Elasticity

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Introduction:
In all engineering construction the component parts of a structure must be assigned

definite physical sizes. Such parts must be properly proportioned to resist the actual or probable
forces that may be imposed upon them. When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to
undergo some deformation. Due to chesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation.
This resistance by which material of the body posses the deformation is known as strength of
material or mechanics of solid. A plastic material undergoes a continuous deformation during
the period of loading and the deformation is permanent and the material does not regain its
original dimensions on the removal of the loading.
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A rigid material not undergo any deformation any deformation when subjected to an external
loading. The behaviour of member subjected to forces depends not only on the fundamental laws
of Newtoninan mechanics that govern the equilibrium of the forces but also on the physical
characteristics of the material of which the member is fabricated.
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Mechanics of solids of strength of materials is a blended science of experiment and Newtonian
postulates of analytical mechanics. Complete, carefully drawn diagrammatic sketches of problems
to be solved will pay large dividends in a quicker and more complete mastery of this subject.
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1.2 Elasticity
It is the property of the material which enables it to regain its original shape after deformation
within the elastic limit:
(Or)
B
Elasticity is the property of a material by virtue of which deformation caused by applied load
disappears upon removal of the load.
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Elasticity is a tensile property of the material.
Examples: Steel, rubber

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Steel is said to be more elastic than rubber.
1.3 Plasticity
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It is the property of the material which enables the formation of permanent deformation.
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(Or)
The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without
rupture of failure.
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Examples: Clay, lead

Note: Plastic deformation will takes place only after the elastic range.
Applications: Forming, shaping and extruding operations.
Deforming force: An external force applied to a body which change its size or shape or both is
called deforming force.
Perfectly Elastic body: A body is said to be perfectly elastic if it completely remains its original
form when the deforming force is removed. Since no material can regain completely its original
form so the concept of perfectly elastic body is only an ideal concept. A quartz fiber is the nearest
approach to the perfectly elastic body.
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Perfectly Plastic body: A body is said to be perfectly if it does not regain its original form even
slightly when the deforming force is removed. Since every material partially regain its original
form on the removal of deforming force, so the concept of perfectly plastic body is only an ideal
concept. Paraffin wax, wet clay are the nearest approach to a perfectly plastic bodies.
Cause of Elasticity: In a solid, atoms and molecules are arranged in such a way that each
molecule is acted upon by the forces due to the neighbouring molecules. These forces are known
as intermolecular forces. When no deforming force is applied on the body, each molecule of the
solid (i.e body) is in its equilibrium position and the inter molecular forces between the molecules
of the solid are maximum. On applying the deforming force on the body, the molecules either
come closer or go far apart from eact other. As a result of this, the molecules are displaced from
their equilibrium position. In other words intermolecular forces of get changed and restoring
forces are developed on the molecules. When the deforming force is removed, these restoring
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forces bring the molecules of the solid of their respective equilibrium —————————————
————————— regains its original form.
DEFINITION OF STRESS:
The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known as stress.
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(Or)
When a body is acted upon by external force or load, internal resisting forces are set up and it is
then said to be in a state of stress.
The intensity of the force perpendicular or normal to the section is called the normal stress at a
point.
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The other component of the intensity of force acts parallel to the plane of the elementary area as
in figure. 1.2. This component of the intensity of force is called the shearing stress.
B
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In mathematically,
'F
Lim dF
The normal stress V 'Ao0'A
, N / m2
dA
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'F
Lim dU
And Shearing stress W 'Ao0'A
, N / m2
dA
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Where F = force acting normal to the cut.

A = corresponding area
V = component of the force parallel to the cut.
Note: Normal stresses result from force components perpendicular to the plane of the cut, while
shearing stresses result from components parallel to the plane of the cut.
The unit of stress is the N / m 2 , also designated a Pascal (Pa).
1.5 TYPES OF STRESS COMPRESSIVE, TENSILE AND SHEARING STRESS:
The important types of simple stresses are:

1. Compressive stress 2. Tensile stress, and 3. Shear stress.
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1.5 COMPRESSIVE STRESS:
15.1 The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as shown in
Fig 1.3 as a result of which there is a decrease in length of the body, is known stress is given by
Re sisting Force Push P P
Vp or V p N / m2
Area ( A) Area A A
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B
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1.52 The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls in Fig 14. as
a result of which there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress .
Tensile Stress: Let: P = Pull (or force) acting on the body.
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A = cross – sectional area of the body.

L = original length of the body.
dL = increase in length due to pull P acting on the body
V = stress induced in the body and
= strain (i.e tensile strain).
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An equilibrium, P = Resisting force as shown in Fig. 1.4.
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This resisting force per unit area is known as stress or intensity of stress.
Re sisting force R Re sisting load P P
? Tensile stress V t Cross sec tional area
or V t N / m2 .
A A
1.5..3 SHEAR STRESS :
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section as shown in Fig 1.5 as a result of which the body finds
to shear off across the section, is known as shear stress.
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Shear resis tan ce
? Shear Stress W Shear area
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R P
=
A A
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B
P P
W
L u width L u1
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Where L = Length of block

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Width = unity
3. Bulk stress or All around stress or Pressure: When force is acting all along the surface
normal to the area, then force acting per unit area is known s pressure. The effect of pressure is
to produce volume change. The shape of the body may or may not change depending upon the
homogeneity of body.
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Illustration 1
Find out longitudinal stress and tangential stress on a fixed block
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100 sin 300
Sol. Longitudinal or normal stress V1 5 N / m2
5u 2
100 cos 300

Tangential stress V1 5 3 N / m2
5u 2
Illustration 2
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Find out Bulk stress on the spherical object of radius cm if area and mass of piston is 50 cm2
S
and 50 kg respectively for a cylinder filled with gas.
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mg 50 u 10
Sol. Pgas Pa 4
1u105 2 u 105 N / m2
A 50 u10
Bulk stress = Pgas = 2 × 105 N/m2.
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1.19 BARS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH :
Fig. 1.46 shows a bar subjected to an external tensile load P. Let us find the shape of bar of
which self weight of the bar is considered and is having uniform stress on all sections when
B
subjected to an axial load P. In which the area of the bar increases from the lower end to upper
end.
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Let A1 = Area of upper and

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A2 = Area of lower and

Z = weight per unit volume of the bar.
V = uniform stress on the bar.
Let the area of the section be A at a distance x from the lower end. Let the area be (A + dA) at a
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distance (x + dx) from the lower end. Consider the equilibrium of the strip ABCD. Total force
acting upwards = Total force acting downwards.
? V A dA V u A Z Adx
or V A V dA V u A Z Adx
1.6.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN:
The ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume is known as volumetric strain.
? the volumetric strain is given by
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change in volume dV
v
original volume V .
1.6.4 SHEAR STRAIN:

As shown in Fig. 1.7, the bottom face of the block is fixed height h, length L and width unity. The
face ABCD will distorted to ABC1D1 through an angle T as a result of force P.
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? Shear strain T is given by
Transverse displacement
Or
AD
tan T | T
DD1 dL
T
h
Dis tan ce AD
ad
B
Note: Shearing strain is independent of the individual angles made with the coordinate axes.
1.7 ELEASTIC LIMIT:

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The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the external
force, is within a certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value of force up to and within which, the
deformation completely disappears on the removal of the force. The value of stress corresponding
to this limiting force is knows as the elastic limit of the material.
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Or V d A Z Adx
dA Z
Or .dx
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A V
Z
Integrating the above equation, we get ln A x C1
V
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Where C1 = constant of integration

At x = 0, A = A2.
? 1n A2 = C1
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Z
? 1n A = x + 1n A2
V
Z
Or 1n A – 1n A2 = .x
V
§ A · Z
Or ln ¨ ¸ .x
© A2 ¹ V
A Z /V .x
Z /V . x
Or A2
e Or A A2 .e
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The above equation gives the area at a distance x from lower end
At x = L, A = A1
Z /V . x L
? A1 A2 .e
1.11 DEFINITION OF STRAIN, TYPES OF STRAINS:
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body.
The ratio of changed of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as strain. It is
a dimensionless quantity, but it is convenient to refer to it as having the dimension of meter per
meter, i.e. m/m. Sometimes strain is given in percent. It is represented as (epsilon).
Strain may be
1. Tensile strain
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2. Compressive strain.
3. Volumetric strain and
4. Shear strain.
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1.11.1 TENSILE STRAIN:
B
If there is some increase in length of a body due to external force, then the ratio of increase of
length to the original length of the body is known as tensile strain.
? Tensile strain is given by
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Increase in length dL
1
original length L
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1.11.2 COMPRESSIVE STRAIN:
If there is some decrease in length of the body, then the ratio of decrease of the length of the body
to the original length is known as compressive strain.
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? Compressive strain is given by

Increase in length dL
1
original length L
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1.8 HOOKE’S LAW:
It is observed that when a material is loaded such that the intensity of stress is within a certain
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limit, the intensity of stress is proportional to the strain produced by the stress. The ratio of the
intensity of stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant
is known as modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus. Thus stress D Strain.
1.9 YOUNG’S MODULUS OR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding strain is a constant. This constant,
knows as the modulus of elasticity and it is denoted by E. Thus.
Stress
E or J
Strain
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Tensile or compressive stress V
J or E =
Tensile or compressive strain
V P dL
J or E = . Now V and
A L
P
? J or A or dL PL or PL
dL AE AJ
L
? Change in length dL or ' L
PL Load u length of specimen
AE cross sec tional area u young ' s mod ulus .
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1.11 TENSILE TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN:
If a ductile material is subjected to the tensile test, it passes through the following four important
stages after it finally fractures:
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1. Limit of proportionally 2. Elastic limit.
3. Yield point 4. Maximum load point 5. Breaking point.
In the tensile test, a ductile material, in the form of a circular rod, is subjected to a gradually
increasing tension. The strain both longitudinal and lateral increases at first proportionally to
law.
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the stress. The limit of proportionally is the stage up to which the material perfectly obeys Hook’s
The elastic limit is a state of loading at and before which the strain disappears completely on the
removal of the load, although Hook’s law doesn’t hold good between the limit of proportionality
B
and the elastic limit.
On further loading, the resultant strain begins to increase more quickly than the corresponding
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stress and continuous to grow more as the load increase till the yield point reaches. The stress
at which this sudden stretch occurs is called the yield point of the material.
At a certain value of load, the extension continuous at a slow rate without any further loading. In
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this state the material is plastic and the phenomenon of slow extension, increasing with the time
at a constant load is known as creeping. The cross – sectional area decreases in the same proportion
as the length increases during the ductile elongation. The volume of the bar under test remains
constant. The cross – sectional area reduces almost uniformly along the bar (Fig. 19.)
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A – Limit of proportionality.
B – Elastic limit.
C – Yield point.
D – Maximum stress point.
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E – Breaking or fracture point.
On continuously increasing the load after the creeping has taken place, a maximum value of load
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is reached at which the material stretches locally over a short length forming a neck. The load
reduction in area is such that the load necessary to break the bar at the neck is considerably less
than the maximum load on the bar before the local extension takes place.
The breaking load divided by the reduced area of section shows that the actual stress intensity is
greater than at any previous load. If the load the divided by the original area of cross – section,
the result is the normal stress intensity, which is less in such a ductile material like soft material,
at the breaking load than at the maximum load.
As the extension continues, cross – sectional area becomes smaller and smaller there by requiring
lesser and lesser load to continue extension till fracture occurs.
Elastic after effect:

We know that some material bodies takes some time to regain their original configuration
when the deforming force is removed. The dealy in regaining the original configuration by the
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configuration by the bodies on the removal of deforming force is called elastic after effect. The
elastic after effect is negligibly small for quartz fiber and phosphor bronze. For this reason, the
suspensions made from quartz and phosphor – bronze are used in galvanometers and
electrometers.
For glass fiber elastic after effect is very large. It takes hours for glass fiber to return to its
original state on removal of deforming force.
Elastic Fatigue:
The loss of strength of the material due to repeated strains on the material is called
elastic fatigue. That is why bridges are declared unsafe after a longtime of their use.
1.12 BRAS OF VAYING SECTION:
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Figure.
A bar of different lengths and of different diameters is shown in Fig. 1.10. Let this bar is subjected
to an axial load P. Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses,
strains and change in lengths will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by
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adding the changes in length of individual section.
Let P = Axial load acting on the bar,
L1 = Length of section (1)
A1 = Cross – sectional are of section (1)
L2, A2 = Length and cross – sectional area of section (2)
Stress V1
Load
Area of sec tion
Section (2)
Stress V 2
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L2, A3 = Length and cross – sectional area of section 3, and E = Young’s modulus for the bar.
Section (1)
Load
Area of sec tion
Section (3)
V3
P
A3
B
P P
V1 V2
A1 A2
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V1 P P P
And Strain 1 E A1 E Strain 2 A2 E Strain 2 A3 E
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dL1 P P dL3 P
Or 1 L1 A1 E Or 2 A2 E Or 3 L3 A3 E
PL1 PL1 PL3

Or dL1 A1 E Or dL2 A2 E Or dL3 A3 E
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Or change in length of section Or change in length of section Or change in length of

section.
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PL1 PL2 PL3

dL1 dL2 dL3
A1 E A2 E A3 E
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? Total change in the length of the bar.
dL = dL1 + dL2 + dL3

PL1 PL2 PL3
dL
A1 E A2 E A3 E
P ª L1 L2 L3 º
Or dL « » ……………….. (1.1)
E ¬ A1 A2 A3 ¼
Equation (1.1) in used when the young’s modulus of different sections is same. If the young’s
modulus of different sections is different, then total change in length of the bar is given by
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ª L L L º
dL P« 1 2 3 »
¬ A1 E1 A2 E2 A3 E3 ¼
Principle of Superposition:
When a number of loads are acting on a body the resulting strain, according to the
principle of superposition, will be the algebraic sum of the strains caused by the individual
forces.
Free body diagram. If an elastic body is subjected to a number of direct forces (tensile or
compressive) at different sections along the length of the body, the deformation of individual
sections can be very easily found if the free body diagrams are drawn for the individual sections.
The total deformation of the body will then be equal to the algebraic sum of deformation of the
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individual sections.
Thus, in Fig 1.13 (a), the bar AB is acted upon by several forces. The free body diagrams for AC,
AD and DB have been drawn in Fig 1.13 (b), (c) and (d) respectively.
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B
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Figure 10(b)
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1
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To draw the free body diagrams for AC, consider all the forces to the left of the normal section at
A. The net force is 10 kN tensile. Considering all the force to the right of the normal section at C,
the net force acting is equal to (9 + 3 – 2) = 10 kN. Thus the section AC of length L 1 is subjected
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to a tensile force of 10 kN.

10 L1
? The extension of the section will be G1 A1 E , where A1 is the area of cross – section of the
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7 L2
section AC. Similarly, the extension of the section CD will be G 2 A2 E and the extension of the
9 L3
section DB will be G 3 A3 E
? The total extension G of the bar AB will be given by G G1 G 2 G 3
Note:
1. The positive sign of the answer indicates that the rod elongates, as a + ve sing is associated
with tensile forces.
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2. Negative sign of the answer indicates the rod shortened, as a – ve sing in associated
with compressive forces.
1.13 EXTENSION OF A TAPERING ROD:
A bar uniformly tapering from a diameter d1 at one end to a diameter d2 at the other end is shown
in Fig. 1.21.
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dx
Let P = Axial tensile load on the bar

L = Total length of the bar
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E = Young’s modulus
Consider a small element of length dx of the bar at a distance x from the left end. Let the
diameter of the bar be Dx at a distance x from the left end.
§ d d2 ·
? Dx d1 ¨ 1
© L
¸ .x
¹
Dx = d1 – qx
d1 d 2
L
Area of cross – section of the bar at a distance x from the left end,
ad where q
B
S S
Ax Dx2
[ d1 q.x]2
4 4
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Then the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by

Load P 4P
Vx 2 2
Ax S / 4 d1 q. x S d1 q.x
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stress Vx 4P
And the strain x E E S E [ d1 q.x]2 . Extension of the small elemental length dx.
ª dL dX º
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dL = strain. dx « L or dL x udX »

¬ X ¼
dL = x . dx
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4P
dL .dx
S E [d1 q x ]2
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Total extension of the bar is obtained by integrating the above equation between the limits 0 and
L
? Total extension,
L L
4 P.dX 4P 2
dL ³
0
S E [d1 q x ] 2
SE ³d
0
1 qx .dx
L 2
4P d1 q x u q
SE ³
0
q
.dx
[Multiplying and dividing by (- q) ]
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L
4 P ª d1 q x º
1 L
4P ª 1 º
« » « »
S E « 1 . q » S E q ¬ d1 q x ¼ 0
¬ ¼0
4P ª 1 1 º
« »
S E q ¬« d1 q L d1 q 0 ¼»
4P ª 1 1º
« »
S E q «¬ d1 q L d1 »¼
ª º
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4P « 1 1 »
dL « »
§ d d · « § d d · d1 »
S E ¨ 1 2 ¸ « d1 ¨ 1 2 ¸ .L »
© L ¹ ¬ © L ¹ ¼
4 PL ª d1 d 2 º 4 PL
« »
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dL =
S E d1 d 2 ¬ d1.d 2 ¼ S E d1d 2
4 PL
? Total extension = S E d .d
1 2
Note: If the rod is uniform diameter, then d1 = d2 = d.
4 PL
? Total extension, dL = S E .d 1
PL
S / 4 d .E
2
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PL
AE
B
2.10 UNIFORMLY TAPERING RECTAGULAR BARS:
Fig shows a uniformly tapering bar of rectangular cross – section, length L and thickness t. The
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width of the bar at one end is b1 and the width at the other end is b2, where b2 > b1. The bar is
subjected to an axial force P.
Consider a very short section XX of length G x and width bx, situated at distance x from end A.
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b2 b1 b2 b1
Width bx = b1 + x b1 kx , where k .
L L
? Extension of the strip
P.G x
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G'
b1 kx t.E . Hence the extension of the whole length of the rod is.
x L L
¦
Pd x P 1
³
L
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' G' . ª¬ log e b1 k x º¼

x 0
b1 kx t E tE k 0
0
P b kL P b
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Or ' log e 1 log e 2

ktE b1 kt E b1
PL b2
Or ' log e
b2 b1 b1
2.12 ELONGATION OF BAR OF UNIFORMLY TAPERING SECTION:
Fig shows a bar of uniformly tapering section of length L, hanging freely under its own weight.
Consider an elementary section of length G x , at a distance x from the free end. Let Ax be the area
of cross section of the elementary section. The extension of this elementary section is given by
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Wx .G x
G'
Ax .E
1
Where Wx = weight of the portion below the section = A . x. O
3 x
(where O is the specific weight or unit weight of the material)
1 Ax .x.O G x x.O G x
? G'
3 Ax .E 3E
x L L
xOG x
Hence total extension of the bar, ' ¦ G' ³ 3E
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x 0 0
O L2 V g L2
Which gives ' (2.20)
6E 6E
If d is the diameter of bar at its uppermost section (i.e at the support) total weight of the bar
1§S 2 · 12W
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W d ¸ L O or W
3 ¨© 4 ¹ S d 2 L . Substituting this value of O in Eq. 2.20, we get
2W L WL
'
Sd E 2 2 AE
Where A = area of cross – section of the bar at its support.
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B
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2.13 ELONGATION OF TRUNCATED CONE SHAPED BAR:
Fig. shows a solid bar in the form of a truncated cone, having a diameter d 1 at the free end
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diameter d2 at the support. The length of the bar is L and it is hanging freely.
Prolong AD and BC to meet at O. Let l’ be the length of cone DCO and l be the length of the
full cone ABO. From Eq. 2.20, the extension of the cone ABO under is own weight is given by
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O l2
'c ………….. (1).
6E
Similarly, the extension of cone DCO, under its own weight …………… (2).
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Ol' 2
'
6E
1§S 2 · S
d1 ¸ l ' O d12 l ' O
3 ©¨ 4
The weight of cone DCO = W’ =
¹ 12
Again, from Eq. 2.16, the extension of a tapering circular bar of length L, under an axial pull W’
is given by
4W ' L 4L ª S 2 º O L l ' d1
'tc ' « d1 l ' O » or ' tc ' .
S E d1 d2 S E d1 d 2 ¬ 12 ¼ 3 E d2
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Now extension of ABCD = Extension of ABO – extension of DCO – extension of ABCD under
O l2 O l '2 O L l ' d1
weight W’ or ' tc ' c 'c ' ' tc ' or ' tc . .
6E 6E 3 E d2
In the above expression, l and l’ are not directly known and hence these are to be eliminated.
d2 l Ll' L
From the geometry of the cone, d 1
1 l' l' l'
L d 2 d1 d1 L
Hence , from which l '
l' d1 d 2 d1 ……. (i)
d2 d2 d L d2 L
and l l' u 1
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d1 d1 d 2 d1 d 2 d1 ……. (ii)
Substituting these values in (4), we get

2 2
O § d2 L · O § d1 L · O L2 d12
'tc ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸
6 E © d 2 d1 ¹ 6 E © d 2 d1 ¹ 3 E d 2 d 2 d1
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O ª d 2 d1 d2 d1 d2 d1 º
3 2 2
« »
Or ' tc 6E « 2
».
¬ d 2 d2 d1 ¼
O L2 «ª d 23 2d13 3 d12 d 2 »º
Or ' tc 6 E « a2 d2 d1 2 » ……….. (2.22).
¬ ¼
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This is the required expression. When d1 = 0 d and d2 = d (i.e case of 2.12, figure. 2.40), we get
'
O L2 ª d 3 º
« »
O L2
B
6 E ¬« d 3 ¼» 6 E which is the same as Eq. 2.20.
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ELONGATION OF ROD UNDER IT’S SELF WEIGHT:

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Let rod is having self weight ‘W’, area of cross – section ‘A” and length ‘L’. Considering on element
W T .dx
at a distance ‘x’ from bottom, then T = x elongation ‘dx’ element = Ay .
L
L L
T .dx W x d y WL
Total elongation s = ³
0
Ay ³ 0
LAy 2 Ay .
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Note: One can do directly by considering total weight at C.M. and using effective length l/2.
Illustration:
A thin uniform copper rod length l and mass m rotates uniformly with angular velocity Z
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on a horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing through one of its ends. Determine the tension
of the rod as a function of distance r from the axis and find its elongation.
Solution: Consider a small portion of length dr at a distance r from the axis of rotation.
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Tension = ³l
i
0
m
dr Z 2 r ,
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B
l
ª mZ2r2 º
= « »
¬« 2 l ¼» r
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mZ2 ª 2
l r2 º
2l ¬ ¼
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mZ2 ª r2 º 2
«1 2 » l
2l «¬ l »¼
mZ2 l ª r2 º stress tension

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«1 » extension = u length = u dr
2 ¬« l 2 ¼» Y S a 2Y
m Z 2 l ª r 2 º dr
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«1 »
2 «¬ l 2 »¼ S a 2 Y , where a = radius of
mZ2 l ª r2 º
w
Where «1 » dr.
2 S a 2 Y ¬« l 2 ¼»
l
mZ 2 l § r2 ·
? total extension ³
¨1
2 S a 2 Y 0 ¨© l 2
¸¸ dr .
¹
l
mZ 2 l ª r3 º
« r »
2 S a 2 Y ¬« 3l 2 ¼» 0
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mZ 2 l ª l º
«l »
2S a2 Y ¬ 3 ¼
mZ2 l 2l
.
2S a Y 3
2
mZ 2 l2
.
3S a 2 Y
S a 2 l U .Z 2 l 2 Z 2l3 U
But, m S a l U .
2 ? Total extension .
3S a 2Y 3Y
om
Illustration: Find out the elongation in block. If mass, area of cross – section and young modulus
of block are m, A and y respectively.
i.c
Sol.
ad
B
F m
Acceleration, a = then T m ' a where m ' u
m e
et
m F Fx T dx
T u Elongation in element ‘dx’ = Ay
l m l
.N
" "
T dx F x dx F"
Total elongation, G ³
o
Ay
d ³
o
A"y 2 Ay
Note: - Try this problem, if friction is given between block and surface ( P = friction coefficient(,
and Case: (I) F < P mg
w
(II) F > P mg
F"
w
Ans: In both cases answer will be 2 Ay
Illustration: In a ring having linear charge density ' O ' , made up of wire cross – section area ‘a’,
young modulus y, a charge Q0 is placed at it’s center. If initial radius is ‘R’, then find out change
w
in radius.
Sol. Considering an element of angular width ' 2T ' - dq = O R '.2T F 2T sin T .

kdq.Q0 k O R 'u 2T .Q0
2
2T sin T 2T sin T
R' R '2
If T is small, then the sin T = T .
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k OQ0 stress 2S R ' R R ' R
Further, T But, y . strain .
R' strain 2S R R
T k O Q0
y R ' R
a R ' R R ' ay
ª k O Q0 º
R '2 RR ' D 0 «D »
¬ ay ¼
R r R 2 4D
R' [(-) is only when charge is opposite nature]
2
om
R ª ª 4D º
1/ 2 º
ª 2D º R
Then R ' «1 1 » R' «1 1 2 » 2 [neglecting higher term].
2 «¬ «¬ R 2 »¼ »¼ ¬ R ¼
D D k O Q0 OQ0
R' R Change in radius 'R R ' R
R ayR 4 S 0 ayR
R
i.c
ad
B
1.14 STRESSES IN BARS OF COMPOSITE SECTION:
et
A bar, made up of two or more bars of equal lengths but of different materials rigidly fixed with
each other and behaving as one unit for extension or compression when subjected to an axial
tensile or compressive loads, is called a composite bar. For the composite bar the following two
points are important.
.N
1 2
w
P
w
1. The extension or compression in each bar is equal. Hence deformation per unit length,
i.e., strain in each bar is equal i.e.,
V1 V2 ª PL V Lº
L1 u L2 u « 'l E »¼
w
E1 E2 ¬ AE
2. The total external load on the composite bar is equal to the sum of the loads carries by
each different material. i.e., P V 1 A1 V 2 A2 . Form equations (1) and (2) the stresses
V 1 and V 2 may be computed.
E1
Modular Ratio: The ratio of E is called the modular ratio of the first material to the second.
2
Illustration: A light rod of length 2m is suspended from the ceiling horizontally by means of two
vertical wires of equal length tied to its ends. One of the wire is made of steel and is of cross –
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section 0.1 cm2 and the other is made of brass of cross – section 0.2 cm2. Find out the position
along the rod at which a weight may be hung to produce.
(a) Equal stress in both wire (b) equal strain in both wire.
Young’s modulus of elasticity of brass and steel are 10 × 1011 dyne cm-2 and 20 × 1011 dyne cm-2
respectively.
Solution: Let the rod BD be suspended by the wires AB and CD as shown in figure. If W is the
weight suspended at O at a distance x from the steel wire AB, the force acting at point O is the
vertically downward direction producing tensions T1 and T2 in the two strings.
om
a. Let A1
i.c
a. Let A1 and A2 be the areas of cross – section of the respective wires, i.e,
A1 = 0.1 cm2 and A2 = 0.2 cm2.
T1
Stress in the steel wire =
0.1
Stress in the brass wire =
T1
or T
1
2.
T2
0.2 ad
. For the stresses to be equal, or
T1
0.1
T2
0.2
………………. (1).
B
2
For the system to be in equilibrium, the moments of the forces T1 and T2 about O must be equal.
Hence x T1 = (200 - x)T2 ………………. (2).
et
T1 200 x 1 400
Using Eq. (1) we have T x 2 or 400 – 2 x = x x= = 133.3 cm.
2 3
T
.N
Stress T
b. Young’s modulus Y ; Stress = ; Strain = AY .
Strain A
T1 T2 T1 A1 Y1
The strains in the two wires will be equal if A Y A2 Y2 or T A2 Y2 .
1 1 2
w
Now Y1 = 20 × 1011 dyne cm-2 and Y2 = 10 × 1011 dyne cm-2.

T1 0.1u 20 u1011
Therefore 1 or T = T .
w
T2 0.2 u10 u1011 1 2
Using Eq. (2) we have x = (200 – x) or x = 100 cm.

Thus the weight W must be hung from the middle of the rod to produce equal strains in the two
w
wires.
Example: A steel rod of cross – sectional area 2000 mm2 and two brass rods each of cross – sectional
area of 1200 mm2 together support a load of 60 kN, as shown in Fig. 2.45. Find the stresses in the
rods. Take E for steel = 2 × 105 N/mm2 and E for brass = 1 × 103N/mm2.
Solution: Let us use suffix 1 for steel rod and suffix 2 for brass rods.
Given: A1 = 2000 mm2 and L1 = 400 mm
A2 = 1200 mm2 and L2 = 300 mm.
From the equilibrium of the system. p1A1 + 2p2A2 = p
Or 2000 p1 + 2400 p2 = 500 × 103. ……………….. (i).
Also, '1 '2
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p1 L1 p2 L2
? E1 E2
p1 u 400 p2 u 300
Or 5
2 u 10 1 u105
? p1 = 1.5 p2. ……………….. (ii).
om
i.c
Hence from (i), we get 200 (1.5 p2) + 2400 p2 = 500 × 103
From which p2 = 92.59 N/mm2
? p1 = 1.5 × 92.59 | 138.89 N/mm2.
Analogy of Rod as a spring:
y
stress
strain
y
F"
A'"
ad
B
et
.N
w
Ay
Or F '"
"
w
Ay
= constant, depends on type of material and geometry of rod. F = '" .
"
Ay
w
Where = equivalent spring constant.

"
A ,y
A ,y (b)
(a) (c)
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For the system of rods shown in figure (a), the replaced spring system is shown in figure (b) two
spring in series. Figure (c) represents equivalent spring system. Figure (d) represents another
combination of rods and their replaced spring system.
A ,y , A ,y ,
A ,y ,
F
om
F
(d)
Illustration: A mass ‘m’ is attached with rods as shown in figure. This mass is slightly stretched
and released whether the motion of mass is S.H.M, if yes then find out the time period.
i.c
1
1 1
1
2
2
m k1 k2
ad
2 2
B
k1 k2 m
Sol. keq T 2S 2S
k1 k2 keq k1 k2
et
A1 y1 A2 y2
where k1 and k2
"1 "2 .
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE OR IN A ROD:

.N
Strain energy stored in equivalent spring

1 2
U kx
2
w
w
w
F" Ay 1 Ay F 2" 2 1 F 2"

Where x = Ay , k U
2 Ay .
" 2 " A2 y 2
Equation can be re – arranged
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1 F 2 "A
U u [ " A = volume of rod, F/A = stress].
2 A2 y
2
1 stress
U u volume.
2 y
1 F F"
Again, U u u A" y
2 A Ay
1
U stress × strain × volume.
2
om
1
U y (strain)2 × volume.
2
2
strain energy 1 stress 1 2 1
Strain energy density = y strain stress u strain.
volume 2 y 2 2
i.c
Illustration: Higher is mass – less A ball of mass ‘m’ drop from a height ‘h’, which sticks to
hanger after striking. Neglect over turning, find out the maximum extension in rod.
A ,y
A ,y
ad m
B
h
Hanger
et
Sol. Applying energy consecration

1 k1 k2 2
mg h x x
.N
2 k1 k2
w
w
w
A1 y1 A2 y2
Where k1 "1
k2
"2
A1 A2 y1 y2
& keq A1 y2 "1 A2 y1"1
Keq x2 – 2 mgx – 2mgh = 0.
2mg r 4m 2 g 2 8mgh keq mg m 2 g 2 2mgh

x ; xmax 2

2 keq keq keq keq
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1.15 TEMPERA TURE STRESSES OR THERMAL STRESSES:
It was possible to disregard the deformations caused by temperature in statically determinate

systems since in such situations the members are free to expand or contract.
The free deformations caused by a change in temperature must be known for the determination
of stresses caused by temperature.
Thermal stresses are set up in a body, when the temperature of the body is raised or lowered of
the body is not allowed to expand or contract freely. But if the body is allowed to expand or
contract freely, no stresses will be set up in the body.
om
i.c
ad
B
Consider a body which is heated to a certain temperature.
Let L = Original length of the body
et
Y = Rise in temperature
E = Young’s modulus
D - co – coefficient of thermal expansion per 0C.
dL = Extension of rod due to rise of temperature.
.N
? dL = D TL.
Decrease in length
And compressive strain = original length
w
D TL
= DT
L
Stress
w
But E
strain
? Stress = Strain × E = D . T. E
And Load or thrust on the rod Stress × Area = D . T. E × A.
w
If the ends of the body are fixed to rigid supports, so that it expansion is prevented, then
compressive stress and strain will be set up in the rod. These stresses and strains are knows as
temperature stresses and temperature strain.
Expansion prevented
? Temperature strain,
orginal length
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dL D TL
= D .T
L L
And Temperature, V = temp. strain × E.
V = D TE.
2.19 TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN BARS OF TAPERING SECTION:
Consider a bar of uniformly tapering section, shown in the fig. rigidly fixed between two
end supports. When the temperature is raised by t, compressive force P will be induced since the
bar is not free to expand. This force is the same for all cross – sections, and hence maximum
stress will be induced at section AA where diameter is d1.
om
i.c
If the bar were free to expand, we have 't L D t ……(i)
The force induced In the bar will be a compressive force P which is required to prevent free
expansion of ' given by (i). Now, for an element of length dx, the deformation due to P is
G'
P.dx
Ax E
ad L
B
P.dx
? Total deformation ' ³A
0 x E
et
2
S§ d 2 d1 · S 2 d 2 d1
But Ax d1 x¸ d1 kx where x
4 ¨© L ¹ 4 L
L L
.N
4P dx 4P ª 1 º
?'
SE ³
0 d1 bx
2

SkE
« »
¬ d1 kx ¼ 0
4 PL ª 1 º 4 PL
Or ' « »
w
S E d1 d2 …………. (ii)
¬ d1 d 2 d1 ¼
2
S E d 2 d1
Equating (i) and (ii), we get, ' t '
w
4 PL
Or LD t …………. (ii)
S E d1 d 2
SE
w
From which d1 d 2 .D t
P ……… (2.29)
4
Maximum stress induced at section AA is given by
§S E · §S 2· d2
Pt ,max ¨ 4 d1 d 2 D t ¸ y ¨ 4 d1 ¸ ED t ……..(2.30).
© ¹ © ¹ d1
If d1 = d2, Pt = E D t , which is the same as Eq. 2.27.
Again, if the support yields by an amount a, the amount of expansion checked will be ' t a .
Hence
't a '
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4PL SE
§ LD t a ·
Or L D t a S E d1 d2 . Form which
P d1 d 2 ¨ ¸.
4 © L ¹
Illustration: When composile rod is free, then composite length increases to 2.002 m for temp
200 C to 1200 C. When composite rod is fixed between the support, there is no change in component
length find y and D of steel, if ycu 1.5 u 1013 N / m2 D cu 1.6 u 105 / 0 C .
0.5m
Sol. '" " s D s 'T " c D c 'T
om
002 = [1.5 D s 0.5 u 1.6 u 105 ] u100
1.2 u105
Ds 8 u106 / 0 C .
1.5
i.c
ad s s'
B
c c'
et
.N
There is no change in component length for steel.

F"s
x " s D s 'T 0
AYs
w
F
D s 'T ………… (A)
AYs
Flc
w
For copper x " c D c 'T 0

Ayc
Fl
D 'T
w
Ayc ………… (B)
ys Dc
B/A
yc Ds
Dc 1.5 u 1013 u16 u 105

ys yc
Ds 8 u106
ys 3 u1013 N / m2
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1.51.1 TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN COMPOSITE BARS:
Fig. 1.31 (a) shows a composite bar consisting of two members a bar of gun metal and another of
steel.
Let the composite bar be heated through some temperature. If the members are free to expand
then no stress will be induced I the members. But the two members are rigidly fixed and hence
the composite bar as a whole will expand by the same amount.
Gum Gum Gum

Steel Steel Steel
om
metal metal metal
(a) (b) (c)
i.c
As the coefficient of linear expansion of gun metal is more than of the steel, the gun metal will
expand more than the steel. Hence the free expansion of gun metal will be more than that of
steel. The expansion of the composite bar, as a whole, will be less than that of the gun metal, but
more than that of the steel.
Hence that of the induced in the gun metal will be compressive where as the stress in steel will
Let
ad
be tensile as shown in figure. 1.30 (c). Therefore the load or force on the gun metal will be
compressive where as on the steel the load will be tensile.
Ag = Area of cross – section of gun metal bar.

V g = stress in gun metal
B
g = strain in gun metal
et
V g = linear – coefficient of expansion for gun metal / 0C.

Eg = Young’s modulus for gun metal
A,. V ., ., and D , corresponding values of area, stress, strain and linear coefficient of expansion
for steel
.N
E, = Young’s modulus for steel.

Now load on the gun metal = stress in gun metal × Area of gun metal
= V g u Ag
= V s u As
w
Ann load on the steel

Compression in gun metal = Tension in the steel
Or load on the gun metal = load on the steel.
w
i.e V g u Ag = V s u As …………….. (1)

Also we know that
Actual expansion of gun metal = Actual expansion of steel …………….. (2)
w
But
Actual expansion of gun metal = Free expansion of gun metal – Contraction.
= due to compressive steel induced in gun metal.
Vg
= V g .T .L. E .L
g
And actual expansion of steel = Free expansion of steel + expansion due to tensile stress in steel.
V
= V s .T .L. E .L
s
s
Substituting these values in equation (2), we have
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Vg Vs
V g .T .L. .L V s .T .L. .L .
Eg Es
APPLICATIONS OF ELASTICITY:
1. Some of the important applications of the elasticity of the materials are discussed as
follows. The material used in bridges lose its elastic strength with time bridges are declared
unsafe after long sue.
2. The estimate the maximum height of a mountain: The pressure at the base of the
mountain = h U g = stress. The elastic limit of a typical rock is 3 × 10 8 N m-2 . The stress
must be less than the elastic limits, otherwise t he roc k begins to flow.
om
3 u 108 3 u 108
h 10 4 m U 3 u 103 kg m3 ; g 10 ms 2 or h == 10 km It may be noted
Ug 3 u 103 u10
that the height of Mount Everest is nearly 9 km.
INTER – ATOMIC FORCE – CONSTNAT:
i.c
The inter atomic force F’ developed between the atoms is directly proportional to the change in
distance ' r between them, F’ = k ' r. ………………… (i)
Where k is inter atomic force – constant. Let L be the length of a wire and r0 the normal distance
between the atoms of the wire. Suppose, when a force F is applied, the length of the wire increases
by and the distance between its atoms increases from r 0 to r0 + ' r.
ad
B
et
" 'r
.N
Then longitudinal strain = L r0 ………………… (ii)
If A be the area of cross – section of the wire, it will have A/ r02 chains of atoms. Therefore, the
inter atomic force (force acting on chain) is
w
external force F F r02

F' .
number of chains A / r02 A
w
Inter atomic force – constant is –

F' F r02 / A F r0
w
k r0 ——— by equation (i)

'r 'r A 'r
F L F/A
But r0/ 'r = L/, k = r0 r0 —— by equation (ii).
A " "/L
F/A
But, by definition, = Y (Young’s modulus of the material of the wire) k = Yr0.
"/L
Thus, inter – atomic force – constant k is equal to the product of Young’s modulus of the materials
of the wire and the normal distance r 0 between the atoms of the wire.
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Illustration : For steel rod young modulus = 2 × 1011 N/m2. inter atomic spacing = 2.0 A0 Find (a)
inter atomic force constant (N/A0) (b) increase in inter atomic spacing for a stress of 2 × 109 N/
m2 .
40
Sol. (a) k = yr0 = 2 × 1011 × 2 × 10-10 = 40 N/m = 10 0
4 u 109 N / A0 .
10 A
F
(b) 'r where F = stress × r02 = 2 × 109 × (3 × 10-10)2
k
= 18 × 10-11 N
18 u1011
'r = 4.5 × 10-2 A0 = .045 A0 Ans.
4 u109
om
LATERAL STRAIN, POISSON’S RATIO AND VOLUMETRIC STRAIN:
When a body is subjected to an axial tensile load, there is an increase in the length of the body,
but at the same time there is a decrease in other dimensions of the body at right angles to the
i.c
line of action of the applied load.
Longitudinal strain: When a body is subjected to an axial tensile or compressive load, there is
an axial deformation in the length of the body.
The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal (or
linear) strain.
ad
1.16.1 LATERAL STRAIN
The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a rectangular
bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as shown in figure.
1.35. The length of bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.
B
et
.N
Let ' L = Increase in length

w
' b = decrease in breadth, and

' d = decrease in depth
'L 'b Gd
w
Then Longitudinal strain = and Lateral strain or .

L b d
w
1.16.2 POISSION’S RTIO:
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given
material, when the material is stressed within the elastic limit, it is known as
1
Poisson’s Ratio. It is represented as P or . theoretical value – 1 to 0.5 practical value 0 to 0.5.
m
'b 'd
or
lateral strain b d
P
Mathematically, Poisson’s Ratio = longitudinal strain 'L .
L
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Note: The value of Poisson’s ratio varies from 0.25 to 0.30, for rubber, its value ranges from 0.45
to 0.50. For structural steel, experiments indicate that approximately P = 0.3, P = 0.1, for concrete
and P = for cork.
1.16.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume of a body is called volumetric
strain. It is denoted by v
'V Changein volume

Mathematically, Volumetric strain, v V original volume .
om
1.16.3.1 Volumetric Strain of Rectangular Bar:
Let a rectangular bar of l units long, b units wide and d units deep undergo small changes by
'l , 'b and 'b respectively in length, width and depth.
i.c
? Original volume (V) = b × d × l
Final volume = (b + ' b) (d + ' d) (l + ' l)
= lbd + bd ' l + lb ' d + dl ' b
= original volume + change in volume
ad
B
[ ignoring products of small quantities]
? change in volume 'V bd 'l lb 'b G b
et
i.e, v l d b
1.16.3.2 Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical Rod:

.N
Let l = length of the rod in m

D = diameter of the rod.
Let the length and diameter change by 'l and 'd respectively.
w
S
? Original volume (V) = d2 u L
4
w
S 2
= d 'd l 'l
4
S
d 2 l d 2 G l 2 ld .'d
w
=
4
S S
d2 l
= d 2 'l 2 ld .'d .
4 4
[ Ignoring products and higher powers of small quantities]
S
? Change in volume = 'V d 2 'l 2ld 'd
4
change in volume 'V d 2 'l 2ld .'d

? Volumetric strain, v original volume V d2 l
.
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'l 'd
? v 2. l 2. d
l d
? Volumetric strain = strain of the length + twice the strain of the diameter.
1.16.3.3 Volumetric Strain of a Sphere:
Let d = diameter of solid sphere.

d + ' d = increase in diameter. Original volume of the sphere
S d3
(V) =
6
om
S 3
Final volume of the sphere, = d 'd
6
S
= d 3 3 d 2' d [? ignoring higher powers of ' d]
6
S
i.c
? Change in volume = 'V 3d 2 ' d
6
change in volume 'V
? Volumetric strain, V original volume V
V
3d 2 'd
d 3
§ 'd ·
¨ d ¸
© ¹
ad
3. d
? Volumetric strain = 3 times the strain of the diameter.

B
1.16.3.4 Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Bar Subjected
et
To Three Forces which are Mutually Perpendicular
Consider a rectangular block of dimension x, y, z subjected to three direct tensile stresses along
three mutually perpendicular axis as shown in figure. 1.37.
.N
y( )
z
x( )
w
z( ) y( )
w
Then volume of block V=xyz

Taking logarithm to both sides, we have
1n = ln x + ln y + ln z
w
Differentiating the above equation, both sides we get

1 1 1 1 dV dx dy dz
dV d x d y d z or
V x y 2 V x y z . ……………. (i).
dV change in volume
But V
V original volume
dx
= Strain in the x – direction = x
x
dx

y = Strain in the y – direction = y
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dx
= Stain in the z – direction = z .
z
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
Let V x = Tensile stress in x – x direction
V y = Tensile stress in y – y direction
V z = Tensile stress in z – z direction
E = Young’s modulus,
P = Poisson’s ratio.
Vx
Now V x will produce a tensile strain equal to in the direction of x, and a compressive strain
E
om
§Vx · V
equal to ¨ .P ¸ in the direction of y and z. Similarly y will produce a tensile strain equal to y
© E ¹ E
§Vy ·
in the direction of y and a compressive equal to ¨¨ E .P ¸¸ in the direction of x and z . Similarly V z
© ¹
i.c
§Vz ·
will produce a tensile strain equal to ¨ ¸ in the direction of ‘z’ and a compressive strain equal
© E ¹
§Vz ·
.P ¸ in the direction of x and y. Hence V y and V z will produce compressive strains equal to
to ¨
¨¨
© E ¹
§Vy ·
© E ¹
§V
© E ¹
·
.P ¸¸ and ¨ z .P ¸ in the direction of x.
ad
B
? Note tensile strain along x – direction is given by
Vx Vy Vz
x .P .P
E E E
et
Vy Vx Vz
Similarly y .P .P
E E E
Vz Vx Vy
.N
z .P .P .
E E E
Adding all the strains, we get
1 2
x y z V x V y V z .P ª¬V x V y V z º¼
w
E E
1
ªV x V y V z º 1 2 P
E ¬ ¼
w
But x y z = volumetric strain.
dV
w
=
V
dV Vx V y Vz
? v 1 2 P .
V E
Note:
1. If any of the stresses is compressive, it may be regarded as negative and the above equation
will hold good.
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dV
2. If the value of is positive, it represents increase in volumes whereas the negative
V
dV
value of represents a decrease in volume.
V
The minus sign is included in the definition of K because an increase of pressure on the surface
of the body always causes a decrease in its volume. That is, if 'U is positive, 'v is negative. By
including a minus sign in its definition, we make the bulk modulus itself a positive quantity.
Compressibility. The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the ‘compressibility’.
From its definition,
om
1 ' v/v 1 'v
Compressibility = K
'p v 'p
The units of bulk modulus are the same as those of pressure and the units of compressibility are
those of a reciprocal pressure.
i.c
1.10 SHEAR MODULUS OR MODULUS OF RIGIDITY OR RIGIDITY MODULUS:
It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain within the elastic
limits, is known. The is denoted by C or G or N.
? G
Shear stress
Shear strain
W Tau
T Theta ad
B
Illustration
A rubber cube of side 5 cm has one side fixed while a tangential force equal to 1800 N is
applied to opposite face find the shearing strain and the lateral displacement of the strained face.
et
Modulus of rigidity for rubber is 2.4 × 106 N/m2.

.N
F X
w
Sol. L 5 u10 2 m K
A L
F 1800 180 3
Strain T 0.3
w
4
AK 25 u 10 u 2.4 u10 8
25 u 24 10
x
0.3 x 0.3 u 5 u 102 1.5 u 10 2 m 1.5 m m .
L
w
If a cylinder is fixed at one end and the other end is subjected to a constant torque T, co – axial
with the cylinder, the latter end suffers an angular displacement about the axis of the cylinder.
The cylinder is said to be twisted. The torque is known as torsional torque and is given by
nT 1 S na 4 T
T ) J ( .
l 2 l
Where n = modulus of rigidity of the material of the rod
A = radius of the cylinder; l = length of the cylinder; T = the twist in the cylinder.
1
And J = moment of inertia of cross – section of the cylinder about the cylinder axis = S a4 .
2
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1 S n a4
Then = torsional torque per unit twist = torsional rigidity of the cylinder.
2 l
1.17 DEFINITON OF BULK MODULUS:
When a body is subjected to the mutually perpendicular like and equal direct stresses, “the ratio
of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain” is found to be constant for a given material
when the deformation is within a certain limit. This ratio is known as bulk modulus and it is
represented by K. Mathematically,
direct stress
Bulk modulus (K) = - volumetric train
om
V tensile or compressive
=- § 'V · .
¨ V ¸
© ¹
Illustration .
i.c
Find the depth of lake at which density of water is 1% greater than at the surface. Given
compressibily k = 50 × 10-6 /atm.
'U 'V 'U
B
Sol. 'V V B

We know U
U
d . v + dv. U =0;
V
Uatm h U g or m = U V = const.
dU dV
ad
B
d U V + dV. U = 0
U V
'U 'U 'U 1

et
i.e, .
U B U 100
1 hU g
[assuming U = const.]
100 B
.N
hU g
B 1 1u 1u105
hU g .
100 100 k 100 u 50 u106
05 100 u 103

w
g 6
2km Ans.
5000 u10 u 1000 u 10 50
w
1.18.1 RELATION BETWEEN THE THREE ELASTIC CONSTANTS

RELATION BETWEEN THE MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND THE BULK MODULUS.
w
Let L = length of the cube

' L = change in length of the cube.
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the cube.
V = Tensile stress acting on the faces
P = Poisson’s ratio
Then volume of cube, V = L3
Let us consider the strain of one of the sides of the cube (say AB) under the action of the three
mutually perpendicular stresses. This side will suffer the following three strains:
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E F
A B
H G
D C
om
1. Strain of AB due to stresses on the faces AEHD and BFGC. This strain is tensile and is
§V ·
equal to ¨ ¸ .
©E¹
2. Strain of AB due of stresses on the faces AEFB and DHGC. This is compressive lateral
§ V ·
strain and is equal to ¨ .P ¸ .
i.c
© E ¹
3. Strain of AB due to stresses on the faces ABCD and EFGH. This is also compressive
§ V ·
lateral strain and is equal to ¨ .P ¸ .
© E ¹
ª
« P
«
«
lateral strain
longiludinalstrain
P
L.S
V
E
º
»
»
»
ad
B
« § V ·» .
« Lateral strain ¨ E .P ¸ »
¬ © ¹¼
et
The total strain of AB is given by
dL V V V
.P .P
.N
L E E E
dL V
1 2 P . …………. (i)
L E
Now original volume of cube, V = L3. …………. (ii)
w
If dL is the change in length, then dV is the change in volume. Differentiating equation (ii), with
respect to L dL 'L .
2
dV = 3L × dL …………. (iii).
w
dV 3L2 u dL § dL ·
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (ii), we get =3 ¨ ¸.
V L 3 © L ¹
w
§ dL ·
Substituting the value ¨ ¸ from equation (i), in the above expression, we get.
© L ¹
V V
dV 3V
1 2 P . And bulk modules is K = § ' V · = 3V 1 2 P .
V E ¨ V ¸
© ¹ E
E
= 3 1 2 P .
Or E = 3 1 2 P .
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This is the expression between Young’s modulus and Bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Note: From the above expression, we have to calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
§ 3K E ·
P ¨ ¸.
© 6k ¹
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODULUS OF EALSTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY:
Consider a square block of unit thickness is subjected to a set of shear stresses of magnitude
W n the faces AB, CD and the faces AD and CB, then the diagonal strain due to shear stress W
W
is given by equation 1 P .
om
E
W
? Total tensile strain along diagonal BD 1 P . ……………. (i).
E
i.c
But also the total strain in diagonal BD
ad
1
2
u shear strain
B
1 shear strain
u .
2 G
et
1 W
u . ……………. (ii).
2 G
ª Wº
.N
« G
I »¼
Equating the two tensile strain along diagonal BD, we get
¬
W 1 W 1 P 1
1 P u or or E = 2G 1 P
E 2G
w
E 2 G
1.18.3: RELEATION BETWEEN YOUNG’ S MODULUS,

w
MODULUS OF REGIDITY AND BULK MODULUS.
We know, E = 2G 1 P ………………… (i)

w
E = 3K ………………… (ii)
E
? 1 P ………………… (iii)
2G
E
And 1 2 P ………………… (iv).
3K
Multiplying equation (iii) by 2 and adding equation (iv), we have
E
2+2 P
3K
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E
1 2 P
3K 9.K .G
E E E 3K G ?E .
3 3K G
G 2K 3K .G
Important points :
'L L2 L1 2L L L
1. If the length of a wire is doubled, the longitudinal strain will be L 1.
L1 L L
But as Y = (stress/strain). Y = stress (as strain = 1].
FL ª FL º
2. As for a loaded wire: 'L and A S r 2 » . So if same stretching force is
om
«as Y
Sr Y 2
¬ A 'L ¼
FL
applied to different wire of same material. 'L [as F and Y = constant].
r2
m 'U 'V
3. In case of compression of a fluid, as density = U so . But by definition of
i.c
V U V
V 'p 'V 'p

bulk modulus, i.e. B or
'V V B so
'U 'p U ' U 'p

U B
or
Or U ' U[1 'p / B ]

U B
U[1 C 'p ]
[as 'U
ad
[as 1/B = C].
U ' U ]
4. In case of bending of a beam of length L, breadth b and thickness d, by a load Mg at the

B
Mg L3
middle, depression G is given by G and for a beam of circular cross – section of
4b d 3 Y
et
Mg L3
radius r and length L, G .
12 S r 4 Y
5. In case of twisting of a cylinder (or wire) of length L and radius r, elastic restoring couple
.N
S Kr4
per unit twist per unit twist is given by C , when K is modulus of rigidity of the of
2L
the material of wire.
6. In case of a rod length L and radius r fixed at one end, angle of shear I is related to angle
w
of twist T by the relation. L I rT

w
Elastic Constants Y, B, K & V
1. Poisson discovered that within limit of proportionality the ratio of the lateral strain to
w
longitudinal strain is constant for a given material. This constant in his honour is called
Poisson’s ratio and is represented by V . It has no units and dimensions. It has been
established that theoretically – 1 < V (1/2) while practically no substance had been
found for which V is negative, i.e. practically o < V < (1/2).
2. The value of moduli o elasticity is independent of the magnitude of the stress and strain.
it depends only on the nature of the material of the body.
3. For a given material there can be different moduli of elasticity depending on the type of
stress applied and the strain resulting
4. The moduli of elasticity has same dimensional formula and units as that of stress since
strain is dimensions, i.e. the dimensional formula Y, B or K is [ML -1T-2] while units dyne/
cm2 or Newton/m2.
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5. Greater the value of moduli of elasticity, more elastic is the material. But as Y D (1/
' L), B D (1/ ' L) and K D 1 / I for a constant stress, so smaller change of shape or size
for a given stress corresponds to greater elasticity*.
6. The moduli of elasticity Y and K exist only for solids † as liquids and gases cannot be
deformed along one dimension only and also cannot sustain shear strain. However, B
exists for all states of matter, viz., solid, liquid or gas.
7. Gases being most compressible are least elastic while solids are most, i.e., the bulk modulus
of gases is very low while that for liquids and solids is very high, i.e., Esolid ! Eliquid ! Egas .
8. Gases have two bulk – moduli, namely, isothermal elasticity ET and adiabatic elasticity
EI Cp
J ! 1, i.e., EI ! ET
om
EI .It has been found that at a given pressure p, so that
ET Cv
i.e., adiabatic elasticity is greater than isothermal elasticity.
9. With rise in temperature the distance between atoms increases and so the elastic restoring
force will decrease. This is turn will decrease the elasticity, i.e., with rise in temperature
Y, B and K decrease. Usually this temperature dependence is not taken into account
unless specified.
i.c
10. Moduli of elasticity are three, viz., Y, B and K while elastic constants are four, viz., Y, B K
and V . Poisson’s ratio V is not modulus of elasticity as it is the ratio of two strains and
not of strain. Elastic constants are found to depend on each other through the relations:
Y = 3B (1 - 2 V ) and Y = 2 K (1 + V ). Eliminating V or Y between these, we get
Y
9 BK
3 B K
and V
3 B 2K
6 B K .
ad
* For a rigid body 'L, 'V or I ; so Y, B or will be f , i.e., elasticity of a rigid body is infinite! † In
B
case
of solids usually Y = 3 K
et
Concept Building Questions:
Question I. Is the following statement true of false: A metal rod (Young’s modulus Y) has a length
L and area of cross – section A. The work done in stretching the rod by and amount ' L is
.N
2
YA 'L
.
2L
Answer: True.
w
Work done in stretching a wire: In stretching a wire work is done against internal restoring
forces. This work is stored in the body as elastic potential energy or strain energy. To calculate it,
consider a wire of length L and cross – section A. If a force F acts along the length of the wire and
w
stress F / A FL YA
stretches it by x, then as Y , F x.
strai x/L Ax L
w
So work done for an additional small increase dx in length, dW = F dx = (YA/L)x dx.

'L YA 1 YA
³
2
Hence total work done in increasing the length by 'L , W x dx 'L
0 L 2 L
Properties of Matter:
Question – II. In the language of Physics which is more elastic (a) rubber or steel (b) air or water?
Answer: In Physics elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress applied to resulting strain, i.e.,
stress
E . So for a given stress E D 1/strain. i.e., a smaller change in shape or size under the
strain
action of a same force corresponds to higher elasticity.
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So (a) as for identical steel and rubber bar under the action of same force, rubber stretches
more; it is less elastic than steel.
(b) as for equal volumes of water and air under the action of same pressure, water compresses
less, it is more elastic than air.
Question III. What kind of elasticity is sued in (a) suspension bridge (b) an automobile tyre (c) an
automobile drive shaft (d) a coil spring (e) a water lift pump (f) rubber heels.
Answer: (a) In a suspension bridge as there is a stretch in the ropes by the load of the bridge, the
elasticity involved is linear or tensile.
(b) In an automobile tyre a air is compressed the elasticity involved is volume, i.e., bulk.
(c) In transmitting power an automobile shaft is sheared as it rotates, so the elasticity involved is
shear, i.e., rigidity.
(d) When a coiled spring a is stretched, the deformation of the wire of the spring is in the form of
a twisting strain so the elasticity involved is shear, i.e., rigidity.
om
(e) As in a water lift pump, the water is compressed; the elasticity involved is volume, i.e, bulk.
(f) As the shape of rubber heels changes under stress, the elasticity involved is shear, or rigidity.
Concept Building Examples:
i.c
1. A submerged wreck is lifted from a dock basin by means of a crane to which is attached
a steel cable 10 m long, of cross – sectional area 5 cm 2 and Young’s modulus 5 × 1010 N/
m2. The wreck has mass 104 kg and mean density 8000 kg/m3. Find the change in extension
of the cable as the load is lifted clear of the water. Assume that at all the times the tension
in the cable is the same throughout its length. (Water = 1000 kg/m2 )
Solution :
Given data,
Length of cable,
Area of cross – section,
Young’s modulus
L = 10 m ad
A = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10-4 m2
Y = 5 × 10-4 N/m2
M = 104 kg
B
Mass of wreck,
Mean density of wreck, U = 8000 kg/m3
Now, Volume of the wreck is,
et
M 104 10 3
V m .
U 8000 8
? When the wreck is in water, extension of the cable is,
.N
M g FB L
? "1 ; Where FB is buoyant force.
AY
U U w Vg L
Here MB = ?
w
"1 ………………….. (i)

AY
When the wreck is out of the water, the extension of the cable is,
U Vg L
w
"1 ………………….. (ii)

AY
? Change in extension = "1 " 2
w
U U w Vg L U Vg L U w Vg L
=
AY AY AY
§ 10 ·
1000 u ¨ ¸ u 9.8 u10
= © 8 ¹
4.9 u 103 m.
4 10
5 u10 u 5 u 10
Change in = 4.9 mm.
2. A device to project a toy rocket vertically makes use of the energy stored in a stretched
rubber cord. Assuming that the cord obeys Hooke’s law, find the length by which the cord
must be extended if the rocket is to be projected to a height of 20 m.
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Mass of rocket = 0.3 kg
Unstretched length cord, = 0.2 m
Area of cross – section of cord, = 2.5 × 10-5 m2
Yrubber = 8 × 108 N/m2.
Solution:
M = 0.3 kg; H = 20 m;
L = 0.2 m; A = 2.5 × 10-5 m2;
Y = 8 × 108 N/m2.
In this problem, when the rubber cord is stretched strain energy is stored in it. This strain
energy is then used to project the rocket.
Now, energy required to project a rocket of mass M to a height H is,
E = Mg H ……………… (i)
If l is the elongation of the rubber cord then, strain energy is stored in it is,
om
Y A"2
U ………………. (ii) equating (i) and (ii) we get,
2L
Y A "2
Mg H
2L
i.c
2Mg H L 2 u 0.3 u 9.8 u 20 u 0.2
"2
YA 8 u108 u 2.5 u 105
? "2 1.176 u103
? "2
ad
1.176 u 10 3 = 0.03429 m = 0.03429 m or 3.429 cm.
3. A highly rigid cubical block A of small mass M and side L is fixed rigidly into another
cubical block B of same dimensions and of low modulus of rigidity K , such that the lower
B
face of A completely covers the upper face of B. The lower face of B is rigidly held on a
horizontal surface. A small force F is applied perpendicular to one of the side faces of A.
After the force is withdrawn will the block execute a SHM? If yes, then find the time
et
period of oscillations.
Solutions:
Due to the action of force F, upper face of block B gets displaced by x, say. The corresponding
x F
.N
shear is T . For small T , we can write. T . Now, modulus of rigidity is given by K

L AT
x x
?F K AT u K L2 u KL x
L L
w
?F KL x .
Now, the restoring force f is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the applied force F.
?f KL x ? f D x.
w
w
T
K
The block A performs a SHM.

d2 x
Now, f = M KL x
dt 2
d2 x §K L ·
? ¨ ¸x Z 2 x
dt 2 © M ¹
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KL 2S M
Z 2S
M T KL .
4. A steel wire of diameter 0.8 mm and length 1 m is clamped firmly at two points A and B
which are 1 m apart and in the same horizontal plane. A body is hung from the middle
point of the wire such that the middle point stays 1 cm lower from the original position.
Calculate the mass of the body. Given Y = 2 × 1011 N/m2.
Solution:
Diameter of wire, d = 0.8 mm 8 × 10-4 m, Length of wire, L = 1q m , Let, m be the mass of the body
hanging from the middle point O of the middle point gets shifted to C. Such that,
OC = 1 cm = 0.01 m
om
T
i.c
T
Let, T be the tension in the wire,

? From FBD of the mass, we get, 2T cos T = mg
mg
? T = 2cos T
ad
………………………. (i).
B
Let, l be the elongation produced in the left half (AO) of the wire, by the tension T.
? Now length of the left half is,
et
L
AC " 0.52 0.012
2
" 0.52 0.012 0.5 .

.N
Now, for the length AC, the Young’s modulus is,
§L·
T¨ ¸
Y ©2¹ mg L
2 cos T
w
2
A" §d · .
2S ¨ ¸ "
©2¹
w
S d2Y
?m " cos T
gL
0.01
w
New cos T .
0.5 0.012
2
S d2Y 0.01
?m u 0.52 0.012 0.5 u
gL 0.5 0.012
2
S d 2 Y u 102 § 0.5 ·
?m u ¨1 ¸.
gL ¨ 0.5 0.012
2 ¸
© ¹
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1 1 1/ 2
2 1 0.02 2
2 2 2
Here, 0.5 0.01 § 0.01 · .
0.5 1 ¨ ¸
© 0.5 ¹
§ 0.02 2 ·
# 2 ¨1 ¸¸ 2 1 2 u104
¨ 2
© ¹
S d 2 Y u102
?m [0.5 u 2(1 2 u 104 )]
gL
om
S d 2 Y u102
?m u 2 u104
gL
S 8 u 10 4 u 2 u1011 u 2 u 104
?m
9.8 u1
i.c
? m = 0.08207 kg or m = 82.07 gm.
5. A thin uniform copper rod of length and mass m rotates uniformly with an angular velocity
Z in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis passing through one of its end. Determine
the tension in the rod as a function of the distance r from the rotational axis. Find the
elongation of the rod.
Solution:
The situation is shown in figure.
ad
Consider an element of thickness dr at a distance r from the rotational axis.
B
et
.N
§m ·
Mass of element dr = ¨ u dr ¸ .
© " ¹
w
Centrifugal force acting at a distance r

§m · 2 m 2
= ¨ u dr ¸ Z r Z r dr .
©" ¹ "
w
This centrifugal force provides the tension in the rod.

T t m
Hence, ³ dT ³ Z 2 r dr .
w
0 r "
"
m 2 ª r2 º 1 § r2 ·
T Z « » m Z 2 " ¨1 2 ¸¸ ……………………. (1).
¨ "
" ¬« 2 ¼» r
2 © ¹
For calculation of increase in length, let us again consider an element dr at a length. We known
that strain = (stress/Y)
Change in length T/A
?
Original length Y
d" T Tr
or d " ……………………. (2).
r AY AY
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Now mass of the part dr = U A dr
And centrifugal force = m r Z 2
Or T = U A dr r Z 2
Substituting in equation (2), we get,
U A dr r Z 2 r U Z 2 r 2 dr
d" . ……………………. (3).
AY Y
The elongation '" of the rod can be obtained by integrating this expression. Thus
"
'" U Z2 " U Z 2 ª r3 º 1 U Z2 3
³ ³
2
d" r dr Or '" « » '" "
0 Y 0 Y ¬« 3 ¼» 0 3 Y
om
Example: The aluminium and steel pipes shown in figure 2.47 are fastened to rigid supports at one
of their ends and to a rigid plate C at the other ends. Derive expression for axial stresses in the two
pipes.
Solution:
From the inspection of figure 2.47, we observe that steel pipe will carry tensile stress (ps)
i.c
while aluminium pipe will carry compressive stress (pa). If Rs and Ra are the reactions at the two
ends, as marked in figure 2.47, we get from static equilibrium:
Rs + Ra = 2 P.
ad
B
et
.N
w
Since Rs causes tensile stress in steel pipe, R s = ps. As. Similarly, Ra causes compressive stress in
aluminium pipe and hence Ra = pa Aa.
ps As + pa Aa = 2 P …………………. (i)
Also, extension of steel pipe = contraction of aluminium pipe
w
ps L ps 2 L
Or
Es Ea
w
2 L Es Es
Or ps pa . 2 pa .
L Ea Ea …………………. (ii)
Es
Substituting in (i), we get 2 pa . E As pa Aa 2P .
a
2P
pa
E
From which 2 As . s Aa
Ea
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Es / Ea 4P
ps 4 P.
E Ea
Hence 2 As s Aa 2 As Aa . .
Ea Es
Example :- A rigid bar ABC is supported by three rods of the same material and of equal diameter
as shown in figure 2.48. Calculate the forces in the bars due to an applied force P, if the bar ABC
remains horizontal after the load has been applied. Neglect the weight f the rigid bar.
Solution:
Let us used suffix 1 for outer bars and suffix 2 for the inner bar.
From statical equilibrium, 2 P1 + P2 = P …………….. (i)
om
2L
L L
i.c
From compatibility,
Or
P1 L
AE
P2 2 L
AE
'1 '2
from which P1 = 2 P2
ad
…………….. (ii)
Substituting in (i), we get 2 (2 P2) + P2 = P, from which P2 = 0.2 P

B
P1 = 2 × 0.2 P = 0.4 P.
et
Example: - A bar of uniform section is fixed at both the ends and is loaded with a force P shown in
figure 2.61. Determine the reactions at both the ends and the extension of AC.
Solution:
Let R1 and R2 be the two reactions, obviously in the directions shown.
.N
From static’s, R1 + R2 = P ………… (1)

Since the end are fixed in position,
w
w
w
Extension of AB = compression of BC
R1 a R2 b
? …………. (2)
AE AE
Or a R1 = b R2 substituting in (1) we get
§b ·
R2 ¨ 1 ¸ P
©a ¹
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Pa Pa
From which R2
a b L
b Pa Pa
Hence R1 .
a a b L
These are thus the values of reactions R1 and R2
R1 a P ab
Now extension of AB '1 AE L AE
Example: A rigid bar AB is supported by three equidistant rods in the same vertical plane, and
is loaded as shown in figure. All the three rods have the same area of cross – section. Determine
the forces in the three rods, if the bars 1 and 3 are of steel and bar 2 is of brass. Take E s/Eb = 2.
om
Solution:
From static’s, P1 + P2 + P3 = P ………. (1).
Also, taking moments about B, P3 (2a) + P2 (a) = P × 1.5 a.
Or 2 P3 + P2 = 1.5 P.
There are three unknown forces (i.e., P1, P2, and P3), while we have only two equations
obtained from statical equilibrium.
The third equation is obtained from the deformation pattern of the structure. The dotted
i.c
lines shows the deformed position of the structure, where '1 , ' 2 and '3 are the extensions of the
three rods. From compatibility, we obtain.
'1 ' 2
'2
2
Or
P2
A2 E2
Here, A1 = A2 = A3.
P1

P3
2 A1 E1 2 A3 E3
Also, E1 = E3 = 2 E2 = 2 E (say)
ad
B
P2 P1 P3
?
E 2 2E 2 2E
et
.N
w
Or 4P2 = P1 + P3 ……….. (3).

w
Substituting this value of (P1 + P3) in (1), we get

P
4 P2 + P2 = P from which P2 0.2 P
5
w
Hence from (2), 2P3 + 0.2 P = 1.5 P.

From which P3 = 0.65 P
Substituting these values of P2 and P3 in (1), we get
P1 + 0.2 P + 0.65 P = P
From which P1 = 0.15 P.
Example: A load P is supported by a system of three rods shown in figure. The outer rods are
indentical and are of the same material while the inner rod is of different material. Determine the
forces in the rods. Hence if P = 30 kN and T = 300, determine value of these forces when the outer
bars are of steel and the central bar is of brass. Take the ratio of moduli of elasticity of steel and
brass as 2.
Solution:
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From static’s 2 P1 cos T + P2 = P ……. (1).
The dotted lines show the deformed shape of the structure, in which point O the position O’.
Assuming that T does not change appreciably, we get.
'1 '2 = T
P1 L1 P2 L2
Or cos T ……. (2).
A1 E1 A2 E2
om
TT
'
i.c
But, from geometry, L2/L1 = cos T
Hence, from (2),
P1 P2 .
A1 E1 L2
. cos T
A2 E2 L1
P2 .
A1 E1 L2
A2 E2 L1
Substituting this value of P1 in (2), w3, we get
ad
. cos 2 T …….. (a).
B
A1 E1
2 P2 cos3 T P2 P
A2 E2
et
P
P2
2 A1 E1
From which 1 cos3 T ….. (i)
A2 E2
.N
§ ·
¨ P ¸ A E P
P1 ¨ ¸ . 1 1 cos 2 T
Hence ¨ 2 A E ¸ A2 E2 A2 E2 ….. (ii)
¨ 1 A E cos T 2 cos T
1 1 3
¸ A1 E1 cos T 2
© ¹
w
2 2
Taking the values : P = 30 kN, T = 300, A1 = A2, E1/E2 = 2 we get

P
w
P2 0.278 P 8.34 kN
1 2 u 2 u cos3 300
P
P1 0.417 12.5 kN
w
1
And 2cos300
2 cos 2 30 0
Example: Three identical in - connected bars are arranged as shown in figure, and support a load
P. Find the axial are force in each bar and also the vertical displacement of the point of application
of load. Neglect any possibility of lateral buckling of the bar. All the bars are of the same length and
same areas of cross – section.
Solution:
Let the use suffix 1 for bars AO and BO and suffix 2 for CO. obviously, force P1 in bars AO
and BO will be tensile while force P2 in bar OC will be compressive.
From static’s, 2P1 cos 600 + P2 = P
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From which P1 + P2 = P …………. (i).
2
1
om
The dotted lines show the deformed position of the structure. Assuming that the angles between
the rods do not change appreciably, we get
1
i.c
'1 ' 2 cos 600 '2
2
P1 L 1 P2 L
Or AE 2 AE
From which P2 = 2P1 …………. (ii)
Substituting in (i), we get P1 + 2P1 = P
From which P1 =
2P
3
ad
B
P2 L 2PL
Also, '2
AE 2 AE
et
Example: A load of 10 kN is suspended by the ropes shown in figure. (a) and (b) In both the cases,
the cross sectional area of the ropes is 100 mm2 and the values of E is 200 kN/mm2. In case (a), the
rope ABC is continuous over a smooth pulley from which the load is suspended in such a way that
both the ropes are stretched by the same amount. Determine, for both the cases, the stresses in the
.N
ropes and the deflections of the pulley and the block due to the load.
Solution: Let us used suffix 1 for rope AB and 2 for rope CB. Load = 10 kN; length of AB = l i = 6
m; length of CB = l2 = 8m. Area of rope = 200 mm2.
Case (a): Since the load is applied on a smooth pulley, the external load (= 10 kN) is
shared equally by both the ropes.
w
10
? P in each rope = 5 kN.
2
w
(Note that reactions at A and C, each are equal to 5 kN)

5 u 1000
Hence stress p 25 N / m m 2
200
w
pl P l1 l2 5 6000 8000
Also, ' 3.50 m m
AE AE 100 u 200
Case (b): Load is suspended is such a way that:
Or '1 '2
l2 8 4 2
Or p1 p2 p2 u p …….. (1).
l1 6 3
Also, from static’s p1 A1 + p2 A2 = P
Or 100 (p1 + p2) = 10 × 1000
Or p1 + p2 = 100
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Substituting the value of p1 in (2), we get ……… (2).
4 2
p p2 100
3
om
i.c
From which p2 = 42.86 N/mm2
4
Hence, p1 = 42.86 × 57.14 N / mm2 .
Also, '
p1 l1
E
57.14 u 6000
200 u1000
1.71 m m . ad 3
B
Example: A rigid beam ABC is hinged at D and supported by two springs A and B as shown in
figure. The beam carries a vertical load W at a point C at a distance of b from the hinged end. The
et
flexibilities (deflection/unit load) of the springs at A and B are d 1 and d2 respectively. Determine the
forces in the springs and also the reaction at the hinged support.
Solution:
.N
The dotted line in figure shows the deformed shape of rigid beam. Let P A and Ps be the
loads carried by springs A and B.
w
w
For spring A, extension ' A

w
PA .d1 .
For spring B, extension ' B PB .d 2
3
Or ' A 'B
2
Substituting the values of ' A and ' B
3 3 d2
PA .d1 PB .d 2 or PA PB
2 2 d1
Also, by taking moments about hinge D, we get
PA × 3 b + PB × 2 b = W. b or 3 PA + 2 PB = W.
Substituting the value of PA from (1) in (2), we get
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§ 3 d2 ·
3¨ PB ¸ 2 PB W
© 2 d1 ¹
2 d1 3 d2
From which PB W and PA W
4 d1 9 d 2 4 d1 9 d 2 .
Example: A solid cylinder of steel is placed inside a copper tube. The assembly is compressed
between rigid plates by forces P. Find the value of increase in temperature so that all the load is
carried by the copper tube.
Solution:
Let the increase in temperature be t. Due to this increase, copper will expand more than
om
steel. Difference between the two expansions = '1 L D c D s t. If the load P is to be borne entirely
by the copper tube, the shortening ' c of the copper tube due to P should be equal to 't .
i.c
? 'c 't
ad
B
PL P
Or L D c D s t or t
Ac Ec Ac Ec D c D s
et
Example: A steel bar AB of length L is fixed at the ends and is subjected to an non – uniform
x2
.N
increase in temperature represented by the expression t x t. , as shown in figure. Determine the

L2
value of compressive stress set up in the bar.
Solution:
Consider a short length dx, at a distance x from end A.
w
w
w
x2
Temperature = t x t.
L2
? Increase in length of dx due to temperature. rise
x2
'tx dx.D t x Dt dx
L2
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Hence total increase in length '1
L
x2 D t L3 DtL
6 ' tx
³
0
Dt
L2
dx
L2
.
3 3
Since this increase in length is restricted by end supports, compressive stress will be set
up in the bar, the value of which is given by.
E DtL §E· ED t
pc ' t. ¨L¸
L 3 © ¹ 3
Problem: Calculate the elongations of (a) a copper wire of 1.4 mm diameter and (b) an aluminium
wire of 1 mm diameter as shown in figure 1.19, if Young’s modulus for copper and aluminium are
om
11 × 1010 N/m2 and 7 × 1010 N/m2 respectively.
FL
Solution: By definition of Young’s modulus, 'L YA.
i.c
ad
B
et
(a) As tension in copper wire will be due to load of 7 kg.

i.e., TCu = M1 g = 7 × g N
7 u 9.8 u 0.5
.N
'L Cu 2
So 22 / 7 0.7 u 103 u 11u1010
9.8 u 5
i.e, 'L u 10 3 0.2 u10 3 m
22 u11
w
Cu
(b) However, the tension in the aluminium wire will be

TA1 M 2 g TCu M 2 M1 g
w
4 7 u 9.8 u 1
'L 1.96 u103 m
So A1
22 / 7 0.5 u 103 u 7 u 1010 Ans:
w
Example: Two rods of different metals, having the same area of cross – section A, are placed end to
end between two massive walls as shown in the figure. The first rod has a length l 1, coefficient of
linear expansion D1 and Y2. The temperature of both corresponding quantities for second rod are l 2
D 2 and Y2. The temperature of both the rods is now raised by T degrees. (a) Find the force with
which the rods act on each other at the higher temperature in terms of the given quantities. (b) Also
find the length of the rods at the higher temperature. Assume that there is no charge in the cross –
sectional area of the rods and the rods do not bend. There is no deformation of walls.
Solution: (a) Due to heating the increase in length of the composite rod will be
ª L1 L2 º F ª F Lº
'L D « » « as 'L »
¬ Y1 Y2 ¼ A ¬ AY ¼
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As the length of the composite rod remains unchanged the increase in length due of heating
must be equal to decrease in length due to compression, i.e.,
A L1 D1 L2 D 2 T
F …………. (1)
[( L1 / Y1 ) ( L2 / Y2 )]
L L
Y Y
(b) As initially the length of one rod is L 1 and due to heating it increase by 'L1 H
D1 L1 T while
due to compression it decreases by 'L1 C

F L1 / AY1 , so its final length
om
L1 ' L1 'L1 H
'L1 C
L1[1 D1 T F / AY1 ]
Similarly for the other rod,
L2 ' L2 'L2 H
'L1 C
L2 [1 D 2 T F / AY2 ] .
Where F is given by Eqn. (1).
i.c
Problem: A uniform pressure p is exerted on all sides of a solid cube at temperature t 0C. By what
amount of should the temperature of the cube be raised in order to bring is volume back to the
volume it had before the pressure was applied, if the bulk modulus and coefficient of volume
expansion of the material are B and J respectively.
Solution: As by definition of bulk modulus B = - V ( ' p/ ' V), with increase in pressure decrease
in volume of the cube will be given by,
p
B
'V
[as 'p p ]
As the volume of the cube remains constant,

V ad ……………… (1).
B
p p
V V J 'T , i.e., 'T
B JB.
et
Problem: Calculate the force F needed to punch a 1.46 cm diameter hole in a steel plate 1.27 cm
thick. See the figure. The ultimate shear strength of steel is 345 MN/m 2.
ª F11 º
Solution: As in punching, shear elasticity is involved, the hole will be punched if « » > Ultimate
¬ A ¼
.N
shear stress
i.e, F11 > (Shear stress) × (Area).
w
w
So F11 3.45 u 108 2S r L

w
min
[as her A = 2 S r L ]
i.e., F11 min

3.45 u 108 2 u 3.14 u 0.73 u 10 2 1.27 u 102 200 kN . Ans:
Example: Show that work performed to make a hoop out of a steel band (Young’s modulus Y) of
1 § S 2 Y bd 3 ·
length l, width b and thickness d is equal to 6 ¨¨ ¸¸ .
© l ¹
Solution: While making a hoop out of a steel band, the central layer remains unstretched. The
layers above the central layer are extended in length while the lower layers are compressed in
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length. Let R be the radius of the central unstretched layer (shown dotted in figure) Thus l =
2S R .
Consider a coaxial layer of radius x. The strain produced in this layer will be
2S x 2S R §x ·
2S R ¨ R 1¸ .
© ¹
Hence, stress at this layer.
§x ·
Y u ¨ 1¸ .
©R ¹
Now the energy density (u) at this layer is given by
1
om
u × stress × strain
2
2
1 § x ·½ x ½ 1§ x ·
®Y u ¨ 1 ¸ ¾ ® 1¾ ¨ 1¸ .
2 ¯ © R ¹¿ ¯ R ¿ 2© R ¹
i.c
b
R
b
ad
B
et
The energy stored in an elementary volume at x,

2
1 §x ·
dU u u volume 1 {(2S x dx)b} .
2 ¨© R ¹¸
.N
d 2
R 1 §x ·
?U ³R
d
2
2
.Y . 1 .2 S dx b
2 ¨© R ¸¹
w
d
SYb R
³
2
d
2 xR x dx
R2 R
2
w
SYb ª º
d
R
R2
«
«¬ ³
R
d
2
2 x 3 2 R x 2 R 2 x dx »
»¼
w
S Y b d3
d R
12 R
S Y b d3
; 2S R
12l / 2 S
1 § S 2 Y bd3 ·
¨ ¸¸
6 ¨© l ¹
Example: A thin cylindrical shell closed at both ends is subject to a uniform internal pressure P. The
wall thickness is h and the inner radius r. (a) Calculate the longitudinal and circumferential normal
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stresses existing in the walls due to internal pressure. Neglect any restraining effect of the cover
plates. (n) Calculate the increase in radius of the cylinder due to the internal pressure P.
om
Solution: (a) Considering length L of the cylindrical part of the shell, as shown in figure. From
i.c
symmetry the horizontal components of the radial pressures cancel. Consider a differential element
that subtends an angle T at the center. The vertical component of force due to pressure on this
element is (r d T ) sin T L.
S
³
For the equilibrium in the vertical direction. 6 Fv
Integration, we get 2 V c h L P r L cos T
Vc
Pr
S
0
ad 2 V c h L
0
P r d T sin T L 0.
B
Or 2 h . …………… (1).
Note that the resultant vertical force due to internal pressure can be determined by multiplying
the pressure by the horizontal projected area upon which it cats. To determine the longitudinal
et
stress V l , consider equilibrium in the horizontal direction.
6 Fh P S r 2 2S r hV l 0
.N
Pr
Or Vl
2h
The result shows that the circumferential stress is twice the longitudinal stress. Thus if the
w
water in a closed pipe freezes, the pipe will rupture along a line running longitudinally along the
cylinder.
V Pr
(b) As Young’s modulus, Y , hence circumferential strain, H c
w
.
H Yh
Note that H c is unit strain, it acts over the circumference of the cylinder, 2 S r. Hence the total
elongation of the circumference is
w
2 S Pr 2
' l Hc 2S r
Yh
2 S Pr 2
The final length of the circumference = 2 S r . Dividing this circumference by 2 S , we get
Yh
Pr 2 Pr 2
the radius of the deformed cylinder to be r + , so that the increase in radius is . Longitudinal
Yh Yh
Pr 2
strain due to longitudinal stress [eqn. (2)] is H l
2Y h
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The longitudinal strain induces a circumferential strain equal to - v H l . Denoting it by H c we
vPr
have H c
2 Y h which tends to decrease the radius of the cylinder as indicated by minus sign
Analogous t the procedure for increase of radius, the decrease in radius corresponding to strain H c
v P r2
is given by . The st……. increase of radius due to internal pressure is thus
2Y h
P r 2 v P r2
'r
Yh 2Y h
om
P r2 ª vº
«1 » .
Yh ¬ 2¼
1. A balloon ascends vertically slowly unreeling a long copper wire. Estimate the amount by
which the wire has stretched when 1 km of initially Unstretched wire has been unreeled.
The density of copper U is 9.0 × 103 kg/m3 and its Young’s modulus Y = 1.2 × 1011 N/m2.
i.c
1. Consider an element of wire of length dx at a height x from the ground as shown in figure.
Load on dx = (A x U )g. If e be the elongation dx, then
stress A xU g / A
? e
Y
strain
U g x dx
Y
e / dx
ad
U g x dx
B
Stretched length = dx + e = dx +
Y
§ Ugx·
et
= ¨1 dx
© Y ¹¸
H§ Ugx·
Entire length = ³ ¨1 Y ¸ dx
.N
0 © ¹
H
U g ª x2 º Ug H2
=H+ Y « 2» H u
¬« ¼» 0 Y 2
w
9 u 103 u 9.8 106 ª H

3
= 10
u 1 km 103 m º
1.2 u1011 2 ¬ ¼
w
3
= 10 + 0.3675
? Increase in length = 0.3675 m.
w
2. A bar of cross section A is subjected to two equal and opposite tensile forces F at its ends.
Consider a plane through the bar making an angle T with a plane at right angle to the
bar:
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a. What is the tensile stress at this plane, in terms of F, A and T ?
b. What is the shearing stress at the plane, in terms of F,. A and T ?
c. For what value of T is the tensile stress a maximum?
d. For what value of T , the shearing stress is maximum?
2. The bar cross – sectional area A is shown in figure. Imagine a cut along the plane BB’.
Since this section is equilibrium, the bar on the left must have been exerting a horizontal
om
force F uniformly to the left. This force F has been resolved in two components. F cos T
(normal to the plane BB’) and F sin T (along the plane BB’)
Normal force
a. Tensile stress = area of corss sec tion
Here, Normal force = F cos T
i.c
And Area of cross section = A/cos T
F cos T F cos 2 T
? Tensile stress = A / cos T A
.
Tangential force
= A / cos T
ad
b. Shearing stress = area of corss sec tion
F cos T F sin T cos T

A
F sin 2T
2A
B
F cos 2 T
c. From part (A), ten tensile stress is given by,
A
et
This will be maximum then cos2 T = 1, i.e., T = 0

F sin 2 T
d. Shearing stress 2A .
.N
This will be maximum when sin 2 T = 1 or 2 T = S /2, i.e., = S /4
3. A ring of radius R mad of end wire is rotated about a stationary vertical axis passing
w
through the its center and perpendicular to the plane of the ring. What is the number of
r. p. s at which the ring ruptures?
w
3. Consider an element of length dl on the periphery of the ring of the ring as shown in figure.
m
Mass per unit length of the ring = 2 S R
w
§ m ·
Mass of length dl = ¨ 2 S R ¸ dl
© ¹
§ m · 2
= ¨ 2 S R dl ¸ Z R …………….. (1).
© ¹
Projection of tension T along center
2 T sin T 2T T T is small
= T (2 T ) = T (dl/R) ……………….. (2)
From equation (1) and (2), we get
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§ m ·
¨ dl ¸ Z 2 R = T (dl/R) ………...... (3)
© 2S R ¹
Here, m = S r2 l U
om
Where, l is the length of wire and U is the density of its material and r is the cross –
sectional
radius.
Further, l = 2 S R
i.c
? m S r2 2S R U
Substituting the value of m in equation (3) and solving it, we get
T
R2 U Z 2 or Stress S R2 U Z2
S r2
? Z
1 § Smax ·
¨
R© U ¹
¸ for rupture
Z 1 § S max ·
ad
B
Number of r. p. s = ¨ ¸.
2S 2S R © U ¹
et
4. A steel cylindrical rod of length l and radius r is suspended by its end from the ceiling.
a. Find the elastic deformation energy U of the rod.
b. Define U in terms of tensile strain '" /l of the rod.
.N
4. (a) Consider an element of length dx at a distance x from the fixed end. Let dU be the
energy
stored in the element of length dx. Then
1
dU u stress u strain u volume
w
1 m " x g stress
= u u u A.dx
2 "A Y
w
2
1 ªm g " x º
= « » u A dx
2 Y ¬« "A »¼
w
"
1 m2 g 2
³"
2
? U 2" x 2 dx
2 Y "2 A
0
m2 g 2 ª 2 3 "3 º m 2 g 2 "3
« " . " " »
2 Y "2 H ¬« 3 ¼» 6 Y "2 A
m2 g 2 " S r2 " U g2 " S r 2 U 2 g 2 "3

6Y A 6Y S r 2 6Y
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1
b. U u stress u strain u volume
2
1
= u strain u Y u strain u volume
2
1 2
= Y strain u volume
2
2
1 § '" ·
Y uS r2 "
2 ¨© " ¹¸
5. A sphere of radius 10 cm and mass 25 kg is attached to the lower and of steel wire which
om
is suspended from the ceiling of a room. The point of support is 521 cm above floor. When
the sphere is set swinging as a simple pendulum, its lowest point just grazes the floor.
Calculate the velocity of the ball at its lower position. [Young’s modulus of steel = 20 ×
1010 N m-2, Unstretched length of wire = 500 cm Radius of the steel wire = 0.05 cm]
5. The situation is shown in figure. Unstretched length of the wire = 5.0 m.
i.c
Stretched length of the wire = L + l
ad
B
= 5.21 – 0.2 = 5.01 m.
? " 5.01 m 5.0 m 0.01 m
et
Strain = 0.01/5
Let T be the tension in the wire.
Now, stress in wire = T/A
T
? N m 2
.N
Stress 2 4
S u 0.05 u 10
Stress
Y
Strain
w
T 5
Or 20 u1010 u
2 4
S u 0.05 u 10 0.01
w
Solving we get, T = 341.1 N

mv 2
Now, T mg
r
w
Where, v is the velocity of the sphere at it crosses the equilibrium position and r is the distance
of
the center of the sphere from the ceiling.
R = 5.01 + 0.1 = 5.11 m
25 v 2
? 314.1 25 u 9.8
5.11
69.1 u 5.11
v2 or v = 3.76 m/sec.
25
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6. A force of 106 N/m2 is required for breaking a material. If the density of material is 3 ×
103 kg/m3, then what should be the length of the wire made of material is so that it
breaks by its own weight?
6. Let L be the length of the wire required and A be its area of cross section.
? Weight of the wire, W = mg = AL U g, where U = its density
? Longitudinal stress developed at the point of support of the wire
W
LU g
A
But it is given that the wire will break if
W
t 106 , i.e., L U t 106
om
A
Hence, length of the wire required, L, so that it breaks under its own weight is given by
LU g 106
106 106
? L 34.01 m .
Ug 3 u 103 u 9.8
i.c
7. A copper wire of negligible mass, 1 m length and cross – sectional area 10-6 m2 is kept on
a smooth horizontal table with one end fixed. A ball of mass 1 kg is attached to the other
end. The wire and the ball are rotating with an angular velocity of 20 rad/sec. If the
elongation in the wire is 10-3 m, obtain the Young’s modulus. If on increasing the angular
3
=
ad
velocity to 100 rad/sec, the wire brakes down, obtain the breaking stress.
7. The ball of mass, m = 1kg is rotating in a horizontal plane in a circle of radius r = 1 + 10 -
1.001 m where we have added 10-3 m to the original 1 m of the wire as the wire is extended
B
by
this amount.
? Centrifugal force acting on the wire,
et
F mZ2 r ………….. (i)
Y A' "
From Young’s modulus, F ………….. (ii)
L
.N
Where A = cross – sectional area of the wire,

' L = increase in the length and
L = original length
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
w
Y A' "
mZ2 r
L
2
w
mZ2 r L 1u 20 u 1.001 u 1
Y 6
N / m2
A'" 10 u 0.001
= 4.0 × 10 N/m2. 11
w
The wire will break if the centrifugal force acting on it exceeds the breaking force i.e., when
Z Z ' 100 rad / s . Hence the wire snaps when F = m Z '2 r
= 1 × (100)2 × 1.001 = 104 N
Breaking force 104
? Breaking stress = 1010 N / m2 .
corss sec tional area 106
8. A 0.5 m long cylindrical steel wire with radius 2 × 10-3 m is suspended vertically from a
rigid support & carries a bob of mass 100 kg at the other end. If the bob gets snapped.
Calculate the change in temperature of the wire ignoring Radiation loss (y = 2.1 × 10 11 Pa,
Density = 7860 kg/m3, Specific heat = 420 J/kg K).
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8. Stored elastic potential energy = Heat generated

1
? 'U u stress u strain u volume ms 'T
2
Mg Mg
Stress = , Strain
A y A , Volume = LA.
2
Mg uL
? A. L. U s'T
2yA
2 ª 2 º
100 u10
om
Mg « »
? 'T « »
2 U A2 y u s « 2 u 7860 u S u 2 u10
3
2
u 2.1u 1011 u 420. »
¬ ¼
'T = 0.00457 K.
9. A solid copper cylinder of length L, is placed on a horizontal surface. A compressive force
i.c
F is applied to the cylinder in a vertically downward direction & is distributed uniformly
over the end face. Derive an expression for resulting change in volume assuming y to be
the Young’s modulus & r its radius. (Assume, V to be the Poisson’s Ratio).
9. If ' L is considered to be the decrease in length of the cylinder due to application of force
‘F’.
y
F/A
'L/ L
?
'L
L
F
Ay
F ad
S r 2 y ………………… (1)
B
Lateral strain ' r / r
Poisson’s Ratio V Longitudinal strain 'L / L
'r 'L
et
? V
r L
Initial volume of cylinder V = S r 2 L
.N
Volume change ' V ' S r2 L
= ' Sr L S r 2 ' L S .2r 'r .L

2
ª' L 2'r º ª'L 'Lº

w
= Sr S r2 L « 2V
2
« L r » L »¼
¬ ¼ ¬ L
'L E FL
? 'V S r2 L u 1 2V S r2 L u 1 2V 1 2V .
w
L Sr y
2
y
10. Each of the three blocks P, Q & R shown has mass of 5 kgs. Each of the wires A & B has
w
the cross – sectional area of 0.005 cm2 & Young’s modulus of 2.5 × 1011 N/m2. Neglect
frictions and find the longitudinal strain in each of the wire Take g = 10 m/s2.
10. Block R will go down, blocks P and Q will move on frictionless horizontal table. If ‘a’ is the
common acceleration of the system and tension in wires A and B are TA & TB.
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TA = 5 a ……………. (1)
TB - TA = 5a ……………. (2)
5 × g - TB = 5a ……………. (3)
a a
T T
P Q
A
B
R a
om
From (1) & (2), TB = 2 TA
? TB 2 u 5a 10a
? 5g – 10a = 5a
? 15 a = 5 g = 50 m/s2
10 m
? a
i.c
3 s2
10 50
? TA 5 a 5u N.
3 3
?
TB 2TA 2u
Longitudinal strain
50
3
100
3
N.
Longitudinal stress
Young ' s mod ulus
ad
B
50 50 5 2
N 0.005 cm 2 N u 10 2 m
? Strain in wire A 3 3 1000
N 2.5 u 1011 N / m2
et
2.5 u 1011 2
m
50 5 u104 50 103
N u
3 5 u104 107
.N
3 103 10
u
2.5 u1011 N / m 2 2.5 u1011 3 2.5 u 1011
10 107
u 1.33 u104
3 2.5 u 107 u104
w
100 5 2 100 5 u 10 4
u 10 2 m
Strain in wire B = 3 1000 3 103
w
2.5 u1011 N / m 2 2.5 u 1011
100 20
5 u 107 u107
w
= 3 3
2.5 u 1011 2.5 u107 u104
20 2 8
= u u104 u10 4 2.66 u 104.
3 5 3
11. Show that work performed to make a loop out of a steel band (Young’s modulus) of length
1 § S 2 y bd 3 ·
l, width b & thickness d is equal to 6 ¨¨ ¸¸ .
© " ¹
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When hoop is made out of a steel band, then central layer of hoop remains Unstretched, the
om
layers above the central layer are extended in length while those below the central layer are
shortened in length. If R is the radius of central unstretched layer, then " 2 S R. .
2S x 2S R
Consider now a coaxial layer of radius x. The strain produced in this layer = 2 S R.
i.c
x
1.
R
§x ·
? y ¨ 1¸
Stress at the layer stress y u strain
©R ¹
? u = (Energy density at this layer)
=
1
2
u stress u strain
? dU = stored energy in an elementary volume at

1
2
§x ad
·§x ·
u y ¨ 1¸ ¨ 1 ¸
©R ¹©R ¹
1 §x ·
Y ¨ 1¸
2 ©R ¹
2
B
2
1 §x ·
x y 1 u 2 S x dx b.
2 ¨© R ¹¸
et
d
R
2S y b § d 4 d3 ·
2
S yb S ybd3
³
2
? U xR x dx ¨ R ¸ d R
R2 R 2 ¨© 64 24 ¹¸ 12 R
.N
d
R
2
S y bd 3
" 2S R
§ " ·
w
12 u ¨ ¸
© 2S ¹
1 § S 2 y bd 3 ·
w
¨ ¸¸ .
6 ¨© " ¹
12. A thin rod of negligible mass & area of cross section 4 × 10-6 m2, suspended vertically from
w
one end, has a length of 0.5 m at 1000 C. The rod is cooled to 00 C but prevented from
contracting by attaching a mass at its lower end. Find (i) This mass & (ii) The energy
stored in the rod. Y = 1011 N/m2, D = 10-5 K-1 & g = 10 m/s2.
12. (i) A 4 u 106 m 2 , L100 0.5 m

Initial temperature = 1000 C
D 10 5 k 1 , y 1011 N / m 2
g = 10 m/s2, final temperature = 00 C
'L L100 L0 D 'T L100
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'L 5 3
? Longitudinal strain = L D 'T 10 u 100 10
100
? Thermal force generated = stress × C. S. Area

= 108 × A = 108 × 4 × 10-6 = 4× 102 N.
If m = mass attached at the end for ensuring that it does not contract.
4 u10 2
4 u102 mg ?m 40 Kg .
10
1
(ii) Stored energy = u stress u strain u volume
2
1
u 108 u 103 4 u 106 u 0.5
om
0.1 Joule.
2
13. A horizontal aluminium rod 5.0 cm in diameter, projects 6.0 cm from a wall. A 1000 kg
object is suspended from the end of the rod. Shear modulus of aluminium is 3.2 × 1010 N/
m2. If one neglects the mass of the rod find (a) Shear stress on the rod and (b) the vertical
deflection at the end of the rod.
i.c
13. (a) The shear stress is F/A.
F = 100 × 9.8 N = 9800 N
A S r2
? A S u 0.025
2.5
100
2
0.025 m
3.142 u 0.000625 0.0019637 m2

ad
B
9800 N
? stress 4.99 u 106 N / m 2
0.00196 m 2
et
F/A
(b) Shear modulus K
'x / L
F/A L 4.99 u 106 N / m 2 u 0.06 m

? 'x
.N
K 3.2 u1010 N / m2
4.99
= u 0.06 u104 m 0.093 u 104 m 0.93 u 105 m.
3.2
w
Concept Building Objectives:

Elasticity:
w
Single Answer Correct:
1. If a metal wire is stretched a little beyond its elastic limit (or yield point), and released, it
w
will
a. Lose its elastic property completely.
b. Not contract.
c. Contract, but its final length will be greater than its initial length.
d. Contract only up to its length at the elastic limit.
Solution : (C)
2. The wires A and B shown in the figure are made of the same material and have radii r A
mg
and rB respectively. The block between them has a mass m. When the force F is , one
3
of the wires breaks. Which of the following is not true?
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a. A will break before B if rA = rB

b. A will break before B if rA < 2rB
c. Either A or B may break if rA = 2rB
d. The lengths of A and B must be known to predict which wire will break.
om
Solution : (D)
mg
Tension in B = TB =
3
i.c
4 mg
Tension in A = TA = TB + mg =
3
? TA 4 TB
T
Stress S
S r2 .
Wire breaks when S = breaking stress.
With, rA = rB
We get, SA = 4SB
ad
A breaks before ‘B’.
B
With rA < 2rB, SA > SB A breaks before ‘B’.
With rA = 2rB, SA = SB Either ‘A’ or ‘B’ may break.
Value of length of the wires is irrelevant here.
et
3. Two rods of equal cross – sections, one of copper and other of steel are joined to form a
composite rod of length 2 m. At 200 C the length of the copper rod is 0.5 m. When the
temperature is raised to 1200 C, the length of the composite rod increases to 2.002 m. If
.N
the composite rod is fixed between two rigid walls and is thus not allowed to expand, it is
found that the length of the two component rods also does not change with the increase
in temperature. Calculate the coefficient of linear expansion
a. 0.8 × 10-6/0 C b. 0.8 × 10-5/0 C
-5 0
c. 6 × 10 / C d. 0.16 × 10-5/0 C.
w
Solution: (B)
With increase in temperature, due to thermal expansion, length of the rod changes i.e., L’ = L (1
w
+ D ' t). So for composite rod, Ls ' Lc ' Ls 1 D s 't Lc 1 D c 't
Ls Lc Ls D s Lc D c 't
w
According to problem,
2.002 = 2 [0.5 × 1.6 × 10-5 + 1.5 D s ] × 100.
Solving, we get, D s = 0.8 × 10-5/0 C.
4. The normal density of gold is U and its bulk modulus is K. the increase in density of a
lump of gold when a pressure P is applied uniformly on all sides is:
UP UK P K
a. b. c. U K d. U P
K P
Solution : (A)
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M M
U ; U'
V V 'V
1
U' V § 'V · 'V
? ¨1 V ¸ 1
U V 'V © ¹ V
P 'V P
K or
'V / V V K
U' P U' P
? 1 or 1
U K U K
U ' U U PU
om
Or or U ' U
U K K
5. A wire 3 m in length and 1 mm in diameter at 300 C is kept in a low temperature at - 1700

C and is stretched by hanging a weight of 10 kg at one end. The change in length of the
wire is [Y = 2 × 1011 N/m2, g = 10 m/s2 and D = 1.2 × 10-5/0 C]:
a. – 5.2 mm b. 2.5 mm c. 52 mm d. 25 mm.
i.c
Solution : (A)
The contraction in the length of the wire due to change in temperature
D L 'T 1.2 u10 5 u 3 u 170 30 7.2 u 10 3 m
The expansion in the length of wire due to stretching force
FL
YA 2 u 10
10 u10 u 3
11
0.75 u10 6
ad
2 u 103 m
B
Resultant change in length = - 7.2 × 10-3 + 2 × 10-3 m = - 5.2 × 10-3 m = - 5.2 mm
Negative sign shows a contraction.
et
6. Two cylinders A and B of the same material have same length, their radii being in the ratio
of 1 : 2 respectively. The two are joined end to end as shown in the adjoining figure. The
upper end of A is rigidly fixed. The lower end of B is twisted through an angle T , the angle
of twist of the cylinder A is
.N
w
w
15 16 16 17
a. T b. T c. T d. T
16 15 17 16
w
Solution: (C)
S K r4
For cylinder A : W T'
2"
4
S K 2r T T '
For cylinder B : W
2"
4
S K 2r 16 r 4
? T ' SK T T '
2" 2"
T ' 16T 16T '
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16
? T' T.
17
O1
om
O2
Previous IIT Subjectives:
i.c
Example:
A wire of density 9 g cm-3 is stretched between two clamps 100 cm apart, while subjected
to an extension of 0.05 cm. What is the lowest frequency of transverse vibrations in the wire,
assuming Young’s modulus of the material to be 9 × 1011 dyne cm-2
Solution:
ad
Let F be stretching force and A be the area of cross – section of the wire.
linear stress
By definition, Young’s modulus (Y) = linear strain
F/A F L
B
? Y u
"/ L A "
F Y " 9 u 1011 u 0.05

45 u107 dyne cm2
et
?
A L 100
The lowest frequency (fundamental frequency) of transverse vibration on the wire is given by
1 F
.N
n
2L m
Where L = length of the stretched wire
F = stretching force
m = mass per unit length of wire
w
= (Area of cross – section of wire) × (density) = 9A
1 F 1 45 u 107
? n u u .
w
2 u100.05 Au 9 200.1 9
Example:
A steel wire of cross – sectional area 0.5 mm2 is held between two fixed supports. If the
w
tension in the wire is negligible and it is just taut at a temperature of 20 0 C, determine the
tension when the temperature falls it is 00 C. Young’s modulus of elasticity is 21 × 1011 dyne cm-
2
and the coefficient of linear expansion is 12 × 10-6 (C0)-1. Assume the distance between the
supports remains same.
Solution :
Let the original length = L cm
The change in length " L D t where D is the coefficient of linear expansion and t is the change
in temperature.
" LD t
? Strain Dt
L L
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12 u106 u 20 24 u105
The nature of the strain is tensile because the wire is kept taut and not allowed to contract.
? Tensile stress in the wire = Young’s modulus × strain
= 21 u1011 u 24 u10 5
= 5.04 × 108 dyne cm-2
The cross – sectional area of the wire = 0.5 mm2
= 0.005 cm2
? Tension (T) in the wire = tensile stress × area
= 5.04 × 108 × 0.005
= 25.2 × 105 dyne = 25.2 N
? The tension in the wire, when the temperature falls by 200 C = 25.2 N
om
0.01
? Strain =
5
Stress = Y. Strain
11 0.01
= 2 u 10 u
5
i.c
= 4 × 108
? Stretching force = area of cross section of wire x stress
2
§ 0.05 ·
F S¨ ¸ u 4 u 10
8
© 100 ¹
The force at the lowest point = mg

= 100 S N
mv 2
r
ad
B
25v 2
= 25 u 9.8 because it describes a circle of radius 5 + 0.01 + 0.1
5.11
= 5.11 m.
et
25v 2
? F 25 u 9.8 100 S
5.11
.N
25v 2
? 314 245
5.11
= 59
w
59 u 5.11
? v2
25
V = 3.76 m/s.
w
Q. A sphere of radius 10 cm and mass 25 Kg is attached to the lower and of a steel wire which is
suspended from the ceiling of a room. The point of support is 5.21 m above the floor. When the
sphere is set swinging, as a simple pendulum, its lowest point just grazes the floor. Calculate the
w
velocity of the ball at the lowest position. (Young’s modulus of steel = 2 × 10 11 N/m2; Unstretched
length of the wire 5m; radius of steel wire = 0.05 cm).
Solution:
Length of wire + diameter of sphere = 5 + 0.2 5.2 m
In the mean position, it just touches the floor. So, its elongation then is
5.2 – 5.2 = 0.01 m.
Q. A composite rod is made by joining a copper rod end to end with a second rod of different
material but of same cross – section. A 250C, the composite rod is 1 m in length, of which the
length of copper rod is 30 cm. At 12500 C, the length of the composite rod increases by 1.91 mm.
When the composite rod is not allowed to expand by holding it between two rigid walls, it is fund
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that the length of constituents do not change with rise in temperature. Find the Young’s modulus
and coefficient of linear expansion of the second rod. For copper, D = 1.7 × 10-5 C-1 and Y = 1.3 ×
1011 Nm-2.
Solution: Increase of length due to heating

= l1D1t l2D 2 t
= 1.91 mm = 300 × 1.7 × 10-5 × 100 + 700 × 100 × D 2
? 1.91 mm 0.51 70000 D 2
? 1.41 70000 D 2
? D 2 u 105 K
om
If length does not change thermal stresses on the rods must be equal and opposite.
1.7 u 1.3
? Y2 u 1011
2
11.05 u 1010 N / m 2
? Young’s modulus of material of second rod
i.c
1.105 u 1011 N / m 2 .
Problem : A solid sphere of radius R made of a material of bulk modulus B is surrounded by a

liquid in a cylindrical contaniner. A masselsess piston of area A floats on the surface of the
the piston to compress the liquid.
Solution: As for a spherical body,

4
S R3 ,
V
'R 1 'V
ad
liquid. Find the fractional change in the radius of the sphere (dR/R) when a mass M is placed on
…………….. (1)
B
3 R 3 V
Now by definition of bulk modulus,
'U 'V 'U ª Mg º
et
Mg
B V
'V
i.e., « as 'U A »¼
.
V B AB ¬
dR Mg
So .
.N
R 3 AB
Problem A thin rod of negligible mass and area of cross – seciotn 4 × 10 -6 m2, suspended vertically
from one end, has a length of 0.5 m at 1000 C. The rod is closed to 00 C but prevented from
contracting by attacing a mass at the lower end. Find (i) this mass, and (ii) the energy stored in
w
the rod.
Given for the rod, Young’s modulus = 1011 N/m2, Coefficient of linear expansion = 10-5 K-
1
and g = 10 m/s2.
w
Solution: (i) Given that A 4 u 10 6 m2 , L100 0.5 m, T1 1000 C , D 105 k 1
1011 N / m 2 , g 10 m / s 2 ,T 2 00 C
w
Y
'L L100 L0 D ' T L100
'L
Or, Longitudinal strain D 'T 10 5 u100 10 3 N / m 2
L100
Hence longitudinal stress = Y × Long. Strain = 1011 × 10-3 = 108 N/m2.
? Longitudinal thermal force = Stress × C.S. area = 108 × A = 108 × 4 × 10-6 = 4 × 102 N.
If m be mass attached at the lower end of rod to prevent it from contracting, then
4 u10 2
4 u102 mg or m 40 kg .
10
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(ii) Energy stored in the rod U = (1/2) × stress × strain × volume = (1/2) × 10 8 × 10-3 (4 × 10-6 ×
0.5) = 0.1 Joule.
Problem: A 5 m long cylindrical steel wire with radius 2 × 10-3 m is suspended vertically from a
rigid support and carries a bob of mass 100 kg at the other end. If the bob gets snapped, calculate
the change in temperature of the wire ignoring radiation losses.
(For the steel wire: Young’s Modulus = 2.1 × 1011Pa; Density = 7860 kg/m3; Specific heat
420 J/kg – K)
Solution : Heat generated = Stored Elastic Potential Eenergy

ª Mg Mg º
ms 'T 'U 1 / 2 u stress u strain u volume « Stress , Strain , volume LA» .
¬ A YA ¼
om
2
Mg L
A.L.U s 'T [Neglecting the strain due to the weight of wire]
2Y A
ª 2 º
2 « 100 u10 »
'T / 2U A Y s
2
i.c
Mg « »
3 3
2 = 0.00457 K.
« 2 u 7860 u S u 2 u 10 u 2 u 10 103 2.11031011103 420 »
¬ ¼
Q. A force of 106 Nm-2 is required for breaking a material. If the density of the material is 3 × 103
kg/m3, than what should be the length of the wire made of material so that its breaks by its own
weight?
Solution: Weight of wire = S r 2l U g
Stress =
S r 2l U g
lUg 106
ad
B
S r2
106 103
? l 34 m
et
3 u 103 u 9.8 29.4
Problem A rod AD consisting of three segements AB, BC and CD joined together is hanging
vertically from a fixed support at A. The lengths of the segements are respectively 0.1m, 0.2 m
.N
and 0.15 m. The cross – section of the rod is uniformly 10-4 m2. A weight of 10 kg is hung from D.
Calculate the displacement of points. B, C and D if Y AB = 2.5 × 1010 N/m2, YBC = 4 × 1010 N/m2 and
YCD = 1 × 1010 N/m2. (Neglect the weight of the rod).
Solution : By definition of Young’s modulus,

w
FL MgL
'L [as F Mg ]
AY AY
w
10 u 9.8 u 0.1
So for rod AB 'L1 3.92 u10 6 m
2.5 u1010 u104
10 u 9.8 u 0.2
14.7 u106 m
w
And for rod BC 'L2

4 u1010 u104
10 u 9.8 u 0.15
And for rod CD 'L3 10 4
14.7 u106 m
1u10 u10
So displacement of B = 'L1 3.92 u106 m
Displacement of C = 'L1 'L2 8.82 u106 m
And displacement D = 'L1 'L2 'L3 23.5 u 106 m
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om
Problem: Two rods of equal cross – seciotns, one of copper and the other of steel, are joined to
form a composite rod of length 2.0 m. At 200 C the length of the copper and is 0.5 m. When the
temperature is raised to 1200 C the length of the walls and is, thus, not allowed to expand, it is
found that the lengths of the two componenet rods also do not change with the increase in
temperature. Calculate the Young’s modulus and the coefficient of linear expansion of steel.
i.c
Given
YCu 1.3 u 1013 N / m 2 and D Cu 1.6 u105 / 0 C
Solution: (a) As with increase in temperature due to thermal expansion the length of a rod
changes,
i.e., L ' L 1 D 'T .
So for composite rod Ls '
L 's
LC '
LC '
ad
Ls 1 D s ' T LC 1 D C ' T
Ls LC LsD s LC D C ' T
B
According to given problem,
2.002 = 2 + [0.5 × 1.6 × 10-5 + 1.5 D s ] × 100
et
Or 1.5D s 2 u 105 0.8 u105 , i.e, D s 0.8 u105 / 0 C

(b) When the rods are fixed between the walls and its length remains unchanged.
'Ls 'LC 'Ls 'LC
.N
H C
However, as here length of individual rods also remains unchaged,
'Ls H
'Ls C
and 'LC H
'LC C
Now as 'L L D 'T and 'L FL / Ay

w
H C
So LsD s 'T FLs / AYs and LC D C 'T FLC / AYC .

w
Dividing one by the other D c / D s Ys / Yc
DC 1.6 u 105
w
So Ys u Yc u 1.3 u1013 2.6 u1013 N / m2

Ds 0.8 u105
Problem: A copper wire of negligible mass, 1 m, length and cross – sectional area 10 -6 m2 is kept on
a smooth horizontal table with one end fixed. A ball of mass 1 kg is attached to the other end. The
wire and the ball are rotating with an angular velocity of 20 rad/s. If the elongation in the wire is 10 -
3
m, obtain the Young’s modulus. If on increasing the angular velocity to 100 rad/s, the wire breaks
down, obtain the breaking stress:
Solution: According to given problem, for vertical equilibrium of ball,
R = mg ……………… (1).
And for motion of mass m in a circle of radius r at angular frequency Z in a horizontal plane, the
centripetal force required F = mr Z 2 ………….. (2).
Here this force is provided by the elasticity of the wire,
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YA
i.e., F T ' L ……………. (3).
L
So equating F from Eqns. (2) and (3),
om
m r LZ 2 m L2 Z 2
F [as r L ' L ]
A' L A' L
2 2
1u 1 u 20
Y 4 u1011 N / m2
So 10 6
u 10 3
i.c
Further as wire breaks at Zmax = 100 rad/s,
2
Breaking force = mr Z 2 max 1 u1 100 104 N
And as cross – section of wire is 10-6 m2,
Breaking stress =
Breaking force
Area 10 6
ad
10 4
1010 N / m 2 Ans:.
Problem A stone of 0.5 kg mass is attached to one end of a 0.8 m long aluminium wire of 0.7
B
diameter and suspended vertically. The stone is now rotated in a horizontal plane at a rate such
that the wire makes an angle of 850 with the vertical. Find the increase in the length of the wire.
[Young’s modulus of aluminum = 7 × 1010 N/m2; sin 850 = 0.9962 and cos 850 = 0.0872]
et
Solution: According to given problem, for vertical equilibrium of stone,

T = cos T = mg ……………….. (1).
.N
w
w
w
And for circular motion of stone in a horizontal plane,

T = sin T = mR Z 2 ……………….. (2).
Now, as tension in the wire is provided by its elasticity.
TL TL
Y so 'L ……………….. (3).
A' L S r2 Y
So substituting the value of T from Eqn. (1) in (3),
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L
'L mg
S r 2 cos T
0.5 u 9.8 u 0.8

2
3.14 u 0.35 u 103 u 7 u1010 u 0.0872
i.e., ' L = 1.668 × 10-3 m.
Q. A load of 31.4 kg is suspended forma wire of radius 10-3 m and density 9 × 103 m-3. Calculate
the change in temperature of the wire, if 75% of the work done is converted into heat. The
Young’s modulus and heat capacity of the a material of the wire are 9.8 × 1010 Nm-2 and 490 J kg-
1
K-1 respectively.
om
1
Solution: Work done in elongation = . Stretching force × elongation
2
1 Fl
= 2 u 31.4 u 9.8 u AY
i.c
1 2
u 31.4 u 9.8 u 31.4 u l
= 2
A u 9.8 u1010
Where t is rise of temperature.

=
ad
15.7 u 31.4 l u 9.8
A u 1010
= Heat produced
= mst = Al U × 490 t.
B
15.7 u 31.4 l u 9.8
Al u 9 u 103 u t u 490
A u 1010
et
15.7 u 31.4 u 9.8

? t
490 u10 u 9 u 103 u 3.14 u 106 u 3.14 u 106
10
Since A S r2
.N
1
t K
90
Since only 75% of energy is converted into heat. Rise of temperature.
w
1 3
u
90 4
w
1
= K.
120
Problem: A body of mass 3.14 kg is changing from one end of a wire of length 10.0 m. The radius
w
of the wire is changing uniformly from 9.8 × 10-4 m at one end to 5.0 × 10-4 m at the other end. Find
the change in the length of the wire. What will be the change in length if the ends are interchanged?
Young’s modulus of the material of the wire is 2 × 1011 N-m2.
Solution: As radius of wire is changing uniformly hence gradient of radius will be constant over
the whole length of the wire i.e.,
dr r2 r1
K ………………. (1)
dx L
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om
Consider a small length element of the wire having initial length dx and radius r. Let dl is the
extension in the length of this element due to application of force.
Mg
Now, Y S r 2 dl
i.c
Mg M g § dr ·
Or dl = Y dx ¨ ¸ [From eq. (1)]
S r2 Y S r2 Y © K ¹
5.22m
ad L=5m
B
L
et
.N
Hence total extension in the length of wire

r
r2 M g dr Mg ª 1º 2 Mg r2 r1
l ³ dl ³r1 S Y K r2 SY K « r »
¬ ¼ r1 SY K r2 r1
w
But according to eq. (1), K = (r2 – r1)/L
M gL r2 r1 M gL
Hence l u
S Y r2 r1 S Y r2 r1
w
r2 r1
3.14 u 9.8 u 10
11 4 4
10 3 meter.
3.14 u 2 u 10 u 9.8 u 10 u 5 u 10
w
On interchanging the ends of the wire, extension in the length remains same.
Problem: A sphere of radius 0.1 m and mass 8 S is attached to the lower end of a steel wire of
length 5.0 m and diameter 10-3. The wire is suspended from 5.22 m high ceiling of a room. When the
sphere is made to swing as a simple pendulum, it just grazer the floor at the lowest point. Calculate
the velocity of the sphere at the lowest position. Young modulus of steel is 1.994 × 10 11N/m2.
Solution: Mass of sphere M = 8 S kg, radius of sphere r = 0.1m, Initial length of wire = L = 5m.
Extension of wire at mean position when oscillating
' L = 5.22 – (L + 2r) = 5.22 – (5 + 2 × 0.1)
= 5.22 – 5.2 = 0.02 m
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If T be the tension in wire at mean position when oscillating, then
T/A
Y
'L/ L
Y A.' L Y S r02 ' L

? T
L L
1.994 u 1011 u S 5 u104 u 0.02

1.99.4 S ……………. (1)
5
Mv 2
But in mean position, T – Mg = ……………. (2)
om
R
Where R = radius of circular path of oscillating sphere = 5.22 – 0.1 = 5.12 m
Hence from eq. (2), we get, 199.4 S - 8 S × 9.8 = 8 S v2/5.12 or 199.4 – 78.4 = 8v2/5.12
Or 121 = 8v2/5.12 or v2 = (5.12 × 121)/8 = 0.64 × 121
? v 0.64 u121 0.8 u 11 8.8 m / s
i.c
Problem: A wire of cross – sectional area 4 × 10-4 m2, modulus of elasticity 2 × 1011 N/m-2and length
1 m is stretched between two vertical rigid poles. A mass of 1 kg is suspended at its middle.
Calculate the angle it makes with horizontal.
Solution: Given that A = 4 × 10-4 m2; 2L = 1 m,
Y = 2 × 1011 Nm-2 Nm-2, m = 1kg.
From the figure, it is clear 2T sin T = mg
If CD = x, then sin T = x/L,
………. (1)
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B
T T
T
et
T T
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According to definition of Young’s modulus: ………. (2)

YA YA Y A x2
T 'L [( L2 x 2 )1/ 2 L] ………. (3)
L L 2 L2
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1/3
Y A x2 x x3 mg x § mg ·
mg 2u u or , or ¨ ¸
2 L2 L L3 YA L ©Y A¹
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1/3 1/3
x § mg · § 1u 10 ·
Or, T sin T ¨ ¸ ¨ 11 4 ¸
L ©Y A¹ © 2 u 10 u 4 u 10 ¹
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10 2
5 u 103 radian
2
Exam Try Questions
1. A copper ring with a radius of r = 100 cm and a cross – sectional area of A = 4 mm 2 is fitted
onto a steel rod with a radius R = 100.125 cm. With what force F will be ring be expanded
if the modulus of elasticity f copper E = 12,000 kgf/mm2? Disregard the deformation of
the rod.
2. What work can be performed by a steel rod with a length l and a cross – sectional area A
when heated by t digress.
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3. A wire with a length of 2l is stretched between two posts. A lantern with a mass M is
suspended from the middle of the wire. The cross – sectional are of the wire is A and its
modulus of elasticity E. Determine the angle D of sagging of the wire, considering it to be
small.
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4. A steel rod with a cross section A = 1 cm2 is tightly fitted between two stationary absolutely
rigid walls. What force F will the rod act with on the walls if it is heated by ' t = 50 C? The
coefficient of linear thermal expansion of steel D = 1.1 × 10-5 deg-1and its modulus of
elasticity E – 20,000 kgf/mm2.
5. Two rods made of different materials are placed between massive walls. The cross section
i.c
of the rods is A and their respective lengths l1 and l2. The rods are heated by t degrees.
Find the force with the rods act on each other if their coefficients of linear thermal expansion
D1 and D 2 and moduli of elasticity of their materials E1 and E2 are known. Disregard the
deformation of the walls.
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B
et
6. A homogeneous block with a mass m = 100 kg on three vertical wires of equal length
arranged symmetrically. Find the tension of the wire if the middle wire is steel and the
other two are of copper. All the wire have the same cross section. Consider the modulus
of elasticity of steel to be double that of copper.
.N
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7. A reinforced – concrete column is subjected to compression by a certain load. Assuming

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that the modulus of elasticity of concrete Ec is one – tenth of that of iron Ei and the cross
– sectional area of the iron is one – twentieth of that of concrete, find the portion of the
load acting on the concrete.
8. A steel bolt is inserted into a copper tube as shown in figure. Find the induced in the bolt
and in the tube when the nut turned through one revolution if the length of the tube is l,
the pitch of the bolt thread is h and the cross – sectional areas of the bolt and the tube
area Ab and At respectively.
72
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9. A copper plate is soldered to two steel plates as shown in figure. What tensions will arise
in the plates if the temperature is increased by t0 C? All three plates have same cross
sections.
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i.c
10. Find the maximum permissible linear velocity of a rotating thin lead ring if the ultimate
strength of lead V u = 200 kgf/cm2 and its density U = 11.3 g/cm3.
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11. An iron AB has both ends fixed. Hook H is fastened with two nuts in a hole in the middle
of the block. The block is clamped by the nuts with a force F0. What forces will act on the
upper and lower nuts from the side of the block if the hook carried a load whose weight
can change from zero to G =2F0? Disregard sagging of the block and the weight of the
hook.
B
et
.N
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73

Elasticity

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Elasticity

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In all engineering construction the component parts of a structure must be assigned

Elasticity is a tensile property of the material.

Examples: Steel, rubber

Steel is said to be more elastic than rubber.

Examples: Clay, lead

Where F = force acting normal to the cut.

1.5 TYPES OF STRESS COMPRESSIVE, TENSILE AND SHEARING STRESS:

The important types of simple stresses are:

A = cross – sectional area of the body.

An equilibrium, P = Resisting force as shown in Fig. 1.4.

1.5..3 SHEAR STRESS :

Where L = Length of block

100 cos 300

Let A1 = Area of upper and

A2 = Area of lower and

1.6.3 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN:

1.6.4 SHEAR STRAIN:

1.7 ELEASTIC LIMIT:

Where C1 = constant of integration

1.11 DEFINITION OF STRAIN, TYPES OF STRAINS:

1.11.2 COMPRESSIVE STRAIN:

? Compressive strain is given by

1.8 HOOKE’S LAW:

1.9 YOUNG’S MODULUS OR MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

E – Breaking or fracture point.

Elastic after effect:

1.12 BRAS OF VAYING SECTION:

PL1 PL1 PL3

Or change in length of section Or change in length of section Or change in length of

PL1 PL2 PL3

? Total change in the length of the bar.

dL = dL1 + dL2 + dL3

to a tensile force of 10 kN.

? The total extension G of the bar AB will be given by G G1  G 2  G 3

Let P = Axial tensile load on the bar

Then the stress at a distance x from the left end is given by

dL = strain. dx « L or dL x udX »

[Multiplying and dividing by (- q) ]

' G' . ª¬ log e b1  k x º¼

Or ' log e 1 log e 2

2.13 ELONGATION OF TRUNCATED CONE SHAPED BAR:

Substituting these values in (4), we get

ELONGATION OF ROD UNDER IT’S SELF WEIGHT:

mZ2 l ª r2 º stress tension

Ans: In both cases answer will be 2 Ay

Sol. Considering an element of angular width ' 2T ' - dq = O R '.2T F 2T sin T .

Stress in the brass wire =

Now Y1 = 20 × 1011 dyne cm-2 and Y2 = 10 × 1011 dyne cm-2.

T2 0.2 u10 u1011 1 2

Using Eq. (2) we have x = (200 – x) or x = 100 cm.

Analogy of Rod as a spring:

Where = equivalent spring constant.

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE OR IN A ROD:

Strain energy stored in equivalent spring

F" Ay 1 Ay F 2" 2 1 F 2"

Sol. Applying energy consecration

2mg r 4m 2 g 2  8mgh keq mg m 2 g 2 2mgh

It was possible to disregard the deformations caused by temperature in statically determinate

2.19 TEMPERATURE STRESSES IN BARS OF TAPERING SECTION:

Sol. '" " s D s 'T  " c D c 'T

There is no change in component length for steel.

? The total extension G of the bar AB will be given by G G1 G 2 G 3

dL = strain. dx « L or dL x udX »

' G' . ª¬ log e b1 k x º¼

Sol. Considering an element of angular width ' 2T ' - dq = O R '.2T F 2T sin T .

2mg r 4m 2 g 2 8mgh keq mg m 2 g 2 2mgh

Sol. '" " s D s 'T " c D c 'T

For copper x " c D c 'T 0

Dc 1.5 u 1013 u16 u 105

change in volume 'V d 2 'l 2ld .'d

But x y z = volumetric strain.

05 100 u 103

We know, E = 2G 1 P ………………… (i)

'U 'p U ' U 'p

Or U ' U[1 'p / B ]

? "2 1.176 u103

The block A performs a SHM.

" 0.52 0.012 0.5 .