatonnepme Hoa Buy Pavement Design Manval Kroplon & Molctou 16 yous 9Yard Gantry Cranes = A.Wo w= fx [U. +o] W,= fx [U:+ Where: W, = Wheelload on side 1 (kg) W, = Wheel load on side 2 (kg) W. = Weight of container (kg) M = Number of wheels on each side (possibly 2) f, = Dynamic Factor U, = Unladen weight of gantry crane on each wheel of side 1 (kg) inladen weight of gantry crane on each wheel of side 2 (kg) X, and X, are shown in the diagram. Note: The front and rear wheels may have different unladen loads. This is taken into account by using the equation for both wheels on each side with their respective f, values. British Pons Associatondinerpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual 17 Knapton & MeletiouTractor and Trailer Systems wr We fe i — wi w2 Ws W,= f, x [u, + Welin ALO = 81) M We = tx [U, + Welt =A} ) M, W,= fe x [uA] Where: W, = Load on front wheels of tractor (kg) W., = Load on rear wheels of tractor W, = Load on trailer wheels (kg) W. = Weight of container (or load) (kg) M, = Number of front wheels on tractor M. = Number of rear wheels on tractor M, = Number of wheels on trailer U; = Load on front wheels of tractor — unladen (kg) U, = Load on rear wheels of tractor — unladen (kg) U, = Load on trailer wheels — unladen (kg) Dynamic factor X., Xp, X; and X, are shown in the diagram Biish Ports Assoclaion/Interpave Tany bay PST nial Knapton & Meletiou 18 y Duty irMobile Cranes (unladen) g Cd ar) WT t wi w2 W=W/M Where: W, = Self weight of crane M = Total number of wheels on crane [Brtish Ports Assoclationvinterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 19Part 2: Pavement Materials Different Base Materials The design chart presented in Part 5 has been constructed with reference to C10 concrete with a flexural strength of 2N/mm®. The thickness of C10 produced by the design chart may be exchanged for an equivalent amount of an alternative material of greater or lesser strength using Material Conversion Factors set out in Table 10 and the rationale for this technique of exchanging one material for another is described below. It should be recognised that experience in the use of Material Conversion Factors indicates that within a limited range, they can prove to be an efficient means of expanding one design solution into many alternatives, each of similar structural capability. The relationship between relative base thicknesses and allowable stresses is: Gren = Guard % (Orta! Tren) Where: dj. = the revised base thickness for alternative material duyw = Standard thickness obtained from the design chart for C10 concrete standard flexural stress for C10 lean concrete (2 N/mm’) Seana Gn = flexural strength of alternative material (N/mm?) For example, if a pavement has been designed using the chart given on Page 47 in Part 5, and a resulting base thickness is specified as 250 mm of C10 concrete using the appropriate Conversion Factor from Table 10, alternatives can be specified as: i) ’ 30 kg/m’ steel fibre C30 concrete Thickness required is: 0.55 x 250mm = 137mm ji) Wet lean concrete 4 Thickness required is 0.75 x 250mm = 187mm iii) Cement Bound Material Category 4 (CBM4) Thickness required is 0.8 x 250mm = 200mm This is an extremely effective method of adjusting layer thicknesses for different base materials whilst maintaining the simplicity of the design method. Care should be exercised in undertaking material conversion exercises when the two materials being swapped differ markedly in their engineering properties. In particular, care should be exercised in the use of crushed rock materials for bases. In many regions, such as the whole of the UK, such materials normally attain a CBR of no more than 50% and they should be avoided as base construction materials. In other regions, crushed rock CBR values can exceed 80%, in which case they may be used as a base. British Ports Associaion/tnterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou: 20Table 10: Different base materials with permissible flexural strengths and conversion factors from C10 concrete. The values apply for a single load repetition and are reduced to take into account fatigue as explained in Part 1 — Calibration of the Design Method. Pavement Layer Permissible Flexural| Conversion Strength Nimm? Factor from C10 lean Concrete (i) Plain C30 concrete 40 0.70 | (ii) 20 kg/m steel fibre C30 concrete 48 0.65 (i) 30 kg/m steel fibre C30 concrete 6.4 0.55 (iv) 40 kg/m steel fibre C30 concrete 76 0.50 (v) Plain C40 concrete 48 0.65 (vi) 20kgim’ steel fibre C40 concrete 56 0.60 (vi) 30 kg/m’ steel fibre C40 concrete 76 0.50 (viii) 40 kg/m? steel fibre C40 concrete 9.0 0.45 (ix) Wet lean concrete 4 3.6 0.75 () Wet lean concrete 3 3.0 0.80 (xi) Wet lean conorete 2 2.0 4.00 (xii) Wet lean concrete 1 1.4 1.20 (xii) Cement Bound Material Category 1 (CBM1) 0.8 1.60 (xiv) Cement Bound Material Category 2 (CBM2) 14 4.20 (xv) Cement Bound Material Category 3 (CBM3) 2.0 1.00 (xvi) Cement Bound Material Category 4 (CBM4) 3.0 0.80 (xvii) Crushed rock of CBR >80% : 3.00 The flexural strength values in Table 10 are based upon reported test results. Where local data is available, it can be used instead and the Conversion Factors altered accordingly. See Part 3 for details of suitable steel fibres, Surfacing Materials In the case of flexible pavements, i.e. those surfaced with pavers or bituminous material, the surface has little influence on the strength of a heavy duty pavement. Experience in the use of the first two editions of this publication indicates that little is to be gained by distinguishing between the structural contribution offered by different surfacings. The selection of the surface material should be based upon other factors which are dealt with by the Authors elsewhere (Container Terminal Pavement Management (Original & Supplement) UNCTAD Monographs on Port Management, Monograph No. 5, United Nations, Geneva’). The purpose of the surface is to provide a safe, stable and smooth running surface with skid resistance, load transfer and prevention of surface failure of the pavement in a manner other than structural, ie in serviceability through rutting or chemical attack. The choice of surfacing will be a function of the economic requirements and the local resources available as well as the loading applied. Typical surfacing materials are listed below for use in design, it is however possible for the Engineer to specify his own materials to be used if he can justify their use and ensure a satisfactory level of performance. There are four types of common pavement Salish Pors Assovatonnerpave avy Duty Pavernent Design Wanval Kapton & Meletou ™ a1 "Flexible (1) Asphaltic (1) (2) Concrete Blocks (3) Rigid (3) Concrete (4) Precast Concrete Rafts It is recommended that rigid pavements be reinforced with C503 fabric (4.34 kg/m’) placed 50mm below the surface. Joint spacing and details as given in Road Note 29’. There are many secondary choices available within a surface category once the decision regarding category of surfacing has been made. The designer should consult detailed specialist information according to his primary choice of surfacing material. For example in the case of a primary choice of pavers the following secondary choices are amongst thosee available:— shape of paver, laying pattern, size of paver, paver concrete characteristics, colour and jointing materials Asphaltic The material design of the asphalt surface is omitted and reference should be made to literature in that field or to specialist contractors. For the reasons discussed in the last section, only one case is considered in which the course thickness is 100mm and the elastic modulus is 4000N/mm*, Poisson's ratio is 0.3. Concrete Blocks (Pavers) Although various thicknesses of pavers and laying course material have proven to be successful (eg paver thicknesses up to 120mm and laying course thicknesses between 20mm and 70mm), itis recommended that pavers of thickness 80mm are used in al situations and are bedded on 30mm of sand. Some authorities suggest thicker blocks but common practice in the United Kingdom and elsewhere is to specify 80mm thick blocks manufactured and installed in accordance with the most recent British Standard Specifications (BS6717 Parts 1&3)*. The elastic modulus is 4000N/mm? and Poisson's ratio is 0.3 i.e. similar to bituminous material. In some cases, it will be necessary to introduce a paver joint stabilization material in order to maintain the integrity of this surfacing system. Rigid Concrete Pavement quality concrete in accordance with the Department of Transport(DTp), Specification for Highway Works® has a compressive strength of 40N/mm®. The thickness is chosen by the designer and the elastic modulus is 30,000N/mm* with a Poisson's ratio of 0.2. Precast concrete rafts are assumed to consist of pavement quality concrete. The engineer can use this manual to investigate various combinations of surface and base materials. The sub-base and capping material selection is undertaken independently of base thickness and material selection and depends upon subgrade conditions. Billoh Pons Assocationlinterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 22Part 3: Construction and Material Specification Much of the material in this section is based upon DTp Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works"*. Construction Grades of Concrete and Constituent Materials for Pavement Base Concrete in rigid, composite or concrete block pavements should be specified as one of the grades given in Table 11 with specification for cement, water, admixtures and aggregates in accordance with Clauses 1001 & 1002 of DTp Specification for Highway Works’. Density, quality control of concrete strength and workability should be according to Clauses 1003, 1004 and 1005 of DTp Specification for Highway Works’. Table 11: Grades of Concrete for Use in Pavement Bases Pavement Layer BS 5328: Part 2 Permissible Designed Mix Grade Flexural Strength Nimm* (i) Plain C30 concrete 30 40 (ii) 20 kg/m* steel fibre C30 concrete c30 48 (ii) 30 kg/m* steel fibre C30 concrete c30 64 (iv) 40 kg/m? steel fibre C30 concrete c30 76 (v) Plain C40 concrete cao 48 (vi) 20 kg/m steel fibre C40 concrete cao 56 (vii) 30 kg/m* steel fibre C40 concrete cao 76 (viii) 40 kg/m* steel fibre C40 concrete cao 9.0 (ix) Wet lean conerete 4 c20 36 (x) Wet lean concrete 3 C18 3.0 (xi) Wet lean conerete 2 cto 2.0 (xii) Wet lean concrete 1 c75 14 (xiii) Cement Bound Material Category 1 (CBM1) cas 08 (xiv) Cement Bound Material Category 2 (CBM2) c7 14 (xv) Cement Bound Material Category 3 (CBM3) c10 2.0 (xvi) Cement Bound Material Category 4 (CBM4) cis 3.0 Delivery, Storage and Batching of Concreting Materials Cement should be kept dry and used in the order in which it is delivered to the site. Ground granulated blast furnace slag or pulverised-fuel ash for mixing on site with Portland cement should be delivered separately and stored in separate silos. Differenttypes of cements should be stored separately. Silos for storing PFA should be equipped with aerators to ensure free flow within the silo. Bilish Poris Associationtaerpave any Day Pavement Design Manval Kapton & Melcsou 23 yoy 9Aggregate for the base should be delivered to and stored on the site in one of the following ways: (i) inseparate nominal single sizes of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate (ii) as graded coarse aggregate of appropriate size and fine aggregate (iil) as all-in aggregate for grades C20 or below Aggregate brought on to the site should be kept free from contact with deleterious matter. Fine aggregate nominally below 5 mm sieve should have been deposited at the site for at least 8 hours before use. Batching plant and storage of aggregate should comply with the following requirements as appropriate to the method of delivery: (i) If separate gradings of aggregate are stockpiled, separate accommodation should be provided for each nominal size of coarse aggregate or blend of fine aggregate. The bases for stockpiles should be suitably surfaced to prevent contamination of the aggregate. Drainage of the stockpile bases should be provided. (ii) Aggregate should be measured by mass and provision should be made for batching each nominal size or blend of aggregate separately, to the tolerances specified in BS5328: Part 3 (iil) Allin aggregate should be delivered and stockpiled in such a manner and to a height that avoids segregation Mixing Concrete Concrete should be mixed on site in a stationary batch type mixer in compliance with BS 5328: Part 3 unless ready mixed concrete is supplied from an approved source. Transport and Delivery Freshly mixed concrete may be transported in tipping or ejector trucks, or truck mixers or agitators. The mixed material should be covered during transit and while awaiting discharge to prevent wetting by rain or evaporation of moisture. It should be transported and delivered so that segregation or loss of the constituent materials is reduced to the minimum. Construction by Machine The concrete base should be constructed in a continuous process by either slip-form, by fixed form paving plant, by laser guided screeding machines, by small paving machines or by hand guided methods. The base may be constructed in one, two or three layers. In two or three layer construction the thickness of the top layer should not be less than 50 mm or twice the maximum size of the course aggregate, whichever is greater. For additional guidance on paving equipment see DTp Specification for Highway Works Clauses 1024 and 1025 and for information on laser guided screeding machines refer to Single Pour Industrial Floor Slabs". Curing The base should be cured for a minimum period of 7 days by the application of an approved resin based aluminised curing compound, or polythene sheeting or an approved sprayed plastic film which hardens to a peelable plastic sheet. To achieve high early strength for early use by vehicles insulation blankets may be used for accelerated curing British Ports Association Interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 24Trial Areas The Contractor should demonstrate the materials, mix proportions, plant, equipment and methods of construction that are proposed for the concrete base, by first constructing a trial area of base of at least 250 m’. The mix proportions decided by trial mixes may be adjusted during the trial but should not be changed once the trial area has been adopted. The trial area should be constructed in two parts over a period comprising at least part of two separate working days, with a minimum of 100 m? constructed each day. The trial area should be constructed at a similar rate to that which is proposed for the base construction. The trial area should comply with the project specification in all respects and providing the trial area is accepted it may be incorporated into the main area of the base. Wet Lean Concrete Grades and Constituents The grades for wet lean concrete should be as described in Table 11 and all material shall be specified in all respects to comply with Clause 1030 of DTp Specification for Highway Works. Rates for Sampling and Testing Concrete for Base Table 10/7 of DTp Specification for Highway Works summarises the minimum rates of sampling and testing for specimens used in base construction. Cement Bound Materials Requirements for Cement Bound Materials Cement-bound materials should comply with Table 10/8 of DTp Specification for Highway Works’. Transporting Plant-mixed cement-bound material should when mixed be removed at once from the mixer, transported directly to the point where it is to be laid and protected from the weather both during transit from the mixer to the laying site and whilst awaiting tipping Laying All cement-bound material should be placed and spread evenly in such a manner as to prevent segregation and drying. Spreading should be undertaken either concurrently with placing or without delay. At longitudinal or transverse construction joints, unless vertical forms are used, the edge of compacted cement-bound material should be cut back to a vertical face where the correct thickness of properly compacted cement-bound material has been obtained. Brish Ports Acsociaton/interpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 25Compacting Compaction should be carried out immediately after the cement-bound material has been spread and in such a manner as to prevent segregation. Special care should be taken to obtain full compaction in the vicinity of both longitudinal and transverse construction joints. Compaction is to be completed within 2 hours of the addition of the cement. After compaction has been completed, compacting equipment should not bear directly on cement-bound material for the duration of the curing period. The surface of any layer of cement-bound material should on completion of compaction and immediately before overlaying, be well closed, free from movement under compaction plant and from ridges, cracks, loose material, pot holes, ruts or other defects. Alll loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas should be removed to the full thickness of the layer, and new cement-bound material laid and compacted. Curing Immediately on completion of compaction, the surface of concrete or wet lean concrete or wet lean concrete or cement-bound bases and sub-bases should be cured for a minimum of 7 days by one of the following methods: (i) Covering with an impermeable sheeting with joints overlapping at least 300 mm and set to prohibit egress of moisture. The sheeting should be removed at the end of the curing period. (ii) Bituminous spraying which shall only be applied when there is no visible water. When the cement-bound material likely to be exposed to high temperatures and solar radiation, the bituminous spray should be blinded with light coloured material. (ili) Spraying with a curing compound (iv) Spraying with an approved plastic film Whichever method is used, immediately prior to overlaying with any bituminous layer a cationic bituminous tack coat should be applied at a rate between 0.35 /m? to 0.55 Vm? Preliminary Trial At least 10 days before the start of the main cement-bound material works a trial area of at least 450 m? should be laid to assess the suitability of the proposed materials, mix proportions, mixing, laying, compaction plant and construction procedures. When applicable the area should include one longitudinal and one transverse construction joint. The trial area may be accepted for main construction of the base if it complies with the Specification Cement Bound Material Category 1 (CBM1) CBM1 should be made from material which has a grading finer than the limits of Table 12. In addition to the requirements of Table 10/8 in DTp Specification for Highway Works the average compressive strength determined after immersion in water of five test specimens of CBM1 should not be less than 80% of the average compressive strength of five control specimens when subjected to the test procedure described in BS 1924: Part 2: 1990, Clause 4.3. After the 7 days immersion period the specimens should not show any signs of cracking or swelling. Brit'sh Ports Assoclation/intepave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knaaton & Meletiou 26Table 12: Material for CBM1 — Limit of Grading BS Sieve Size Percentage by Mass Passing 50mm 100 37.5mm 95 20mm 45 10mm 35 5mm 25 600 micron 8 300 micron 5 75 micron 0 NOTE: The particle size distribution shall be determined by the sieving method of BS 812: Part 103. Cement Bound Material Category 2 (CBM2) CBM2 should be made from gravel-sand, a washed or processed granular material, crushed rock, all-in aggregate, blast furnace slag or any combination of these. The material should fall within the grading limits of Table 13. The material should have a 5% fines value of 50 KN or more when tested in accordance with BS 812: Part 111 with samples in a soaked condition. In addition to the requirements of Table 10/8 in DTp Specification for Highway Works the average compressive strength determined after immersion in water of five test specimens of CBM2 should not be less than 80% of the average compressive strength of five control specimens when subjected to the test procedure described in BS 1924: Part 2: 1990, Clause 4.3. After the 7 days immersion period the specimens should not show any signs of cracking or swelling, Table 13: Material for CBM2 - Range of Grading BS Sieve Size Percentage by Mass Passing 50mm 100 37.5mm 95-100 20mm 45-100 10 mm 35-100 5mm 25-100 2.36 mm 15-90 600 micron 8-65 300 micron 5-40 75 micron 0-10 NOTE: The particle size distribution should be determined by the sieving method of BS 812: Part 103. Cement Bound Material Category 3 (CBM3) CBMS should be made from aggregates as specified in sub Clause 1001.6 of DTp Specification for Highway Works. The grading of the aggregate should be within the limits in Table 10/11 of DTp Specification for Highway Works. Cement Bound Material Category 4 (CBM4) CBMS should be made from aggregates as specified in sub Clause 1001.6 of DTp Specification for Highway Works. The grading of the aggregate should be within the limits in Table 14. British Ports Associationvtaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 27Table 14: Material for CBM3 and CBM4 — Range of Grading Percentage by Mass Passing BS Sieve Size Nominal Maximum Size 4omm 20mm 50mm 100 - 37.5mm 95-100 100 20mm 45-80 95-100 5mm 25-50 35-55 600 micron 8-30 40-35 150 micron 0-8" 0-8" 75 micron 0-5 0-5 NOTE: The particle size distribution should be determined by the sieving method of BS 812: Part 108. “0-10 for crushed rock fines Strength and Density Testing of Cement Bound Materials for Base Construction Testing should be in accordance with Clauses 1040 and 1041 of DTp Specification for Highway Works. Fibre Reinforced Concrete Information regarding the following fibre reinforced concrete has been taken from Knapton and Ellerton". During recent years floor construction methods involving the addition of polypropylene or steel fibres into a concrete mix have become common in the UK". For centuries, man has attempted to reinforce construction mortars and concretes with various types of fibres including straw and hair. With the advent of fast-track systems in the construction industry, concrete bases have had to meet quicker construction programmes. With the use of laser screeders, fibres are often specified instead of conventional mesh because of the inconvenience in positioning individual mats of mesh immediately in front of the laser screeding machine as the machine progresses. Laser screeding machines cannot construct conventional long strip mesh reinforced bases efficiently, both the mesh and the formwork impede the machine. As a consequence, plain concrete or fibre-based conorete are often specified for laser screeded pavement bases. Polypropylene Fibres Polypropylene fibres for the concrete can be in fibrillated or monofilament manufactured in a continuous process by extrusion of polypropylene resin’. They are usually coated to improve wetting and dispersibility within the cement paste and to increase the extent of contact and bond between the fibres and the concrete matrix in the hardened state. Polypropylene fibres are not a substitute for conventional structural reinforcement or normal good curing procedures, but they may be used as an alternative to non-structural mesh for crack control purposes acting as a secondary reinforcement. The design of polypropylene fibre-based conerete bases proceeds as for unreinforced floors. The main purpose of polypropylene fibres is to provide crack control by distributing and absorbing tensile stresses which may occur as a result of shrinkage and temperature movements, particularly in the early life of the base when the concrete has yet to reach sufficient tensile strength. They do not eliminate cracks and are not considered to contribute to the strength of the slab. British Ports Asso: Slalionstaterpave Heavy Daly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meleti 28Addition, Mixing, Placing & Curing The addition of polypropylene fibres is at a recommended dosage of 0.9 kg/m3 (0.1% by volume or 1 litre per cubic metre). They are compatible with all cementitious products and admixtures and generally require no change in mix design or water/cement ratio. The fibres may be added at either a conventional batching/mixing plant or by hand to the ready mix truck on site. An even distribution throughout the concrete can be achieved in a 6m’ truck mixer in five minutes at full mixing speed. Concrete mixes containing polypropylene fibres can be transported by normal methods and flow easily from the hopper outlet. No special precautions are necessary when pouring and fibre-dosed concrete will flow around an obstruction such as reinforcement in the same manner as conventional concrete mix of similar proportions. Conventional means of tamping or vibration to provide the necessary compaction can be used. Curing procedures similar to those specified for conventional concrete should be strictly undertaken. If steam curing at a temperature in excess of 140 degrees Celsius is to be used polypropylene fibres should not be used. The fibres do not affect the hydration rate or stiffening time of the concrete. Placed fibre-dosed mixes may be floated and trowelled using all normal hand or power tools. Workmanship should comply with the relevant requirements of BS 8000 Part 2: Sections 2.1 and 2.2. Controlling Plastic Shrinkage Cracks in Concrete Plastic cracking may occur in the plastic concrete as a result of drying shrinkage. Plastic cracks are formed within the first 24 hours after the concrete has been placed when the evaporation rate is high and the surface of the concrete dries out rapidly. Plastic shrinkage cracks generally pass through the entire base and form weaknesses, permanently lowering the integrity of the base before the concrete has had the opportunity to gain its full design strength. Plastic cracks may occur through the whole depth of the base and cannot be remedied by surface treatment. Polypropylene fibres inhibit plastic cracking by holding water at or near the surface of the concrete, delaying evaporation and increasing cement hydration. Therefore bleeding is inhibited. As concrete hardens and shrinks, micro-cracks begin to develop. When micro- cracks intersect a fibre strand, they are blocked and prevented from developing into macro- cracks, and hence plastic cracking. This reduction in micro-cracks in the plastic state enables the concrete to better develop its optimum integrity. Effect on Workability Polypropylene fibres act mechanically: the cohesive effect is largely due to surface tension and breaks down under vibration and compacting. The slump of a fibre dosed concrete will be lower as a result of the thixotropic effect caused by the fibres, but the mobility or the placeability of the concrete is generally unaffected. Water should nor be added to compensate for this thixotropic effect. Vebe and compaction factor tests are not significantly affected by the addition of polypropylene fibres. The improved cohesiveness also proves to be beneficial in pumped concrete owing to the reduction in rebound when placing rsh Ports Assoclationtaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 29Polypropylene Fibre Reinforced Concrete The use of polypropylene fibres in the construction of a concrete pavement base is not considered to contribute to the strength of the base. The addition of polypropylene fibres at the usual recommended amount (0.9 kg/m’) will not significantly affect the ultimate compressive, tensile or flexural strength of the concrete mix. Before ultimate stress is reached the performance of a fibre- enhanced concrete is improved in a number of ways. These improvements are due to the concrete being an inherently variable material with a wide range of stress concentrations and the addition of the fibres favourably reduces this variability. Ifa fibre is aligned across a crack there is a small increase in stress required for crack propagation to occur. Strength Characteristics Tests from a manufacturer of polypropylene fibres” revealed the change in strength characteristic shown in Table 15. Compressive strength tests conducted in accordance with BS 1881 indicated that the fibres, when used at the recommended dosage rate of 0.90kg/m’, slightly increase the early strength gain of concrete. The fibres have no significant effect on the 28 day compressive strength of concrete cubes nor do they have any substantial effect on the flexural strength of concrete Table 15: Test results comparing the strength of polypropylene fibre-dosed concrete and conventional plain concrete. Strength of Fibre | Strength of unreinforced Reinforced Concrete Concrete Compressive Strength (N/mm?) (equivalent cube method from cylinder tests) 1 day 16.5 16.0 3 days 28.5 24.5 7 days 34.0 35.0 28 days 43.5 30.5 Compressive Cube Strength (Nimm?) 1 day 16.0 145 3 days 28.0 275 7 days 34.0 36.0 28 days 48.5 445 Flexural Strength (N/mm?) 1 day 23 24 3 days 40 37 7 days 4.2 48 28 days 46 62 Permeability Permeability is defined as the ease with which a fluid can flow through a solid. The addition of polypropylene fibres to a concrete base reduces its water permeability owing to fibres interfering with the normal bleed channels and capillaries that are initially formed in the plastic state. With the reduction of cracking of the concrete resulting from the inclusion of fibres the penetration of the water has been laboratory tested to reduce by at least 50% British Ports Associationtnterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 30Resistance to Freeze/Thaw Fibre-dosed concrete has significantly enhanced resistance to frost attack. There is some evidence to suggest that polypropylene fibres may be considered as an alternative to air- entrainment to obtain freeze thaw resistance. Steel Wire Fibres Steel fibres may be used in place of mesh reinforcement. The stresses in a pavement base are complex and depending on the type of load, tensile stresses can occur at the top and bottom of the base. There are, in addition, stresses that are difficult to quantify, arising from a number of causes such as sharp turns of handling equipment, shrinkage and thermal effects and impact loading. The addition of steel wire fibres to a concrete base results in an isotropic and homogeneously reinforced base achieving a considerable increase in flexural strength and enhanced resistance to shock and fatigue: Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete Composition and Quality In order to obtain steel fibre reinforced concrete that is easy to pump and to work, with minimum shrinkage, a steel wire manufacturer" specifies the following — Quantity of cement (commonly OPC)should be between 320 and 350 kg/m? — 750 to 850 kg/m good quality zero to 4 mm well graded sharp sand should be used — Use a continuous aggregate grading with a maximum size of 28 mm for rounded gravel and 32 mm for crushed stone. Limit the fraction larger than 14 mm to 15 to 20% — Characteristic compressive strength of at least 25 N/mm® should be used = Water/Cement ratio should be about 0.50, and should not exceed 0.55 — The use of a superplasticizer is permitted to obtain the necessary workability. — Admixtures of chloride or chloride containing concrete additives are not permitted. Steel Fibre Addition and Mixing The recommended dosage rate of steel fibres is between 20 and 40 kg/m®. The greater the dosage rate the greater the flexural strength of the base for a particular grade of concrete. Fibres can be added at the mixing plant or on site directly into the mixing truck. At the mixing plan the steel fibres are usually added into the mixer at the same time as the aggregates. On site the concrete must first reach the correct workability by the addition of a superplasticizer before the fibres are added. The fibres should then be added at the manufacturers specified rate resulting in a uniform distribution. For example one manufacturer recommends addition at a rate of two 30 kg bags a minute with the truck rotating at full mixing speed and mixing continuing for a further two minutes after the addition of the full dose. Visual inspection during pouring is necessary to check fibre distribution is correct. All fibre bundles must separate into individual fibres, otherwise mixing is insufficient. For Placing and Curing Guidelines see Section Regarding Ordinary Cement Bound Materials. Bilich Ports Ascoclatonvinterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou_ 31Types of Steel Fibres Available The most commonly used stee! fibre is the 60 mm hooked fibre. Hooked fibres are usually glued together (collated) with a special water soluble glue to form fibre plates which readily disperse in the concrete mixer. The hooks help to ensure optimum fibre anchorage (or adhesion) to the hardened concrete. Enhanced cohesion can be achieved either by anchorage points at the end of fibres (e.g. a pedal or hook) or in the case of a crimped fibre by adhesion along the whole length of the fibre. It is usual to consider only fibres with enhanced adhesion for reinforcement of concrete bases. Breaking or premature deformation of the fibres is prevented by the very high tensile strength of the drawn wire (usually greater than 1100 Nimm®). The aspect ratio, which is the fibre length to fibre diameter ratio, is also an important factor in fibre specification with common values of 60 and 75. Crack Control Steel fibres effectively limit the extension of micro-cracks always present in concrete". In concrete without fibres tension cannot be transmitted across the crack i.e. once the tensile capacity of the plain concrete has been exceeded, the micro-crack will extend rapidly resulting in brittle failure. The action of steel wire fibres in a concrete base is to reduce the concentration of stresses near micro-cracks by: (i) Fibres bridging the crack and therefore transferring some of the load across it (ii) Fibres near the crack tip resisting more load owing to their higher modulus of elasticity compared with that of the surrounding concrete. Economy Steel wire manufacturers claim that substantial labour and materials savings can be achieved by the specification of steel wire fibres. Some of the economic advantages are (i) elimination of labour needed for cutting and fixing of traditional mesh reinforcement. (ii) reduction in slab thickness compared with bases designed with plain and mesh reinforced concrete owing to increased flexural strengths (ii) savings resulting from the mechanical laying of the concrete base Specification For any steel fibre reinforced concrete (SFRC) application it is recommended that the following be included in the specification”: — adescription of the desired sub-base — the required strength class of the concrete — the required workability of the SFRC — the method of compaction — usage of a plasticizer if required and which type — the method of checking homogeneity of the mix Brilsh Pos Assocatonlinerpae Feawy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 32Unbound Sub-base Materials Sub-base Construction Sub-bases should be constructed using granular material comprising of crushed rock or slag. Sub-base material up to 225mm compacted thickness may be spread in one layer so that after compaction the total thickness is as designed. Sub-base material of greater compacted thickness greater than 225 mm should be laid in two or more layers and the minimum compacted thickness of any such layer should be 110 mm. Where the layers of sub-base material are of unequal thickness the lowest layer should be the thickest layer. Compaction Compaction should be completed as soon as possible after the material has been spread and in accordance with the requirements for the individual material. Special care should be taken to obtain full compaction in the vicinity of both longitudinal and transverse joints. Compaction of sub-base material should be carried out by a method specified in Table 16, unless the Contractor demonstrates at site trials that a state of compaction achieved by an alternative method is equivalent to or better than that using the specified method. The surface of any layer of material should, on completion of compaction and immediately before overlaying, be well closed, free from movement under compaction plant and from ridges, cracks, loose material, pot holes, ruts or other defects. All loose, segregated or otherwise defective areas should be removed to the full thickness of the layer, and new material laid and compacted. For the purposes of Table 16 note the following: (i) The number of passes is the number of times that each point on the surface of the layer being compacted should be traversed by the item of compaction plant in its operating mode. (ii) The compaction plant in Table 16 is categorised in terms of static mass. The mass per metre width of roll is the total mass on the roll divided by the total roll width. Where a smooth wheeled roller has more than one axle, the category of the machine should be determined on the basis of the axle giving the highest value of mass per metre width. (iii) For pneumatic-tyred rollers the mass per wheel is the total mass of the roller divided by the number of wheels. In assessing the number of passes of pneumatic tyred rollers the effective width should be the sum of the individual wheel tracks together with the sum of the spacings between the wheel tracks provided that each spacing does not exceed 230 mm. Where the spacings exceed 230 mm the effective width should be the sum of the widths of the individual wheel tracks only. (iv) Vibratory rollers are self-propelled or towed smooth wheeled rollers having means of applying mechanical vibration to one or more rolls. Bilich Pons Assoctatonlinerpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 33Table 16: Compaction requirements for granular sub-base material Types 1 and 2 Type of Category Number of passes for layers not exceeding Compaction the following compacted thicknesses: Plant 110 mm 150 mm 225 mm Smooth-wheeled | Mass per metre roller (or width of roll: vibratory roller operating without vibration) over 2700 kg up to 5400 kg 16 unsuitable unsuitable over 5400 kg 8 16 unsuitable Pneumatic Tyred | Mass per Wheel: Roller over 4000 kg up to 6000 kg 12 unsuitable unsuitable over 6000 kg up to 8000 kg 12 unsuitable unsuitable over 8000 kg up to 12000 kg 10 16 unsuitable over 12000 kg 8 12 unsuitable Vibratory Roller | Mass per metre width of vibrating roll: over 700 kg up to 1300 kg 16 unsuitable unsuitable over 1300 kg up to 1800 kg 6 16 unsuitable over 1800 kg up to 2300 kg 4 6 10 over 2300 kg up to 2900 kg 3 5 9 over 2900 kg up to 3600 kg 3 5 8 over 3600 kg up to 4300 kg 2 4 7 over 4300 kg up 10.5000 kg 2 4 6 over 5000 kg 2 3 5 Table 16 continues... British Ports Association/Intenave Knapion & Meletiou Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual 34Table 16 Continued Type of Category Number of passes for layers not exceeding Compaction the following compacted thicknesses: Plant 110mm 150 mm 225 mm Vibrating Plate | Mass per square Compactor metre of base plate: over 1400 kg/m* 8 unsuitable unsuitable up to 1800 kg/m? over 1800 kg/m? 5 8 unsuitable up to 2100 kg/m 3 6 10 over 2100 kg/m* Vibro-tamper Mass. over 50 kg up to 65kg 4 8 unsuitable over 65 kg up to 75kg 3 6 10 over 75 kg 2 4 8 Power Rammer | Mass: 100 kg — 500 kg 5 8 unsuitable over 500 kg 5 8 12 Granular Sub-base Material Type 1 Type 1 material should be crushed rock, crushed slag, crushed conerete or well burnt non- plastic shale. The material should lie within the grading envelope of Table 17, and not be gap graded. The material passing the 425 micron BS sieve should be non-plastic as defined by BS 1377: Part 2 and tested in compliance therewith. The material should be transported, laid and compacted without drying or segregation. The material should have a ten percent fines value of 50 KN or more when tested in compliance with BS 812: Part 111. The test sample should be in a soaked condition at the time of testing. Table 17: Sub-base Type 1 range of grading BS Sieve Percentage of Mass Passing | 700 a5 mm 5-100 Tomm 40-70 om 25-45 _ 600 micron 322 micron | COC | The particle size should be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS 812: Part 103 Bitsy Pops AssooatonTierpne Heavy Duty Pavement Design Manval Rhapton& Molsbu ne 35 ”Granular Sub-base Material Type 2 Type 2 material should be natural sands, gravels, crushed rock, crushed slag, crushed concrete or well burnt non-plastic shale. The material should lie within the grading envelope of Table 18, and not be gap graded. The material passing the 425 micron BS sieve when tested in compliance with BS 1377: Part 2 should have a plasticity index of less than 6. The material should satisfy the minimum CBR requirement of 20% when tested in accordance with BS 1377: Part 4, with surcharge discs. The material should be tested at the density and moisture content likely to develop in equilibrium pavement conditions, which should be taken as being the density relating to a uniform air voids content of 5% and the optimum moisture content determined in compliance with BS 5835. The material should be transported, laid and compacted at a moisture content within the range 1% above to 2% below the optimum moisture content determined in compliance with BS 5835 and without drying or segregation. The material should have a ten percent fines value of 50 kN or more when tested in compliance with BS 812: Part 111. The test sample should be in a soaked condition at the time of testing. Table 18: Sub-base Type 2 range of grading. BS Sieve Size | Percentage of Mass Passing Tamm ‘| 100 375mm 35-100 FO mm Smm |__ 600 micron 75 mieron The particle size should be determined by the washing and sieving method of BS 812: Part 103, Capping Material Pavements constructed over subgrades of CBR less than 5% will require a capping layer between the subgrade and the sub-base. Capping comprises low cost locally available material with a minimum CBR of 15% after compaction. Cement or lime stabilisation of existing subgrade material may be undertaken in which case refer to Section 6 of DTp Specification for Highway Works, Clause 614 for cement stabilisation and Clause 615 for lime stabilisation. Table 19 on Page 42 shows capping thicknesses required for different subgrade California Bearing Ratio(CBR) values. Biiish Ports Associaon/iaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou ™ 36Part 4: Design Example In this example a typical straddle carrier operation is assessed for loading and subsequent use with the Base Thickness Design Chart to produce a pavement section. In the loading calculations, the damaging effect of one side of the item of plant is considered as explained in this example. DATA Unladen weight of straddle carrier including spreader beam = 56,310kg (W) Critical container weight Track Width Wheel Spacings = 2.4m — 3.6m — 2.4m (see Diagram) Number of likely passes of staddle carriers over the most highly trafficked part of the pavement during design life of pavement = 960,000 passes CBR of soil =5% From the information regarding the ground strength and through the use of Table 19 in Part 5, the foundation materials can be specified as: Sub-base = 225 mm Capping not required Having defined the foundation material properties the base material is now calculated which is dependent on the load applied. { 55. r | [e. r -<—{ Wheel Loads }—»[135.5kN| [167.6kN | ,o4 00 Q© 2.4m [24m] Lo Straddle Carrier Wheel Loads During Braking British Ports Association intenave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 37Straddle Carrier Total number of wheels on plant (8) Wheel load of unladen plant (kg) — 56,310/8 = 7,039kg Weight of critical container (kg) — 22,000kg, see Part 1 f, = Dynamic factor for braking + (50% for extreme wheels, see next paragraph for inner wheels Static wheel load = 7,039 + 22,000 = 9789 kg = 97.9kN 8 The proximity of the wheel loads is now considered to assess their stress interaction using the equation given in Part 1 to calculate the effective depth. Effective Depth = 300.4 ee = 2664mm x From Table 9, the proximity factor can be interpolated to be 1.14. Therefore the Effective Static Wheel Load is 97.9 x 1.14 = 111.6 KN. Consider the worse loading case of breaking and apply the appropriate dynamic factor of +50% to the wheels at the extreme front and rear, applying the increase in load to the front wheels and the decrease to the rear wheels. The inner wheel loads need to be similarly adjusted but using a factor lower than 450% determined by considering the relative distance from the vehicle's centre line. In this case, each extreme wheel is 4.2 metres from the centre of the vehicle and each inner wheel is 1.8m from the centre. Therefore, the lower braking factor to be applied to the inner wheels is +21.4% i.e. (#50% x 1.8/4.2). We now need to express the four load values which will pass over one spot into an equivalent number of passes of the highest wheel load (167.7KN) as follows, The Damaging Effect equation in Part 1 is applied to each wheel load in turn: Front wheel is equivalent to one pass of a load of 167.7kN Second wheel is equivalent to (135.5/167.7)°"" i.e. 0.45 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. Third wheel is equivalent o (87.7/167.7)'.e. 0.09 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. Fourth wheel is equivalent to (55.8/167.7)°” i.e. 0.02 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. All of the repetitions are converted to an equivalent number of repetitions of the heaviest wheel so that the Equivalent Single Load used in the design charts is derived from the heaviest wheel load. It would be unsafe to convert wheel loads to one of the plant's lower wheel load values. Billsh Ports Acsociaton/Interpave Tieany Duly Pavernent Design Manval Kapton & Melelou 38 _™ .THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF HEAVY DUTY PAVEMENTS. FOR PORTS AND OTHER INDUSTRIES by Knapton & Meletiou Erratum: 2.4m) C10 Concrete Base Thickness assessed from the Design Chart should be 200 mm, Page 39 Asa result the following figures also should be changed E E EEE 2¢e 7 OT 4 — EE g 236 x % & 4 RR a s 26 7 > e g = zg y 2 z g 23 2 #6 3 4 a & £8 8 23 & RF oO [3.6m one spot, it applies the equivalent of load of 167.7KN. This means that the lilion passes (j.8.1.56 x 960,000) of a now be used as follows: is 167.7KN to 1.5 million passes agto the above which is read from the an alternative thickness of another 260mm = 143mm 2mm uires 0.80 x 260 mm = 208 mm change if alternative dynamic factors to brake whilst cornering, the wheel 6 x 111.6 = 67.0KN) so that the wheel —>(202.5kN| [204.7kN i l O© — > 2. Direction of Travel Straddle Carrier Wheel Loads During Braking & Cornering Briieh Ports Assocation/Inwenpave Knapton & Meletiou 39 Heavy Duty Pavement Design ManualTherefore, each time the straddle carrier passes over one spot, it applies the equivalent of (1+0.45+0.09+0.02) = 1.56 repetitions of the front wheel load of 167.7N. This means that the pavement needs to be designed to accommodate 1.5 million passes (i.e.1.56 x 960,000) of a load of 167.7KN. The base thickness Design Chart can now be used as follows: — on the vertical axis, the Equivalent Single Load is 167.7kN — the appropriate curve is the one corresponding to 1.5 million passes — the C10 Concrete Base Thickness corresponding to the above which is read from the horizontal axis on the Design Chart is 260mm. The 260mm of C10 concrete may be exchanged for an alternative thickness of another material, and examples are given below: 30 kg/m’ steel fibre C30 concrete = Requires 0.55 x 260mm = 143mm Wet lean concrete 1 => Requires 1.20 x 260 mm = 312mm Cement Bound Material Category 4 (CBM4) => Requires 0.80 x 260 mm = 208 mm Consider how the pavement section required would change if alternative dynamic factors were used. For example, if the straddle carriers were to brake whilst cornering, the wheel loads would increase by 60% of their static value (ie 0.6 x 111.6 = 67.0KN) so that the wheel loads would be as in the diagram below. 122.8kN| [154.7kN |-<«——l Wheel Loads —»[202.5kN] [224.7kN 4 to o4 rection of Travel Straddle Carrier Wheel Loads During Braking & Cornering British Ports Assoclationtnterpave Heauy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 39We now need to express the four load values which will pass over one spot into an equivalent number of passes of the highest wheel load (224.7kN) as follows. The Damaging Effect equation in Part 1 is applied to each wheel load in turn Front wheel is equivalent to one pass of a load of 224.7kN Second wheel is equivalent to (202.5/224.7)%” i.e. 0.68 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. Third wheel is equivalent to (154.7/224.7)*” i.e. 0.25 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. Fourth wheel is equivalent to (122.8/224.7)*” i.e. 0.10 equivalent passes of the front wheel load. Therefore, each time the straddle carrier passes over one spot, its outside wheels apply the equivalent of (1+0.68+0.25+0.10) = 2.03 repetitions of the front wheel load of 224.7KN. This means that the pavement needs to be designed to accomodate 2 million passes (i.¢.2.03 x 960,000) of a load of 224.7KN. The base thickness Design Chart can now be used as follows. — onthe vertical axis, the Equivalent Single Load is 224.7kN — a 2,000,000 passes curve has to be interpolated between the 1,500,000 and the 4,000,000 curves — the C10 Concrete Base Thickness corresponding to the above which is read from the horizontal axis on the Design Chart is 325mm. Finally, consider the case where straddle carriers are running freely on a smooth surface so that no dynamic factors need be applied. In this configuration, the wheel loads are as in the diagram below. [111.6kN] [111.6kN ]— Wheel Loads H—>[411.6kN] [117.6kNN] 4 tod 2.4m 2.4m 3.6m Direction of Travel Straddle Carrier Wheel Loads During Free Running Briish Ports Associatonlinenave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 40The pavement withstands four repetitions of a wheel load of 111.6kN as each straddle carrier passes so the pavement must be designed to withstand 3,840,000 passes (say 4,000,000) of an Equivalent Single Load of 111.6kN. The Design Chart produces a base thickness of 220mm of C10 concrete. In this example, different operational conditions led to pavement thicknesses required varying between 220mm and 325mm. In some cases, it may be possible to take advantage of known modes of operation and proportion the pavement courses to meet the thicknesses required exactly. Whilst this may reduce initial construction costs, it has the disadvantage of constraining future operations and may lead to additional complexity in the construction process. It may prove cost effective to provide an initial pavement which will not sustain all potential operational situations and to allow the plant to become the proof testing system so that small areas may have to be strengthened later. Whilst this staged approach has the advantage of lowering initial costs, this must be balanced against the disadvantage associated with the disruption which may occur should the pavement need to be upgraded later. The staged approach might be more compatible with a paver surfaced facility whereby many of the pavers would be recovered for reuse in the reconstruction of the strengthened areas. Bish Poris Assoclalionnterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiow 41Part 5: Design Table and Charts This Part of the manual comprises Table 19 which shows sub-base and capping thicknesses for different CBR subgrades and the pavement design Chart which is shown at three different scales for ease of use. The first version on Page 43 should be used in cases when the Equivalent Wheel Load does not exceed 300KN. The second version on Page 44 applies for loads up to 1000KN and the third version on Page 46 is for pavements upon which containers are stacked. CBR of Subgrade Capping Thickness Sub-base Thickness (mm) (mm) 1% 600 150 2% [_ 350 150 3% 250 150 5%7% | ~~~Notrequired = 225 —~C*«~«*@d 10%-30% Not required [ 150 Table 19: Table of foundation thicknesses for pavements for various subgrade strengths Thickness of Surface Materials Information on surfacing material thickness and properties is given in Part 2. The Appendix shows that differences in surface material strength have little influence on overall pavement strength, although part of the function of the surface is to protect the underlying layers so that those layers retain their integrity. For example, the Appendix shows that changing the stiffness of the surface by a factor of 8 changes the stresses in the base of the pavement by approximately 4%. Therefore, the choice of surface materials should be undertaken on the basis of those factors which will safeguard operational conditions and which will avoid surface failure rather than structural requirements. Additional advice is given in Reference 2 Commonly specified surfacing materials include 80mm thick pavers on 30mm laying course material and 100mm bituminous material comprising 40mm thickness wearing course over 60mm basecourse. Research continues into the performance of surfacing materials and the designer is advised to consult the suppliers of proposed materials to ensure that the latest developments are incorporated into the pavement. Surfacing thickness will rarely exceed 150mm. In the case of rigid concrete pavements, the surface is incorporated in the rigid slab. In such cases, special surface finishes may be required. Precast concrete raft units are a particular type of rigid pavement which has fallen out of favour in recent years as a result of high initial costs and poor in-service performance leading to high levels of maintenance cost and operational disruption. Biiish Ports Association/taverpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 42Equivalent Single Load (kN) Base Thickness Design Chart This Chart applies directly to C10 concrete. For other base materials, use this Chart & then apply Material Equivalence} Factors, 200mm minimum thickness C10 base material C10 Concrete Base Thickness (mm) Bilich Ports Associaton/inerpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 43Equivalent Single Load (kN) ise Thickness Design Chart This Chart applies directly to C10 concrete. For other base materials, use this Chart & then apply Material Equivalence Factors. 200mm minimum thickness C10 base materal. 100 C10 Concrete Base Thickness (mm) British Ports Assoclation/laterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Kapton & Meletiou 44Equivalent Single Load (KN) 1509 1400 — Container Stacking | Areas Base Thickness | 1300 | Design Chart | 1200_}_} comeet rer atner base tetas, os | this Chart & then apply Material T Equivalence Factors. | 1100 | / 1000, [ / 901 / 801 700 601 501 f” 40 Sy 301 201 101 100 200 300 400 500 600 Bilish Ports Acsociaton/invemave Knapton & Meletion ™ C10 Concrete Base Thickness (mm) 45 Heavy Duly Pavement Design ManualReferences 1 British Ports Federation (1988) The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and other Industries, British Ports Federation, London: 2, Meletiou M & Knapton J (1987 & 1990) Container Terminal Pavement Management. UNCTAD Monograph on Port Management No. 5.(Original document published in 1987 & Supplement published in 1991) United Nations, Geneva. 3. Troup S.D (1994) An Investigation into Current Design Methods for Airport Pavement Design, Undergraduate Dissertation, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. 4. FEALtd (1994) Manuals for LUSAS sofware suite of programmes, England. 5. Guido V.A., Aprile J.J. & Sabis P.A. (1995), The Effect of Randomly Dispersed Fibregrid Reinforcement on the CBR of Soils, Geosynthetics 1995, Conference Proceedings Vol. 2. 6. _ British Standards Institution (1992) British Standard Guide for Structural Design of Pavements Constructed with Clay or Concrete Block Pavers, BS7533:1992, BSI, London. 7. Transport and Road Research Laboratory (1970) A Guide to the Structural Design of Pavements for New Roads Road Note 29, Third Edition, HMSO. 8 ish Standards Institution (1988) Precast Concrete Paving Blocks. Part 1 Specification for Paving Blocks. Part 3 Code of Practice for Laying. BS6717:1988, BSI, London. 9. Department of Transport (1991) Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works Specification for Highway Works, HMSO, London. 10. Department of Transport (1991) Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works Highway Construction Details HMSO, London 11. Knapton J & Ellerton J (1994) Single Pour Industrial Floor Slabs, 1st Edition, Neweastle University Ventures Limited, Newcastle England, 1994 12, Barber S.D (1980) Pavement Design for Port Areas, PhD Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne. 13. Fibermesh Engineering Data Reports Nos. 1 to 7. (1985 -1988) Fibermesh Company Ino., 4019 Industry Drive, Chattanooga, TN, USA. 14, BEKAERT (1990) /ndustrial Floors with Dramix Stee! Wire Reinforced Concrete, N.V. Bekaert S.A. 15. Research Committee CUR (1987) (The Netherlands Centre For Civil Engineering Research and Codes). Directive Number 10, Design Calculation and Placing of Industrial Floors with Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Bateh Pors AssociatonTnerpae Teavy Duty Pavement Design Nanval Knapton & Meletiou 46APPENDIX Details of finite element model used to calibrate the design method Bish Ports Association/taterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 47This Appendix includes diagrams showing contours of stress in pavement bases designed according to the design chart in Part 5. Fifteen bases are shown, corresponding with CBR values of 3%, 5% and 30%. For each of these three CBR values, a C10 concrete base has. been designed to accommodate 1,000,000 repetitions of an equivalent wheel load of 100kN, 200kN, 300KN, 400KN and S00KN. The Figures show that pavements designed using the charts in Part 5 incorporating C10 concrete as the base develop tensile stresses from 0.8 N/mm*to 1.8 N/mm®, These figures should be compared with the values in Table 4 ranging from 0.8 Nimm*(12 to 25MSA) to 2.4 Nimm*(zero to 1.5MSA). Note that for subgrade CBR values greater than 5%, the additional support offered by the subgrade to the pavement does. not provide a significant additional structural contribution. Therefore, in order to avoid complications in the design process, the additional support offered by stronger subgrades is disregarded thus resulting in identical base thickness irrespective of subgrade CBR. This follows normal highway design practice. Therefore, as the Figures in this Appendix show, there is a little additional conservatism in pavements over subgrades with CBR values exceeding 5%. The Appendix includes deflexion diagrams for a selection of combinations of applied load and soil strength. The deflexion diagrams are presented for the same pavement solutions for which stress contours are drawn. The maximum vertical deflexion values are included on the deflexion diagrams. The diagrams show how the radius of deflexion increases with an increase in load magnitude and with a reduction in soil strength. In all practical cases, deflexion beyond 3.5m from the centre of application of an equivalent point load is negligible The diagrams also show how the inclusion of a very stiff element at the point of load application causes that element to remain almost horizontal as it deflects vertically. This shows that the true patch load is accurately modelled Stiffness of Surface (N/mm*) Maximum tensile stress in Base (N/mm?) 1000 1.18 2000 1.16 4000 1.15, 8000 1.13 Table At Effect of change in surface stiffness on tensile stress in base Four diagrams are included in the Appendix to demonstrate the influence of surface stiffness on tensile stress values in the base. The Manual is based upon the principal that large variations in surface stiffness have litte effect on the performance of the base. Table At shows the four values of surface stiffness which have been compared together with the maximum resulting tensile stresses in the base. Each of the four surface stiffnesses applies to a pavement designed to withstand a load of 300kN over subgrade with a CBR of 3%. Table At shows that a change in surface stiffness from 1000N/mm: to 8000Nimm? leads to a change of only 4% in tensile stress. Most practical surfacing materials have stiffnesses of between 2000N/mm® and 5000N/mm* which would lead to a variation in stress values in the base of less than 2%, British Poris Association Imenpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 48The final diagrams in the Appendix comprise three vertical stress contour diagrams which show how a pavement designed to withstand a load of 300kN spreads the applied pressure of 0.8N/mm* into the underlying subgrade. The three diagrams apply to subgrade CBRs of 3%, 5% and 30% respectively and they demonstrate how a greater thickness of sub-base plus capping leads to lower levels of compressive stress in the subgrade in the case of lower strength subgrades. The 3% CBR subgrade attains a vertical stress of 12kN/m* and the 5% CBR subgrade attains a vertical stress of 13.5kN/m*. The vertical stress contours run near to horizontal in the stiff base and near to vertical in the more flexible sub-base, capping and subgrade. This confirms the load dissipating effect of a cement stabilised base. The finite element model used in developing the design charts and in the calibration exercise comprised an axi-symmetric idealisation in which a cylindrical layered system of diameter 7m and depth 2.5m was modeled by 70 rectangular elements each having a node at each corner and midway along each side. Each model perimeter node was restrained horizontally and each node at the lowest level was restrained both horizontally and vertically. A single point load was applied at the uppermost node at the centre of the model. In order to simulate the effect of a circular patch load accurately, an extra very stiff axi-symmetric element, of radius equal to the radius of the load patch was generated above the cylinder. The load patch radius was determined by assuming the load to be applied as a pressure of 0.8N/mm*. The model was graded such that smaller elements were concentrated near the point of load application where stress variation was steep and larger ones were generated at greater depth and radius. The Lusas finite element package licensed to the Civil Engineering Department at Newcastle University, UK, was used to generate the model. Output took the form of contours of stress and strain and this Appendix shows typical patterns of stress generated in those critical elements of the base close to the point of application of the load. The Appendix includes full details of the finite element model including typical Command and Data files used to analyse pavements. The first diagram shows a half slice through the model and indicates those elements for which stress contours are drawn. Contours of tensile and compressive stress are drawn for elements representing the pavement base near to the application of the load. In the case of pavements designed to support loads of 100KN, stresses are plotted in four elements but for thicker pavements designed to withstand 200kN to 500KN, stresses are plotted in six elements. Lusas Finite Element Program Command File The Lusas Finite Element program uses a pre-processor which allows easier definition of the structural system being analysed. By inputting commands to the pre-processor, a data file is formed which becomes the input to Lusas. This means that in this case, instead of inputting all of the nodal coordinates, pavement layer thicknesses can be entered. The following Command File comprises all of the commands required to generate a pavement comprising courses of the following thicknesses and elastic properties: 120mm surfacing Elastic modulus=4,000N/mm?* w=0.15 160mm base Elastic modulus=35,000N/mm? jt = 0.15 150mm sub-base _Elastic modulus=300N/mm* w=0.2 350mm capping Elastic modulus=150N/mm* n= 0.25 1720mm subgrade Elastic modulus=30N/mm? = 0.25 Bilis Ports Associatlonincrpave Heavy Daly Pavement Design Manual Kapton & Molotou ™ 49 yoy “The data relates to an applied load of 100kKN. Because Lusas integrates axi-symmetric elements around an arc of one radian, the design load is divided by 2x so that it is entered as 15,915N. Alllines commencing ! are comments which are ignored by Lusas. Command File mode! initialise set title “Analysis of 160mm thick base pavement 150 sub-base, 350 capping 3% CBR” (All units used are in N and mm. !Definition of Lines By Coordinates (Units=mm) Definition of Surface 1 (Surfacing) Define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=0 z=0 x=0 y= define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=0 z=0 x=3500 y=-120 z=0 define line by_coordinates x=350_0 y=-120 2=0 x=0 y=-120 2-0 define line by coordinates x=0 y=-120 2=0 x=0 y=0 z=0 IDefinition of Surface 2 (Base) define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-120 define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-280 define line by_coordinates x=0 y=-280 z=0 x=0 y=-120 2=0 Definition of Surface 3 (subbase) Define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-280 Define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-430 Define line by_coordinates x=0 y=-430 2=0 x=0 y=-280 z=0 Definition of Surface 4 (Capping) define line by_coordinates x=3500 define line by_coordinates x define line by_coordinates x=0 y=-780 z= Definition of Surface 5 (Subgrade) define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-780 z=0 x=3500 y=-2500 2-0 define line by_coordinates x=3500 y=-2500 z=0 x=0 y=-2500 z=0 define line by_coordinates x=0 y=-2500 z=0 x=0 y=-780 2=0 !Definition of Surfaces By Lines define surface by_lines 11234 define surface by lines 23567 define surface by_lines 36 8 9 10 define surface by lines 49 11 1213 define surface by_lines 5 12 141516 British Ports AssoclaioniIaterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou. 50{Definition of Supports define supports 1 r ff define supports 2 rr \Assignment of Supports to Lines assign support line 4;7;10;1 assign support line 15 2 316 ;2;5;8;11;14 1 !Definition of Mesh Properties thorizontal line mesh define mesh by_name 1 line null 7 4 Imesh for surface 1 define mesh by_name 2 line null 1 define mesh by_name 3 line null 1 Imesh for surface 2 define mesh by_name 4 line null 2 define mesh by_name 5 line null 2 Imesh for surface 3 define mesh by_name 6 line null 1 define mesh by_name 7 line null 1 Imesh for surface 4 define mesh by_name 8 line null 1 define mesh by_name 9 line null 1 !mesh for surface 5 define mesh by_name 10 line null 5 define mesh by_name 11 line null 5 'Surface meshes define mesh by_name 12 surface qax8 define mesh by_name 13 surface qax8 define mesh by_name 14 surface qax8 define mesh by_name 15 surface qax8 define mesh by_name 16 surface qax8 !Assignment of Mesh Properties ‘Horizontal Line Mesh assign mesh line 1;3;6;9;12;15 1 Imesh for surface 1 assign mesh line 4 2 assign mesh line 23 Imesh for surface 2 assign mesh line 7 4 assign mesh line 5 5 Imesh for surface 3 assign mesh line 106 ish Fors Assocatonterpne Knapion & Meletiou ™ 51 Tieavy Daly Pavement Design Manualassign mesh line 8 7 Imesh for surface 4 assign mesh line 13 8 assign mesh line 11 9 Imesh for surface 5 assign mesh line 16 10 assign mesh line 14 11 assign mesh surface 112 assign mesh surface 2 13 assign mesh surface 3 14 assign mesh surface 4 15 assign mesh surface 5 16 !Definition of Loading (Unit=N) is defined through the data file generated by LUSAS define loading ILDG= 1 LTPF= “Concentrated Load” PY=-15915. assign loading Point 2 1 {Definition of Material Properties (Units of E=N/mm*) \Surface 1 material (Surfacing) define material 1 elastic isotropic 4000 0.15 \Surface 2 material (Base) define material 2 elastic isotropic 35000 0.15 !Surface 3 material (Subbase) define material 3 elastic isotropic 300 0.2 \Surface 4 material (Capping) define material 4 elastic isotropic 150 0.25 {Surface 5 material (Subgrade) define material 5 elastic isotropic 30 0.25 !Assignment of Material Properties assign material surface 11 assign material surface 2 2 assign material surface 3 3 assign material surface 4 4 assign material surface 5 5 End of Command File British Ports Associaion/taterpave Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual Knapton & Meletiou 52spyouutiod fopour aqp prmoze wontsod wi pouresisou a3] {yors sopou yp areorput Store jeoRIaN pure fEmuOZTOY a | e — ue ] | (doap| JL t squowra] $)) apesSqns| Surdde9} SsEG-THS (aap squsuro[e Z)) aseg]| ‘SSepINS) xipuaddy sip ur umoys are ssans Jo stoned yorya 105 asoyp ase 1 02 Z stuawors “proj yored senoxT9) peor panda B Jo 10aYo axp are19Ua8 0} sv Os IIHS AIDA st | qawa[g ~peo] ay2 Jo uoHay|dde Jo 1uIOd ays *y Ye ONUSO HALA snynuue ue swiog Yorya Tow} apoU g ue siuasardas afGuvjoor YoRA UoReSTIeOpr AWE; erTUY o1sTOWUAS-IKY Heavy Duly Pavernent Design Manual 61 vepave Bitish Ports Associationvin Knapton & MeletiouCompression: JA=2_ B18 C=1.6 De14 E=12 F=1 G08 H=0.6 1-04 3-02 K=0 |Tension: L=0.2 M=0.4 N=0.6 O-08 P=10 IQe12 Red S=16 T=18 U=2 [Stress contours in base of pavement designed to withstand an Equivalent Wheel Load of 100KN over soil of CBR 3%. The load is applied as a stress of 0.8N/mm’ over a circular patch of radius AB Heavy Duly Pavement Design Manual 62 Briish Ports Association Intemave Knapton & MeletiouJOAO N}OOT JO PLOT PANY THa[eAINby ue purerstpiM 07 pouisap 1wauaAed Jo aseq Ut sinoIUOD ssazig| [— + IV smupes Jo yored sejnow v 19A0 ,unLU/Ng'g JO ssons v se payidde st peo] OUI. "7% YD JO [0s nUIDDE| LL PIS RK NY tN SIs=L 9I=S PI=a TIO Ol=d 80-0 90-N FO-W 70-1] qi Vv] uorsua | | oy T0=f F0=I 90=H 80-9 T=] Ti-a Filed 91-0 8i=d@ ZV} orssardwio| Heavy Duly Pavernent Design Manual 63 British Ports Association"interpave Knapton & Meletiou|Compression: JA=2. B=1.8 C=16 D=14 E=12 IF=1 G-08 HOG [04 $02 \Tension: IL-0.2 M=0.4 N-0.6 O-08 P=10 le1.2 Red [200mm [390mm |Stress contours in base of pavement designed to withstand an Equivalent Wheel Load of 300KN over lsoil of CBR 3%. 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