ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Laplace’s Eqn & Flow Nets

• Today

– Streamlines &
Streamtubes

– Laplace’s Eqn

– Flow Nets

Streamline
Streamline:
dl q a line everywhere tangent
q
dl to the local veloctiy vector

In GW Hydrology, often
called a “flowline.”

qy
There is no flow across a
streamline.
qx
Consequently, no-flow
Neumann boundaries are
also streamlines.

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Streamtube
Streamtube:
a region bounded by
streamlines

Because there is no flow across

the bounding surface, each cross-
section of the streamtube carries
the same mass flow.

So the streamtube is equivalent to

channel flow embedded in the
rest of the flowfield.

Continuity along a streamtube

B
If steady flow or incompressible flow,
A and no internal sources/sinks of water
mass flux in = mass flux out
in a streamtube, or
! A q A AA = ! B qB AB
AA = area of streamtube at A

But our model goes further & assumes " A = " B

(e.g., isothermal fluid, only slightly compressible (via ! )
lum e,
co pl
n.

volumetric flux in = volumetric flux out

cy am
ar ex

q A AA = qB AB , or
a D mple

Q A = Q B i.e., constant discharge

Si

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Continuity along a streamtube in 2D

A flowline
B
QA
Streamtube discharge QB
=Q

AA = area of streamtube at A = bA wA A and B are constant head

bA = depth or thickness of streamtube at A lines (equipotential lines).
wA = width of streamtube at A

Assuming " A = " B

(e.g., isothermal fluid, only slightly compressible (via ! )
volumetric flux in = volumetric flux out
q A AA = q A AA , or q A w AbA = qB wB bB , or
QA = QA = Q i.e., constant discharge

Equipotentials and Gradient

Recall a line of equipotential
where head h = constant.
The gradient of h, or -!h, is the direction of
steepest decent down the potential surface, in
2D:
h=100m
Direction of h=90m
hydraulic gradient. h=80m
h=70m

-!h

Potentiometric map in 2D
(Bradley and Smith, 1995)

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Gradient and Darcy Velocity

Recall Darcy’s Law
or q = " K!h .
If hydraulic conductivity is isotropic, q = " K!h
Then vectors q and -!h are parallel.
– i.e., they point in the same direction.
– They are simply scaled by the scalar K. Conductivity ellipse
h=100m
Direction of h=90m
hydraulic gradient. h=80m
h=70m

Under these conditions

equipotentials and streamlines -!h
should be orthogonal. Specific discharge vector.

Potentiometric map in 2D

Let’s take advantage of the concepts of

– Streamlines,
– streamtubes for steady flow without
sources/sinks, i.e. QA=QB, and
– specific discharge vectors, and therefore
streamlines, orthogonal to the equipotentials,
to develop a simple solution method for 2D
steady flow problems:
“The Flow Net.”

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Conceptual Model:
Steady flow in a homogeneous, isotropic aqufer
Evolution of a governing equation:
#h
• General Aquifer Model Ss = ! " K!h
#t
• Steady Flow ! " K!h = 0

• Isotropic Aquifer ! " K!h = 0

• Homogeneous Aquifer
– LaPlace’s Equation
K! 2 h = 0 or ! 2 h = 0

• 2 Dimensional LaPlace’s ! 2h ! 2h
Equation, say in x,z, then: + =0
!x 2 !z 2

• Add BC’s & Geometry

Flow Net: A graphical method to solve these types of 2D flow problems.

Flow Net
• A graphical solution method for 2D steady flow in a
homogeneous, isotropic aquifer
– assuming no distributed internal sources/sinks.
• Can be extended to
homogeneous, anistropic aquifers,
and even to some
simple heterogeneous situations.
• Also applies to vertically integrated, essentially horizontal
flow aquifer models, if
– flow is steady,
– transmissivity T is homogeneous & isotropic, &
– there are no internal sources/sinks, like recharge:

! 2h ! 2h
T" 2x,y h = 0 # " 2x,y h = 0 + =0
!x 2 !y 2
where h is the vertically averaged head. LaPlace’s Eqn.

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Flow Net
h1 h2 h3 equipotential
Element 1:

"w1 "w2
Q "l1 "l2
Assume
thickness = b

flowline

h1-h2 ="h1 "h2

Make head drops the same = "h

In element 1:
dh1 !h !w1
Q1 = KA = K !w1 b 1 Q1 = K !h1 b
dl1 !l1 !l1
aspect ratio of net elements

Flow Net
h1 h2 h3
Element 1: Element 2:

Q1 Q2

Discharge: h1-h2 ="h1 "h2

!wi
Flow in element i of a streamtube is: Qi = K !hi b
!li
Flow through each element is the same:
!w1 !w2 !w1 !w2
Q1 = Q2 " K !h1 b = K !h2 b !h1 = !h2
!l1 !l2 !l1 !l2

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Gradient:
Flow Net
Let the head drop in each element of the tube
be the same: "h1 = "h2 = "hi = "h = constant.

Require that all flow nets be drawn this way.

Leads to the Net Aspect Ratio constraint:
!w1 !w2 !w1 !w2
!h1 = !h2 "h = constant =
!l1 !l2 !l1 !l2
So if
!w1 !w2 !wi , for all elements i,
= =
!l1 !l2 !li then Laplace’s equation is satisfied.

Usually pick the aspect ratio to be one, ( !w !l ) = 1 ;

makes it easier to draw a good flow net.
A flow net must meet these requirements ("h and !w !l are constants).
If it does, it then provides a graphical solution to Laplace’s equation.

Rules for Constructing Flow Nets

If only boundary conditions are known:
– Constant head boundaries (lakes, rivers) represent initial or final
equipotentials
– Impermeable (no-flow) boundaries are flowlines
– Draw an appropriate number of flow lines and flow tubes
(with a pencil; usually not more than five or so flow tubes)
– Draw the equipotentials
(keep the aspect ratio equal to one)
– Remember that equipotentials and flowlines must always intersect at
right angles
– Adjust until the flow net is “square”
• Keep !w !l =1, and this is why we use the term “square”
• Ok to end up with fractional “squares”
– A flowline should never intersect
• another flow line
• an impermeable boundary
– Re K
• Don’t need K to draw flow net as the net satisfies LaPlace’s Equation
– which is insensitive to conductivity
• Do need K to find fluxes and travel times.

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Drawing Method:
1. Draw to a convenient scale the geometry of the aquifer.
2. Establish constant head and no-flow boundary conditions
3. Draw one or two flow lines and equipotential lines near the boundaries.
4. Sketch intermediate flow lines and equipotential lines by smooth curves
adhering to right-angle intersections and square grids.
Where flow direction is a straight line, flow lines are an equal distance apart
and parallel.
5. Continue sketching until a problem develops. Each problem will indicate
changes to be made in the entire net. Successive trials will result in a
reasonably consistent flow net.
6. In most cases, 5 to 10 flow lines are usually sufficient. Depending on the
number of flow lines selected, the number of equipotential lines will
automatically be fixed by geometry and grid layout.

After Philip Bedient

Rice University

Example 1:
Hydraulic structure

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Luthy Lake Example 2: Aquifer Flow

h = 100 m
Inflow to a lake used for water supply.

Aquifer parameters:
b = 20 m
K = 10-5 m/s
T = 2 x 10 !4 m 2 s !1

h = 92 m Antoniette Orphanage:
needs 50 m3/d
Peacock Pond

For the entire flow net,

Luthy Lake
h = 100 m !hi !h
Qi = KAi = K !wi b
!li !li
Since the flow net has aspect ratio of one:

Qi = K b !h = T !h
For the entire flow net,
m
QT = " Qi = " T !h = m T !h
i =1

where “m” is the number

of flow tubes;
h = 92 m m = 2 in this example

Peacock Pond

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Luthy Lake
QT = m T !h
h = 100 m m2
T = 2 x 10 ! 4
s
100 m - 92 m
"h = =2m
4
m=2
2 3
& m # m
QT = 2!$$ 2 x 10 -4 !! (2 m ) = 8 x 10 -4
% s " s
3
& s #& -4 m # m3
QT = $ 86400 ! $$ 8 x 10 ! = 69
% d"% s !" d
h = 92 m

Peacock Pond

Rules for Constructing Flow Nets

If only heads are known:
– Interpolate equipotentials from head data
(use existing contours if available)
– Impermeable (no-flow) boundaries are flowlines
– Draw an appropriate number of flow lines and flow tubes
(with a pencil; usually not more than five or so flow tubes)
– Draw the equipotentials
(keep the aspect ratio equal to one)
– Remember that equipotentials and flowlines must always intersect at
right angles
– Adjust until the flow net is “square”
• Keep =1, and this is why we use the term “square”
• Ok to end up with fractional “squares”
– A flowline should never intersect
• another flow line
• an impermeable boundary
– Re K
• Don’t need K to draw flow net as the net satisfies LaPlace’s Equation
– which is insensitive to conductivity
• Do need K to find fluxes and travel times.

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Example 3: Discharge

T = 4 x 10-4 m2 s-1

If T is known can calculate the aquifer discharge from the streamtube density.

Similar application: aquifer recharge. http://wapi.isu.edu/envgeo/aquifer_gw_review/flownets.htm

Example 4a: Inverse for T

Heat contours & flow lines around a pumping well.
Well pumping rate =
Qw = QT = m T !h
4 5
Invert for estimate of T:
3 6 Qw
QT=Qw
T=
m !h
From flow net:
2 7 m=9
"h=1m

From measurement:
1 8 Qw = 5000 m3/day

9 Qw 5000 m 3
T= = = 2500 m 2 /day
m "h 2 ! 1 m day

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Example 4c: Pumping Centers

SZ2005 Fig. 5.8

Example 5: Variation in K

Flow net for unit with

- "h = constant
- constant b

What is happening here?

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Example 5: Variation in K
K1 , Q1 , T1
Qi = K i b !h = Ti !h

!w1 !w2
Q1 = Q2 " K1 !h b = K 2 !h b
!l1 !l2
& 'w # & 'w #
T1 $ ! = T2 $ !
K2 , Q2 , T2 % 'l "1 % 'l " 2
& 'w #
$ !
% 'l "1
T2 = T 1 & 'w #
$ !
% 'l " 2

In this case, "w1 = "w2; "l1 = 2 " l2

1 1
T2 = T1 = T1
1 2
0.5

SZ2005 Fig. 5.9

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Example 7: Aquifers & Aquitards

SZ2005 Fig. 5.10

Next time: flow nets in anisotropic media

SZ2005 Fig. 5.11

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Next time:
Luthy Lake
h = 100 m Travel time

Contamination in Luthy Lake!

4
n 4
"ttotal = ! "ti = ! "li2
1 K"h 1

Travel time is only 81 days!

h = 92 m

Peacock Lake

Flow Nets
• Advantages
– Simple
– Easy to do; gives quick understanding of flow regime
– Examines aquifer at much larger scale than core, slug
or pumping tests
– Can give as accurate a result as the simple
conceptualization allows and data justifies
• Disadvantages
– Assumptions are very constraining
– Especially
• Steady State
• More or less homogeneous domain
• Two dimensional flow

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ERTH403/HYD503 Lecture 6

Proper Mathematical Statement

• Review • Next time
– Some Simple
– Streamlines & Streamtubes Analytical Solutions
– Laplace’s Eqn – 1D Steady Flow
• Confined & Water Table
Aquifers Bounded by
– Flow Nets
Streams, and
• Well Hydraulics
`

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