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Translation Equivalence and Non-equivalence

1.0 Introduction（1.5 倍行距）

The concept of TE (translation equivalence) has been an essential issue in translation

theory not only over the last 2000 years, but also in modern studies. Until now various views on
this concept have been put forward by many eminent translation theorists and practitioners. Thus
it can be seen that the concept of TE occupies a very important place in the history of translation
studies.
In this paper, the author is going to clarify the concept of TE and analyze the reasons for
non-equivalence at word level so as to find strategies for handling it. There are altogether three
parts in the body of this paper. In the first part, the author will start with the development of the
concept of TE, in which she will highlight the concept of functional equivalence—the most
important concept of TE studies by a prominent translator Eugene A. Nida. In the next part, there
will be an analysis of the reasons for the relative indeterminacy of the concept of TE. The
translator, text and receptor together constitute the main factors influencing the indeterminacy. In
the last part, at first the author gives an analysis of potential equivalence relations. Among the
four categories of relations, the thorny problem of non-equivalence will be given special
attention. The presentation of the reasons for the problem of non-equivalence is no doubt
conducive to finding solutions to this tough problem. In view of the complexity of non-
equivalence and the limited space of this paper, the author will have to confine the discussion
only to non-equivalence at word level instead of the full treatment of non-equivalence at various
levels, such as at syntactic or even textual level. Finally, there will be a conclusion of the paper.

2.0 The Development of the Concept of TE

2.1 Various Views on the Concept of TE

The concept of TE has a long history and is still a hot topic in translation studies at present,
but the time when the term TE was put forward in translation studies cannot be determined. It

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was presumably Jackson who introduced the term “equivalence” in his article “On linguistic
aspects of translation”. This article has become a classic of translation studies because of
Jackson’s coinage of the concept of “equivalence in difference” which has turned out to be vital
for the further development of translation studies.
From then on, different terms on the concept of TE have been constantly put forward, such
as “closest natural equivalence” (Nida, 1965), “formal correspondence vs. dynamic equivalence”
(Nida, 1964), “communicative equivalence” (Reiss, 1976), “text-pragmatic equivalence” (Wilss,
1980) and so on. In spite that all of these terms are different from each other, they still share
something in common, i.e. they all have absorbed to varying degrees some concepts from
linguistic theories, such as the theory of applied linguistics and the theory of transformational
grammar. Thus they may be viewed as the linguistically oriented schools, whose aims are to
make the study of translation rigorously scientific and watertight just as linguistics aims at
making the study of language strictly scientific.
During the boom of the strictly scientific linguistic theories, many linguists developed
theoretical approaches to translation. In the United States the most influential scholar was
undoubtedly Eugene A. Nida, who, on the basis of his own rich experience in Bible translating,
developed a theory of translation and put forward his concept of functional equivalence, which
will be introduced in detail in the following part.
2.2The Concept of Functional Equivalence
2. 2. 1 A Brief Introduction of Functional Equivalence
Eugene A. Nida, one of the most distinguished theorist in the world, ever suggested: It is
best for us to speak of “functional equivalence” instead of a mere “equivalence” in terms of a
range of adequacy, since no translation is ever completely equivalent. A number of different
translations can in fact represent varying degrees of equivalence. This means that “equivalence”
should be understood on the basis of degrees of closeness to functional identity rather than in its
mathematical meaning of identity.
The concept of functional equivalence is not just a theoretical term but one summed up
through a lot of translation practice. A deep and thorough understanding of this concept is
undoubtedly conducive to the translation practice.

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2. 2. 2 Principles for Producing Functional Equivalence

In order to produce a satisfactory functional equivalent of a source text it is necessary to
make appropriate adjustments, which are governed by a host of relevant principles. If a literal
translation is more or less functionally equivalent in both designative and associative meaning
with the source text, then obviously there is no necessity to make adjustments in form. But if this
is not the case, then the following principles may be helpful so as to produce the closest natural
equivalence.
A. When a close, formal translation may cause misunderstanding of the designative meaning,
then: (a) certain changes must be introduced into the translation or (b) the literal translation may
be retained and at the same time a footnote must be added to explain the potential
misunderstanding.
In almost all circumstances the first method can be adopted to avoid the likely
misunderstanding of the designative meaning, but under certain conditions and in some types of
documents, e.g. legal contracts, wills, political statements, and purposely secret and mysterious
religious texts, the second method should be applied.
B. When a close, formal translation makes no sense, i.e. is totally obscure in designative
meaning, then certain changes should be introduced into the translated text unless the source text
is intentionally obscure. In this case, the obscurity may be reserved and a footnote should be
added to explain the causes for the obscurity of meaning.
Translators are justified in trying to provide a possible meaning for the text to the receptor,
but at the same time they should shoulder the responsibility to avoid any possible ambiguity or
obscurity of meaning in the source text by giving some necessary explanatory notes to the
translated text. In this way, the possibility for the receptor to misunderstand the text can be
reduced to the level as low as possible.
C. When a close, formal translation is so semantically and syntactically difficult that the average
person may not have the ability to understand it, then certain changes should be made. Usually it
is useful to give some footnotes to the receptor to indicate the reasons for such changes.
The translation of a highly technical article for those who may not have some relevant
knowledge requires the translators to simplify the complex vocabulary or to add necessary
explanations for the technical terms. Long and involved sentences may also be broken up into

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more easily understood units.

In some circumstances, it is the complicated structure of the source text that causes troubles
for the receptor, or the level of the source text is much higher than can be expected of the
receptor, thus posing difficulties on translators. Under this condition, the source text should be
“rewritten” so as to make the translated text acceptable to the receptor. This “rewriting”
technique is very common, especially in the third-world countries that are trying to catch up with
the rapid pace of IT developments.
D. When a close, formal translation may cause serious misunderstanding of the associative
meanings of the source text or a big loss in a proper appreciation for the stylistic values of the
source text, it is imperative to make some adjustments so as to reflect the associative values of
the source text.
The extent of adjustments in order to retain the stylistic or rhetorical values of the source text
depends largely upon the forms of literature. For example, as for the translation of lyric poems,
translators are usually required to produce a “totally new poem” on the same theme, especially
when the source and target cultures are distinct.
Many translators take it for granted that a proper translation of the designative meaning is the
most important. In fact, however, the associative meaning is generally far more important in
informing the receptor of the content of the source text, and convincing the receptor of the
feelings expressed by the original author.
E. It is well known that under different conditions corresponding manners are required. In the
process of translation, adjustments should be made according to different circumstances. For
example, the translation of a drama to be printed in a book is quite different from the one that to
be acted on the stage. The former type of translation may have relatively close and formal
correspondences, since in the book there can be footnotes to eliminate the difficulties of
understanding in the receptor. But there is no time or place for footnotes in a stage performance.
Similarly, a document should be translated into two different types, one is suitable to be read
while the other to be broadcast on radio.
F. In some special circumstances, a source text must be translated with accompanying codes.
This requires a lot at all levels: phonology, lexicon, syntax and discourse.
A simple example is the translation of songs, which requires considerable adjustments both in

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the form and sound. Also, the translation of operas involves even more serious difficulties, since
the words must fit both the music and the action.
The above-mentioned six principles for producing functional equivalence are only some
among the innumerable and more complicated principles. Some translation theorists attempt to
set up formulas to make more specific what should be done in each type of situation. However,
just as Nida has ever said:“ there are too many different types of situations, too many different
genres, too many different kinds of audiences, and too many purposes for translating. So what is
most needed are not specific formulas or theories, but translators with unusual sensitivity to the
resources of languages, the importance of culture, and the art of translating.”

3.0 The Analysis of the Reasons for the Relative Indeterminacy

Although the concept of TE has a long history, it cannot even be regarded as a “theory” so
far, because the rules and principles governing the translation are not so stable that it cannot
deserve the title as a “theory”. Principles for producing functional equivalence by Nida have
presented some very basic methods for dealing with various problems popping up in the process
of translating, but they are by no means all-powerful. Nida’s concept of functional equivalence
seems mature and more reasonable than that of other translation theorists and practitioners, but it
is still far from being perfect and has not formed a system on a theoretical level. Because there
are always many complex factors involved in the process of translation, for many years the
concept of TE has been left as unstable and inconsistent. The relative indeterminacy of the
concept of TE has a host of reasons, which are primarily translator-specific, text-specific and
receptor-specific.
3.1 Translator-Specific Aspects of TE
Translation, as any other kind of linguistic performance, involves human activity. Some
translators believe that the translator can be immune or neutral toward the text to be translated,
while others hold that translators cannot avoid adding their own specific colors to the target text.
In my opinion, the latter one sounds more reasonable, since every translator is a human being
with his own and individual psychological features. The quality of his translational activity
depends on his own tendency toward the text to be translated and his own problem-solving

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capacity.
During the process of translating, the translator should try every possible means to retain both
the semantic and syntactic features of the original text. But more often than not, translators are
compelled to make a choice, giving priority either to the syntactic or the semantic perspective of
the source text. In this way, some subjective elements cannot avoid being added into the target
text.
Even in cases where the translator could largely avoid translational decision-making,
because he has to do with a straightforward text, allowing him to maintain the syntactic and
semantic features of the source language text, his influence on the text to be translated may also
be noticeable.
3. 2 Text-specific Aspects of TE
Semantic ambiguity, syntactic complexity and the encoding phase constitute the three main
factors influencing the text to be translated.
During the process of translating, due to the intentional or unintentional semantic ambiguity of
the text to be translated, the translator will encounter many semantic interpretation difficulties or
semantic evaluation problems, thus placing the translator “between the devil and the deep blue
sea”. The translator must therefore make a semantic decision that is acceptable for the receptor.
Hence, the translations of the same text by different translators may give semantically different
translations, with some having heavy semantic distortions of the SLT (source language text),
which is a serious offence against semantic TE requirements.
Text-specific TE problems can occur not only in cases of semantic ambiguity, but also in cases
of syntactic complexity. It is a well-known fact that a translator often has to cope with highly
involved syntactic text elements, which he cannot possibly find the exact correspondences. The
problem is very irritating since in many cases the translator fails to explain clearly why the SL
(source language) author has chosen such a complicated syntactic structure, which will be
damaged if not handled with great care.
Text-specific TE problems can also occur in TL (target language) encoding phase. Here TE
problems are primarily of stylistic nature. Apart from phraseological fixed means of expression
or stereotypes occurring in phatic communication, as a rule, a language offers several TL

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equivalents of more or less equal rank. Within the framework of TE, this phenomenon, i.e. the
possibility of selecting between a number of equally acceptable TE variants is a disadvantage
rather than an advantage.
From the above analysis we may conclude that the task of translation is by no means an
easy one. Semantic ambiguity, syntactic complexity and the TL encoding phase will all
inevitably pose great difficulties on the translator, thus making it hard to reach complete TE.
3.3 Receptor-specific Aspects of TE
The third and final aspect of TE is receptor-specific. Like the author and translator of the
SLT, the receptor of the translation product is an important element in any translation procedure.
It is evident that the role of the TL recipient is crucial if one realizes that a translator may have a
specific target group in mind.
Here this point can be well illustrated by an interesting example: it is a recipient-specific
translation for one of Shakespeare’s plays by a translation team of students from a university,
who try to provide a textual orientation to the receptor whose knowledge of English is
insufficient for reading and digesting Shakespeare’s plays. This project is motivated by the aim
to reveal as closely as possible Shakespeare’s “literary free style” and the semantic bipolarization
of his means of expression and thus to prepare the way for a semantically adequate translation of
Shakespeare’s plays.
From the perspective of receptor-specific TE, Nida has made a communicative approach to
the resolution of TE issues. For Nida, language is above all a multi-functional tool of
communication. In order to be communicatively efficient, linguistic utterances must be receptor-
oriented. This principle is imperative not only for intralingual but interlingual communication to
a larger extent.

4.0 Non-equivalence at Word Level and the Solutions

Although there are a lot of factors—the translator, text and receptor—causing the relative
indeterminacy of the concept of TE, the most fundamental and direct reason for the
indeterminacy is due to the distinct features of the source and target languages themselves. It is
almost impossible to establish one-to-one correspondence on the textual, syntactical or even

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lexical level between the source and target language, since there are still many other types of
correspondence in addition to the one-to-one correspondence.
4.1 The Four Categories of Potential Equivalence Relations
Generally speaking, all potential TE relations can be subsumed under the four categories:
total, optimal, approximative and zero TE (also non-equivalence).
A. Total TE means a formal and semantic one-to-one correspondence between the source and
target text.
B. Optimal TE means a one-to-many correspondence that can be reduced to a one-to-one
correspondence according to the context.
C. Approximative TE means a one-to-part-of-one correspondence. There may exist a
semantically similar item in the target language corresponding to the source language. Both
items are, however, in terms of meaning range not identical.
D. Non-equivalence results from TL lexical gaps relative to SL lexical item, which require
adaptational transfer procedure in going from SL to TL.
Among the above four classifications, the most difficult to cope with should be the last one—
non-equivalence. Whether the choice is easy or troublesome, under the first three conditions, at
least a relative equivalent term can be found in the target language for the source language. As
for non-equivalence, however, it is completely impossible to find a correspondence from the
target language because there are no items at all to choose from.
Non-equivalence may appear at such hierarchical levels as the lexical, syntactic or even the
textual level. Due to the limited space, this paper will only focus on non-equivalence at the most
basic level, i.e. the word level.
4.2 Non-equivalence at Word Level
4. 2. 1 The Factors Responsible for Various Problems of Non-equivalence
Non-equivalence at word level means that the target language has no direct equivalent for a
word that occurs in the source text. There are many factors to cause the problems of non-
equivalence.
A. Culture-specific Concepts
The SL word may express a concept that is totally unknown in the target culture. The concept
may be abstract or concrete; it may have something to do with a religious belief, a social custom,

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or even a type of food. For example, the abstract concept of “speaker”(of the House of
Commons) and the concrete concept of drugstore both are unknown in most of the other
languages.
B. The SL Concept is not Lexicalized in the Target Language
The SL word may express a concept that is known in the target culture but simply not
lexicalized. “Landslide” has no exact equivalent in many languages, although it only means
“overwhelming majority”.
C. The SL Word is Semantically Complicated
This is a common problem in translation. A single word can sometimes express a more
complex meaning than a whole sentence. Languages automatically develop very concise forms
for referring to complex concepts if they become important enough to be talked about often. We
do not usually realize how semantically complex a word is until we have to translate it into a
language that does not have an equivalent for it.
D. The TL Lacks a Superordinate or a Hyponym
The TL may have specific words(hyponym) but no general words (superordinate), and vice
versa.
There is no ready equivalent in many languages for the word “facilities”, meaning “ any
equipment, building, services, etc. that are provided for a particular activity or purpose.” There
are, however, several specific words and expressions which can be thought of as types of
facilities, such as “means of transport,” “essential accommodation” and “equipment.”
Under “house”, English has a variety of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many
language, for example: “bungalow”, “cottage”, “croft”, “chalet”, “lodge”, “hut”, “mansion”,
“manor”, “villa” and “hall”.
E. Differences in Expressive Meaning
There may exist a TL word which has the same prepositional meaning as the SL Word, but it
may have a different expressive meaning. The difference can be great, or it can be subtle but
important enough to pose a translation problem in a given context.
Words like “homosexuality” provide good examples. “Homosexuality” is not an inherently
pejorative word in English, although it is often used in this way. On the other hand, the
equivalent expression in some other languages is inherently more pejorative and would be quite

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difficult to use in a neutral context without suggesting strong disapproval.

F. Differences in Forms
There is often no equivalent in the TL for a particular form in the SL. Certain suffixes and
prefixes which convey prepositional and other types of meaning in English often have no direct
equivalents in other languages.
English has many couplets such as “employer/employee”, “interviewer/interviewee”,
“payer/payee”. It also makes frequent use of suffixes such as “-ish”(e.g. boyish, hellish,
greenish) and “-able”(e.g. believable, drinkable, retrievable). Many other languages, however,
have no ready mechanism for producing such forms and so they are often replaced by an
appropriate paraphrase, depending on the meaning they convey.
G. The Use of Loan Words in the SL
The use of loan words in the SL poses a special problem in translation. Apart from their
respective prepositional meaning, loan words are often used for their prestige value, because
they can add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject matter. This is often lost in
translation because it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning in the
TL.
Loan words also pose problems for the unwary translator, for instance, the problem of
“false friends”, which are words or expressions that have the same form but convey different
meanings. Once a word or expression is borrowed into a language, we cannot predict or control
its development. So usually it is easy to spot some “false friends” because the difference in their
meanings is so great that only a very inexperienced translator is likely to be unaware of it.
4. 2. 2 Solutions Often Adopted by Experienced Translators
With the above problems in mind, we can now look at examples of strategies often used by
professional translators for dealing with various types of non-equivalence. Due to the limited
space, the paper will give only one example to illustrate each strategy. Each example includes
two parts: one is from the source text and the other from the target text, which has been back-
translated from the translated version into English.
A. Translation by a Superordinate
This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non-equivalence. It
works equally well in most, if not all, languages, since the hierarchical structure of semantic

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fields is not language-specific.

Source text: Shampoo the hair with a mild WELLA-SHAMPOO.
Target text : Wash hair with a mild WELLA-SHAMPOO.
“Shampooing” can be seen as a type of “washing” since it is more restricted in its use: you
can wash lots of things but you can only shampoo hair.
B. Translation by a More Neutral / Less Expressive Word
Source text: The panda is something of a zoological mystery.
Target text : The panda may be called a riddle in zoology.
Although there is an equivalent for the word “mystery” in Chinese, it is mostly associative with
religion. The translator feels that it would be wrong to use it in a zoological context.
C. Translation by Paraphrasing, Using a Related Word
Source text: There is strong evidence, however, that giant pandas are related to the bears.
Target text : But there is rather strong evidence that shows that big pandas have a kinship
relation with the bears.
This strategy tends to be used when the concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized
in the TL but in different form.
D. Translation by Paraphrasing, Using Unrelated Words
If the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the TL, the paraphrase
strategy can still be used in some contexts. In stead of a related word, the paraphrase may be
based on modifying a superordinate or simply on explaining the meaning of the source item,
particularly if the item in question is semantically complex.
Source text: the lower mixed broad leaf forests…are the areas most accessible to and disturbed
by Man.
Target text : the mixed broad leaf forests of the lowland area…are the places where
human beings enter most easily and interfere most.
The main advantage of the paraphrase strategy is that it achieves a high level of precision. One
of its disadvantages is that a paraphrase does not have the status of a lexical item and therefore
cannot convey the expressive, evoked, or any kind of associative meaning. A second
disadvantage of using this strategy is that it is cumbersome and awkward to use because it
involves filling a one-item slot with an explanation consisting of several items.

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E. Translation by Omission
This strategy may sound rather absurd, but in fact it does no harm to omit a word or
expression in some contexts. If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or expression is not
vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the reader with lengthy
explanations, translators can and often do simply omit the word or expression in question.
Source text: The panda’s mountain home is rich in plant life and gave us many of the trees,
shrubs and herbs most prized in European gardens.
Target text: The mountain settlements of the panda have rich varieties of plants. There
are many kinds of trees, shrubs and herbal plants that are preciously regarded
by European gardens.
The source text addresses a European audience, and the use of “gave us” highlights its
intended orientation. The back-translation for the translated version addresses a different
audience and therefore suppresses the orientation of the source text by omitting expressions
which betray its original point of view.
F. Translation by Illustration
This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to a
physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on space and if the
text has to remain short, concise, and to the point.
The examples discussed above do not, by any means, include an exhaustive account of the
strategies available for dealing with non-equivalence at word level. One should continue to study
and analyze texts translated by experienced translators in order to discover more strategies and
learn to assess the advantages and disadvantages of using each strategy in various contexts.

5.0 Conclusion

This paper focuses on the concept of TE and non-equivalence at word level. Due to various
factors, this concept is far from being taken as a theory. Among various views on this concept,
functional equivalence is relatively mature and more reasonable than others. A careful analysis
of the reasons for the relative indeterminacy of the concept should be useful to conduct further

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experiments and produce a more stable theory so as to guide the translation activity. Also it is
helpful to have a basic understanding of the factors responsible for non-equivalence at word
level and some strategies for dealing with it.
The views on the concept of TE are still at issue. This paper just makes a skin-deep research
on it. But the argument, which comes from authentic practices and authorized theories, is logical
and reasonable. The researches on the concept of TE are helpful to the production of a mature
translation theory. Yet, more researches are necessary to better the real application. The task is
tough, but the prospects are bright.

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（空四行）

Acknowledgements (加黑三号)

I am greatly indebted to my supervisor, Professor/Mr./Ms John Smith, who has

given me valuable advice and enlightened me on a number of academic problems
concerning my thesis.
Thanks should also be given to the teachers and my classmates, who helped

me a lot during the accomplishment of my thesis. (四号)

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济南大学毕业论文用纸