_________________________________________________________

AEROSTRUCTURES
-BENDING STRESS

Introduction:

In the following, the theory will be developed to enable an analysis to be made,

of the bending stresses in beams. Initially, bending stress relationships will be derived
and then the theory and practicalities of finding principal axis properties for various
beam geometries will be illustrated. The notes then address the analysis of shear
stress distribution in a beam section.

Bending Stresses

This section firstly derives the fundamental relationship between the bending
moment, second moment of area, direct stress, Young's modulus, radius of curvature
and position in the beam cross section for a beam. This is then taken a step further
with the relationship made to the differential equation of the deflection curve; used to
calculate gradients of and deflections in beams.

For the portion of beam shown above, when subject to bending, the 'top' will be
in compression and the bottom will be in tension. Consequently, it follows that there
must be a portion in between bearing no stress. This is known as the neutral plane or
in a longitudinal sense, the neutral axis, N.A., and is where the longitudinal deformation
is zero

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Now, consider a fibre EF, between sections AC and BD, which is dx long.
Initially, EF will be the same length as GH at the N.A. The beam bends and EF extends
to E'F'; but GH stays unstrained to G'H'.

Let R be the radius of curvature of G'H', therefore

GH = G ′H ′ = dx
= R.dθ
Also, it follows that

E ′F ′ = (R + y).dθ

We can write the longitudinal strain as

E ′F ′ - EF
εx=
EF

but

EF = GH = G′H ′
= R.dθ

so it follows that

(R + y).dθ - R.dθ
εx=
R.dθ

thence

y
εx=
R

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Further more, as
dx = R.dθ

so

1 dθ
=
R dx

therefore

dθ
εx= .y
dx

Stress-Strain Relationship

We may write

E=σ x
εx

and therefore

σx
ε x=
E

So, by substituting in for equation (1)

σx= y
εx=
E R

or alternatively

σx= E
y R

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Now consider the force on an elemental area due to bending

dF x = σ x .dA

therefore, the total force in the x-direction (longitudinal)

F x = ∫ A σ x .dA

where A = the total area of the section.

The total force over the section must be ZERO (as no external force is acting
over the section, i.e. ΣF = 0). Consequently we may write

F x = ∫ A σ x .dA = 0

Substituting equation (2) for σx gives

E
∫ y.dA = 0
R A

but as E/R is a constant it follows that

E
≠0
R

and hence

∫ A y.dA = 0

this is the first moment of area of the section about the N.A. The 1st
moment of area about its centroid is zero, and therefore the N.A. and
centroid are coincident.

Taking moments, the elemental force dFx acts at a distance y from the N.A.,
therefore

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

dM = y. dF x

where dM = the moment of axial force @ the neutral surface.

Consequently, for the whole section

∫ A dM = ∫ A y. dF x
= ∫ A y.σ x dA

(as dFx = σxdA)

The externally applied moment M must balance this moment, i.e. ∫AdM = M and
hence

M = ∫ A y σ x .dA

Again substituting for σx from equation (2) (i.e. E/R = σx/y) gives

E 2
M= ∫ A y .dA
R

Now, ∫Ay2 dA is the second moment of area of the cross section and denoted I.
Hence we may write that

E
M= I
R

or alternatively

1 M
=
R EI

So the final bending relationship may be written as

M E σx
= =
I R y

The relationship σx = My/I is commonly used.

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The Curvature-Bending Moment Relationship.

The figure above shows a beam that is bent by a small amount. Now, it can be
seen that

ds = R.dθ
and that

1 dθ
=-
R ds

(as dθ is -negative for positive increments of ds)

It is true that ds ≈ dx, as the beam is subjected to a small deformation, and that θ
≈ tanθ. Additionally, tanθ = dv/dx where v are vertical deflections which are relatively
small.

Hence we may write that θ = dv/dx and differentiate with respect to x giving

dθ d 2 v
=
dx dx2

which upon substituting ds for dx

dθ d 2 v
=
ds dx2

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Thence
2
1 d v
=- 2
R dx

Previously we showed that

y
ε x=
R
2
v
=- y d 2
dx

Using the equation derived earlier

1 M
=
R EI

we may arrive at the relationship

2
d v M
2
=-
dx EI

or, rewriting in a more common form

2
d v
EI 2
=-M
dx

We may use this equation to calculate displacements by integrating twice over.

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Principal Axes

In this section we will look at the analysis of stresses developed in symmetrical

and then unsymmetrical beam sections. For this analysis we need to sum or integrate
expressions for the total area in question. The Integrals which need to be evaluated
are:
1. the first moment of area
2. the second moment of area
3. the product moment of area
The transformation of axes to principal axes is then evaluated with examples of the
practical application of this theory.

First Moment of Area

Used to find the position of the centre of area, or centroid of a shape.

where C.A. is the Centre of Area

A y = ∫ A y.dA

For Example

( A1 + A2 ). y = A1 . y1 + A2 . y 2

from which we can find the centroidal distance, i.e. y .

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Second Moment of Area

If the first moment of area of an element dA is again multiplied by its co-ordinate

then the second moment of area results, namely

2
∫ A y .dA

For Example

d/2
+d/2 2  by 3 
Ix= ∫- d/2 y b.dy =  
 3  - d/2

giving

3
bd
Ix=
12

And similarly

3
db
Iy=
12

Parellel Axis Theorem

There are numerious cercumstances when it is most useful to be able to

determine the second moment of area about an axis parallel to the centroidal axis.

Taking the second moment of area of the element dA about the x' axis gives
2
(y+b) .dA. So for the entire section

2
I x′ = ∫ A (y + b ) .dA

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

and multiplying out

2 2
I x′ = ∫ A y .dA + 2b ∫ A y.dA + ∫ A b .dA

Now, as ∫A y dA = 0 (the 1st moment of area) about its centroidal axis, it follows
that

2
I x′ = I x + b A

And similarly

2
I y′ = I y + a A

Product Moment of Area

So far in lectures we have assumed that the beam sections are symmetrical
about the plane of bending

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Now, if a bending moment is applied to a beam about the x-x axis such that no
bending occurs about the y-y axis then

∫ A σ .dA x x = 0

as the sum of the internal forces must be ZERO

Now we know that

My
σ x=
Ix

and therefore it follows that

My
∫A x.dA = 0
Ix

However, as M and Ix are constant then

∫ A xy.dA = 0

This last integral is known as the product moment of area or, sometimes, the
product of inertia and is measured about the x-x and the y-y axes. In this case, it was
shown for pure bending: when the product moment of area is taken about the centroidal
axes and perpendicular to the plane of bending it is ZERO.
When the product moment of area is ZERO about a set of mutually
perpendicular axes, then these axes will be principal axes; and will be the principal axes
of the section in question. The second moments of area about a set of principal axes
are called the principal second moments of area; being maximum and minimum
values about any set of axes passing through the centroid.

Moments of Area About Inclined Axes

So, for the unsymmetrical bending of beams it can be necessary to consider

bending about a rotated set of axes; that is relative to our reference axes used
previously.

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Let us consider the figure above which shows a set of reference axes denoted x
and y with second moments of area Ix, Iy and Ixy. Also shown are a set of axes
equivalent to the previous axes rotated anti-clockwise through and angle θ and denoted
x', y'; with their respective second moments of area Ix', Iy' and Ix'y'.

Now it follows that

x' = xcosθ + ysinθ
y' = ycosθ – xsinθ

and so as Ix' = ∫A y2.dA we can write

2
I x′ = ∫ A (y cos θ - x sin θ ) .dA

Expanding and rearranging

2 2
I x′ = I x cos θ + I y sin θ - 2 I xy sin θ cos θ

1 1
I x′ = ( I x + I y ) + ( I x - I y ) cos 2θ - I xy sin 2θ
2 2

In a similar manner the procedure may be repeated for Iy',

2 2
I y′ = ∫ A x .dA = ∫ A (x cos θ + y sin θ ) .dA

arriving at the following result

1 1
I y′ = ( I x + I y ) - ( I x - I y ) cos 2θ + I xy sin 2θ
2 2

Finally, we need to calculate a corresponding result for the product moment of

area. So

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

I x′y′ = ∫ A x′y′dA = ∫ A (x cos θ + y sin θ )(y cos θ - x sin θ ).dA

= ∫ A (xy cos 2 θ - x 2 cos θ sin θ + y 2 cos θ sin θ - xy sin 2 θ ).dA

= ∫ A ( cos2 θ - sin 2 θ )xy.dA + ∫ A cos θ sin θ ( y 2 - x 2 ).dA

1 2
= cos 2θ . ∫ A xy.dA + sin 2θ .[ ∫ A y .dA - ∫ A x 2 .dA]
2

1
I x′y′ = cos 2θ . I xy + sin 2θ .( I x - I y )
2

axes for which the product moment of area is zero are the principal axes, and so
by setting the final equation for Ix'y' = ZERO we may determine the angle of the axes
about which the maximum and minimum principal second moments of area occur.
Hence

1
cos 2θ . I xy = sin 2θ .( I y - I x )
2

which upon rearranging yields

2 I xy
tan 2θ =
Iy - Ix

The maximum and minimum principal second moments of area are given the
notation Iu and Iv. It should be noted that Iu + Iv = Ix + Iy.

In Summary, so far.

• The axes for which Ixy is zero are called the principal axes of a section and are
the axes about which bending takes place.
• For a symmetrical section the axes of symmetry are also principal axes.
• For an unsymmetrical section, e.g. an angle section, the position of the principal
axes must be determined.

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

Asymmetrical Bending

Introduction

So far, our analysis has concerned itself with finding first and second moments of
area, product moments of area, and then applying these properties of a shape to
identifying the principal axes. Now, it is also important to be able to analyse the
bending in a component which either does not have any axes of symmetry or for a
symmetrical section about an asymmetrical axis. We will now, thus, consider a beam
with unsymmetrical bending moment or skew bending.

Beam With Unsymmetrical Bending Moment

Consider an arbitrary section, shown above, in

which a bending moment M acts in the direction of the y-
axis, i.e. the bending is about x-x. The principal axes, u-
u and v-v, are inclined at an angle α to x-x and y-y. Now,
the bending moment may be resolved onto the principal
axes thus

M u = M.cos α

and

M v = M.sin α

From the engineer's theory of bending the direct stress along the axis of the
beam, σz, is given by

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

My
σ z=
I

Now, if we consider an elemental area dA having ordinates u and v relative to the

principal axes, and also given that the total stress axial to the beam may be formed by a
superposition of the effects of the two moments Mu and Mv, then it follows that

M. cos α M.sin α
σ z= .v + .u
I uu I vv

Or, simplifying

 cos α sin α 
σ z = M. .v + .u 
 I uu I vv 

When there is a moment inclined to the principal axes then the neutral plane will
no longer be perpendicular to the plane of bending. However, the neutral plane can be
simply determined by setting the last equation equal to ZERO, i.e. σz = 0 which is the

v. cos α u.sin α
=-
I uu I vv

case at the neutral plane. Thus

I 
v = -  uu tan α .u
 I vv 

and comparing with the equation of a straight line y = mx + c

i.e. a line with a gradient -(Iuu/Ivv.tanα)

Consequently we may give the inclination of the neutral axis as a result of this
unsymmetrical bending moment. Denoting this inclination φ and referencing it from the
principal axis u-u

tan φ = - I vv tan α
I uu

Alternative Treatment

Asymetrical pure bending of a beam is considered for positive external moments of My

and Mx applied about centroidal axes. Considering the zy-plane (where the z-axis runs
down the beam axis) equations of equilibrium may be written, thus

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

∫ σ dA = 0
A
z

∫σ
A
z y.dA = M x and ∫ σ z x.dA = M y
A
However, we can recall that
yE
σz =
Ry
where Ry is the radius of curvature of the zy-plane.

Consequently we may write the following

E
R y ∫A
Mx = y 2 dA

EI
= x
Ry
Similarly for My in the zx-plane
E
My =
Ry ∫ yx.dA
A

EI yx
=
Ry
For bending only in the yx-plane may be treated in a similar manner
E
My =
Rx A ∫ x 2 dA

EI y
=
Rx
Similarly for Mx in the zx-plane
E
R x ∫A
Mx = yx.dA

EI yx
=
Rx
For simultaneous bending the above results may be superimposed to yield
the following
EI y EI yx
My = +=
Rx Ry

EI x EI yx
Mx =+=
Ry Rx
The above equations can be solved to give radii of curvature in y and x
1 M x I y − M y I yx
=
Ry E ( I y I x − I yx2 )

PAGE 16.
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1 M y I x − M x I yx
=
Rx E ( I y I x − I yx2 )

It should be noted that the last but one pair of equations can be re-written in
matrix form
 M y   EI y EI yx  1 / R x 
 =  
 x   EI yx EI x  1 / R y 
M

So by taking the inverse matrix the radii of curvature can be determined

−1
1 / R x  1  I y I yx   M y 
 =   
1 / R y  E  I yx I x   M x 

1 / R x  1  Ix − I yx   M y 
 =   
1 / R y  E ( I y I x − I yx ) − I yx
2
I y   M x 

The resulting bending stress is thus the summation of the components for
bending in each of the zy and zx-plane.

yE xE
σz = +
R y Rx
Leading to
 M y I x − M x I xy   M x I y − M y I xy 
σz = x +  y
 I I −I2   I I −I2 
 x y xy   x y xy 

Alternatively, the last equation can be rearranged in the following way

 M x ( I y . y − I xy .x)   M y ( I xx .x − I xy . y 
σz = + 
 I I − I 2   I I − I 2 
 x y xy   x y xy 

It should be noted that if either My = 0 or Mx = 0 a stress will still be produced

that varies in both x and y.

Also when Ixy = 0 the bending stress relationship can be simplified to the
following

M y M x
σ z =  x  +  
y

I I 
 x   y 

This condition will occur when either or both the centroidal axes lie as axes of
symmetry and are thus principal axes.
The position of the neutral axis is such that it always passes through the

PAGE 17.
____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

centroid of the section and can be determined by setting the value of σz equal to
zero.
( M y I x − M x I xy ) x + ( M x I y − M y I xy ) y = 0

Tabular Method: First, Second & Product Moment of Area Calculation

A useful method of calculating the properties of areas for a chosen section is by

the use of a table. The method will be shown by way of an example.

Example

Determine the position of the centroid and the centroid second moments of area
for the following section

All dimensions in Centimeters

Firstly a table should be draw up with the following format taking values with a x-y
co-ordinate datum at the bottom left hand corner of the section. (In order to keep
numbers small centimetres have been used; however this is not a preferred unit.)

(Self)
Item
b d A x y Ax Ay Ax2 Ay2 Axy Ix Iy Ixy

1 5 2 10 7.5 9 75 90 565 810 675 3.3 20.8 0

2 2 6 12 6 5 72 60 432 300 360 36 4 0

3 10 2 20 5 1 100 20 500 20 100 6.7 167 0

Σ 42 247 170 1495 1130 1135 46 191.5 0

Then after calculating the summation values and placing them in their relavent
column in the last row the following calculations can be performed.

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Co-ordinates of Centroid

ΣAx 247
x= = = 5.88cm
ΣA 42

ΣAy 170
y= = = 4.05cm
ΣA 42

Second Moment of Area

About reference axes (R.A.)

2 4
I x(RA) = ΣA y + Σ I x(Self) = 1130 + 46 = 1176 cm

2 4
I y(RA) = ΣA x + ΣI y(Self) = 1495 + 191.5 = 1686 cm

4
I xy(RA) = ΣAxy + ΣI xy(Self) = 1135 + 0 = 1135 cm

About centroidal axes

2 2 4
I x(Section) = I x(RA) - y ΣA = 1176 - ( 4.05 x42) = 486 cm

2 2 4
I y(Section) = I y(RA) - x ΣA = 1686 - ( 5.88 x42) = 233 cm

4
I xy(Section) = I xy(RA) - x.y ΣA = 1135 - ( 5.88x4.05 x42) = 135 cm

n.b. The calculation steps for the second moment of area can be condensed by using
the three equations below, which are simply an amalgamation of the two previous
steps

2 2
I x(Section) = ΣA y + Σ I x(Self) - y .ΣA

2 2
I y(Section) = ΣA x + Σ I y(Self) - x .ΣA

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____________________________________________________________BENDING STRESS

I xy(Section) = ΣAxy + Σ I xy(Self) - x.y .ΣA

PAGE 20.