CONTENTS

1.Aknowledgement

2.Water

3.Carbohydrates

4.Protein

5.Fats

6.Electrolytes : Sodium

Potassium

Chlorides

7.Vitamins

8.Minerals :Phosphorus

Magnesium

Iron

Zinc

Iodine

Copper
 Acknowledgement

I wish to express my gratitude to Madam Chia Loy Tian, principal of

Wesley Methodist School Kuala Lumpur, Mr. Low, my Physical
Education subject teacher for providing me an opportunity to do my
project work on “The Fundamentals of Nutrients” and for their kind co-
operation to the completion of my project work. Last but not least I wish
to avail myself, Loh Leong Seng of 2C of this opportunity, express a
sense of gratitude and love to my friends and my beloved parents for
their manual support, strength, and help for everything.
 Water

W
ater is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its
molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected
by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often
co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water
vapor or steam.

Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known
forms of life. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and
other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below
ground in aquifers and 0.001% in
the air as vapor, clouds ,and precipitation. Oceans hold
97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%,
and other land surface water such
as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%.

Clean drinking water is essential to humans and other life forms.

Access to safe drinking water has improved steadily and substantially over
the last decades in almost every part of the world. There is a clear
correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita. However,
some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world
population will be facing water-based vulnerability.

Functions of Water
The human body contains anywhere from 55% to 78% water depending on body size.[34] To
function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to
avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity,
and other factors. Most of this is ingested through foods or beverages other than drinking straight
water. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, though most advocates
agree that 6–7 glasses of water (approximately 2 liters) daily is the minimum to maintain proper
hydration. For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water.

Deficiencies of Water
•Your brain won’t work properly – you’ll be groggy, slow, and feel out of it
•You’ll lose muscle tone

•Your kidneys won’t be able to function; toxins and wastes will back up in your body, making
you feel generally crummy

• You’ll have trouble regulating your body temperature; you make feel overheated, or you may
feel chronically cold and unable to get warm.

•You’ll get constipated

•Fats stored in your body won’t get used up or metabolized

•You’ll think you’re hungry all the time, and so you’ll be likely to eat more

•Your skin will get dry, itchy, and saggy

 Carbohydrates
arbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n; that

C
is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a hydrogen: oxygen atom ratio of
2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed as hydrates of carbon, hence their name.
Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The

carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharide’s,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharide’s and
disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred
to as sugars.

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any
food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and
pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams and desserts).
Deficiencies of Carbohydrates

•Dizziness

•Confusion

•Headaches

•Disorientation

• Heavy legs

•Severe Lethargy and Fatigue

•Fainting

Sources of Carbohydrates
•Bread

•Corn

•Kernels

• Milk

•Yogurt

•Cashew Nuts
•Bagel

•Spaghetti

•Banana

Protein
roteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded
P into a globular or fibrous form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the
peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The
sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded
in the genetic code.

One of the most distinguishing features of polypeptides is their ability to fold into a
globular state, or "structure". The extent to which proteins fold into a defined structure varies
widely. Some proteins fold into a highly rigid structure with small fluctuations and are therefore
considered to be single structure. Other proteins undergo large rearrangements from one
conformation to another. This conformational change is often associated with a signaling event.

Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins
are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. Many
proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins
also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins
in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape.

Deficiencies of Protein
Protein has several roles in our bodies and is essential for survival. When there isn't enough
protein in the diet, which happens to children in some countries, it is called Kwashiorkor. Early
symptoms of lack of protein are apathy, lethargy and irritability. When the deficiency of protein
goes longer, you may see poor growth, swelling, abnormal hair growth, muscle wasting, and
abnormal skin. A lack of protein also weakens the immune system and so it is easy to get sick.
Eventually, a person would die.

Your muscle mass turns to stored fat, you have low Energy and even worse than that, If
you are trying to lose weight now that your Fat and you still Do Not increase your protein you
are only loosing muscle mass ,your metabolism and stored fat is still there so when you stop
doing those things it comes right back.

Sources of Protein
•Milk

•Soy Milk

• Eggs

•Cheese

•Yogurt

•Peanut Butter

•Lean Meats, Fish, and Poultry

•Beans, Tofu, Lentils, and other

Legumes

•Grains, including bread and pasta

•Nuts and Seeds

Fat
ats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and
F largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally trimesters of glycerol and fatty
acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure
and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats,
"oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is
usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer
to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances.

Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure
and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving
both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most
heterotrophs (including humans).
Deficiencies of Fat
You won't have alot of energy, you'd feel cold(because fats provide heat). Your organs and stuff
wouldn’t get enough protection!(because there is a layer of fat under the skin that protects things.

Sources of Fat
Examples of edible animal fats
are lard, fish oil, and butter or ghee.
They are obtained from fats in the milk
and meat, as well as from under the
skin, of an animal. Examples of edible
plant fats include peanut, soya bean,
sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and
vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable
shortening, which can be derived from
the above oils, are used mainly for
baking. These examples of fats can be
categorized into saturated
fats and unsaturated fats.

Electrolytes
Electrolyte, in chemistry, is any substance containing free ions that make the substance
electrically conductive. The most typical electrolyte is an ionic solution, but molten electrolytes
and solid electrolytes are also possible.

Commonly, electrolytes are solutions of acids, bases or salts. Furthermore, some gases
may act as electrolytes under conditions of high temperature or low pressure. Electrolyte
solutions are normally formed when a salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the
individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and
solute molecules, in a process called solvation.

An electrolyte in a solution may be described as concentrated if it has a high

concentration of ions, or dilute if it has a low concentration. If a high proportion of the solute
dissociates to form free ions, the electrolyte is strong; if most of the solute does not dissociate,
the electrolyte is weak.

Sodium
Sodium is a metallic element with a symbol Na (from Latin natrium or Arabic ‫ ناترون‬natrun;
perhaps ultimately from Egyptian netjerj) and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white,
highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals within "group 1" (formerly known as
‘group IA’). It has only one stable isotope, 23Na.

Elemental sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by passing an electric
current through molten sodium hydroxide. Elemental sodium does not occur naturally on Earth,
because it quickly oxidizes in air and is violently reactive with water, so it must be stored in an
non-oxidizing medium, such as a liquid hydrocarbon.

Sodium ion is soluble in water, and is thus present in

great quantities in the Earth's oceans and other stagnant
bodies of water. In these bodies it is mostly counterbalanced
by the chloride ion, causing evaporated ocean water solids to
consist mostly of sodium chloride, or common table salt.
Sodium is an essential element for all animal life (including
human) and for some plant species.

Deficiencies of Sodium
Sodium is an essential part of life. It's entrance into cells is what causes your nerves to be
functional. Without Sodium, you probably wouldn’t live very long. That is why, whenever you
are in the hospital for extended periods of time, they give you an IV of Saline. This is to prevent
rigor in your muscles. Without sodium, you couldn’t move, eat, drink, breathe or live.

Sources of Sodium
• Pizza
•Spaghetti

•Ham

•White Roll

•Whole milk

•Noodle soups

•French fries

• Potato chips

Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K, atomic number 19,
and atomic mass 39.0983. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white
metallic alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive
with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the
reaction.
 Potassium and sodium are alkali metals and are chemically very
similar. For this reason, historically their salts were not differentiated. They
were finally realized to be different elements when the metals were isolated
by electrolysis in the early 19th century. Potassium in nature occurs only as
ionic salt. As such, it is found dissolved in seawater, and as part of
many minerals.

The functions of potassium and sodium in living organisms are quite

different. Animals, in particular, employ sodium and potassium differentially
to generate electrical potentials in animal cells, especially in nervous tissue.

Deficiencies of Potassium
The common signs and symptoms of low potassium include weakness, irregular
heartbeat, stomach disturbances and frequently occurring muscle cramps. The
results of electrocardiogram tests, meant to measure heart function, tend to be
abnormal when the test is executed. The person experiences excessive fatigue,
constant thirst, and dryness of skin and recurring chills. These signs and symptoms
of low potassium are indicators of lack of one of the most important nutritional
component.

Sources of Potassium
•Bran Wheat

•Soya Flour

•Raisins

• Sultanas

•Roast Potatoes

Chlorides
Chloride is a major mineral that is necessary for your stomach to make digestive juices and that
helps keep your body fluids in balance. Chloride is found in the fluid surrounding all the cells in
your body.
Sources of Chlorides
The main food source of chloride is sodium chloride, or salt. Chloride is also found in many
vegetables including tomatoes, lettuce, celery, olives, seaweed and the grain, rye. Most
Americans consume more chloride than needed in the form of table salt and salt in prepared
foods. In the body, chloride helps to maintain fluid balance and is part of hydrochloric acid used
in digestion.

Vitamins
Vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. In other
words, an organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when it
cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the
diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For
example, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals, and
biotin and vitamin D are required in the human diet only in certain circumstances. By
convention, the term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals,
essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids (which are needed in larger amounts than vitamins),
nor does it encompass the large number of other nutrients that promote health but are otherwise
required less often. Thirteen vitamins are presently universally recognized. Vitamins are
classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure.

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some have hormone-like functions as

regulators of mineral metabolism (e.g., vitamin D), or regulators of cell and tissue growth and
differentiation (e.g., some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E
and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins (e.g., B complex vitamins) function
as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism.
In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example,
biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids.

Vitamins may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable
molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example,
folic acid carries various forms of carbon group – methyl, formyl, and methylene – in the cell.
Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function,
the other vitamin functions are equally important.

Source of Vitamins
Vitamins Vitamin Food source
Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod liver oil

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Rice bran

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus, most fresh foods

Vitamin D (Calciferol) Cod liver oil

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Meat, eggs

Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) Liver, eggs, animal products

Vitamin K1 (Phylloquinone) Leafy green vegetables

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) Meat, whole grains,

Vitamin B7 (Biotin) Meat, dairy products, eggs

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Meat, eggs, grains

Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Leafy green vegetables

Minerals
Mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance that is formed through geological
processes and that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic structure,
and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or
mineralogist and does not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition
from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms.
The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
Calcium
alcium is the chemical element with the symbol CA and atomic number 20. It has an
C atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth
most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant
dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium,
and sulfate.

Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, where

movement of the calcium ion Ca2+ into and out of the cytoplasm functions as a signal for many
cellular processes. As a major material used in mineralization of bones and shells, calcium is the
most abundant metal by mass in many animals.

Deficiencies of Calcium
If you don't have enough calcium, milk, you will have weak bones and they will easily break,
and will cause Calcium deficiency will lead to weak bones.
You develop weak bone deficiency (also known as Rickets syndrome) and this can lead to
diseases related to the lack of Calcium.

Sources of Calcium
•Tofu

•Milk

•Cheese

•Broccoli

•Fish Paste

• Rice

•White Bread

• Walnuts

•Hazel Nuts
Phosphorus
hosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A
P multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always
present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks. Elemental phosphorus
exists in two major forms – white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but due to its high
reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth.

The first form of elemental phosphorus to be produced (white phosphorus, in 1669) emits a faint
glow upon exposure to oxygen. Phosphorus compounds are used in explosives, nerve agents,
friction matches, fireworks, pesticides, toothpastes, and detergents.

Phosphorus is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and also the phospholipids that form all cell
membranes. It is thus an essential element for all living cells, and organisms tend to accumulate
and concentrate it.

Deficiencies of Phosphorus
A lack of phosphorus can cause weight loss, anemia, and abnormal growth.

Sources of Phosphorus
•Almonds

• Brazil Nuts

• Chicken

•Dried Fruit

•Garlic

•Hard Potatoes

Magnesium
agnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12 and common
M oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element
in the Earth's crust, where it constitutes about 2% by mass, and ninth in the known
Universe as a whole. This preponderance of magnesium is related to the fact that it is
easily built up in supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium nuclei to carbon
(which in turn is made from three helium nuclei). Magnesium ion's high solubility in water helps
ensure that it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater.

Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are
essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological
polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes thus require
magnesium ions to function.

The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, as it is highly reactive (though
once produced, is coated in a thin layer of oxide (see passivation), which partly masks this
reactivity). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a useful
ingredient in flares. The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium salts
obtained from brine. Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent to make
aluminum-magnesium alloys, sometimes called "magnalium" or "magnesium".

Deficiencies of Magnesium
Your body breaks down and you lose all energy, if not enough magnesium is taken in you could
possibly die.

Sources of Magnesium
•Halibut

•Scallop

•Oysters

•Rockfish

•Plantain

•Okra

Iron
ron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe (Latin: ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a
I metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element in the whole planet Earth,
forming much of Earth's outer and inner core, and it is the fourth most common element in the
Earth's crust..
Like other Group 8 elements, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to + 6, although
+2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen
environments, but is reactive to oxygen and water. Fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-
gray, but oxidize in normal air to give iron oxides, also known as rust.

Iron metal has been used since ancient times, though lower-melting copper alloys were used first
in history. Pure iron is soft (softer than aluminum), but is unobtainable by smelting. The material
is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities from the smelting process, such as
carbon. A certain proportion of carbon (between 0.2% and 2.1%) produces steel, which may be
up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming
complexes with molecular oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin; these two compounds are
common oxygen transport proteins in vertebrates.

Deficiencies of Iron
When you don't get enough iron in your body you may get anemia, excessive menstrual
bleeding, learning disabilities, impaired immune functions, low body temperature, light
headedness, dizzy spells, fatigue, weak and tiredness. You may also go pale in the face and need
to rest more in exercise. This is because Iron is required for energy, healthy brain development
and endurance because it delivers oxygen throughout the body. When you are low in iron your
brain and organs are being starved of oxygen. Talk to your doctor about what's happening and
they may be able to help with an iron supplement or change your diet to a more iron enriched
one.

Sources of Iron
•Goose

•Venison

•Liver Sausage

• Fish Paste

Zinc
inc, also known as spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic
Z number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects,
chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common
oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five
stable isotopes. The most exploited zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide. The largest exploitable
deposits are found in Australia , Asia, and the United States . Zinc production includes froth
flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electro winning).

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century BC.
Impure zinc metal was not produced in large scale until the 13th century in India , while the
metal was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. Alchemists burned zinc in air to
form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

Deficiencies of Zinc
Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with
many diseases. In children it causes growth retardation, delayed maturation, infection
susceptibility, and diarrhea, contributing to the death of about 800,000 children worldwide per
year. Enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as
alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and
copper deficiency.

Sources of Zinc
•Dried Watermelon Seeds

•Peanuts

•Lamb

•Roasted Pumpkin Seeds

•Roasted Squash Seeds

•Sesame Flour

Iodine
I
odine, in chemistry, is an element that has the symbol I and the atomic
number 53. Iodine and its compounds are primarily used in nutrition, the
production of acetic acid and polymers. Iodine's relatively high atomic number,
low toxicity, and ease of attachment to organic compounds have made it a part of
many X-ray contrast materials in modern medicine.

Like the other halogens, iodine occurs mainly as a diatomic molecule I2, not
the atom. In nature, iodine is a relatively rare element, ranking 47th in abundance.
It is the heaviest essential element utilized in biological functions. Its rarity in many
soils has led to many deficiency problems in land animals and inland human
populations, with iodine deficiency affecting about two billion people and being the
leading preventable cause of mental retardation.[2] As a component of thyroid
hormones, iodine is required by higher animals. Radioisotopes of iodine are
concentrated in the thyroid gland. This property of thyroid-concentration, along with
its mode of beta decay, makes iodine-131 one of the most carcinogenic nuclear
fission products.

Deficiencies of Iodine
Iodine is an essential trace element; the thyroid hormones thyroxin and triiodotyronine contain
iodine. In areas where there is little iodine in the diet—typically remote inland areas where no
marine foods are eaten—iodine deficiency gives rise to goiter (so-called endemic goiter), as well
as cretinism, which results in developmental delays and other health problems. While noting
recent progress, The Lancet noted, "

In some such areas, this is now combatted by the addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt
in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, and/or potassium iodate—this product is known as
iodized salt. Iodine compounds have also been added to other foodstuffs, such as flour, water and
milk in areas of deficiency. Seafood is also a well-known source of iodine.

Sources of Iodine
Malt Bread

Mayonnaise

Condensed Milk

Trifle
Copper
opper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It
C is a ductile metal, with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is rather
soft and malleable, and a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a
thermal conductor, an electrical conductor, a building material, and a constituent of various
metal alloys.

Copper metal and alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper
was principally mined on Cyprus , hence the origin of the name of the metal as Cyprium, "metal
of Cyprus ", later shortened to Cuprum..

Copper(II) ions (Cu2+) are soluble in water, where they function at low concentration as
bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives. In sufficient amounts, copper salts
can be poisonous to higher organisms as well. However, despite universal toxicity at high
concentrations, the Cu2+ ion at lower concentrations is an essential trace nutrient to all higher
plant and animal life. In animals, including humans, it is found widely in tissues, with
concentration in liver, muscle, and bone. It functions as a co-factor in various enzymes and in
copper-based pigments.

Deficiencies of Copper
Copper deficiency is a very rare hematological and neurological disorder. The neurodegenerative
syndrome of copper deficiency has been recognized for some time in ruminant animals, in which
it is commonly known as "swayback". The disease involves a nutritional deficiency in the trace
element copper.

The most common cause of copper deficiency is a remote gastrointestinal surgery, such
as gastric bypass surgery, due to malabsorption of copper. Meknes disease is a variation of
copper deficiency involving a wide variety of symptoms.

Dietary copper can be found in whole grain cereals, legumes, oysters, organ meats
(livers), cherries, dark chocolate, fruits, leafy green vegetables, nuts, poultry, prunes, and
soybeans products like tofu. The deficiency in copper can cause many hematological
manifestations, such as myelodysplasia, anemia, leukopenia (low white blood cell count) and
neutropenia (low count of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell that is often called "the first line
of defense" for the immune system).
Sources of Copper
Oysters

Sesame Seeds