Water Treatment Methods for Community

Water Supply – Some Guidelines

SODIS

by

Dr .P.Mariappan, M.E.,Ph.D.,

TWAD BOARD,
Project Division,
Dindigul –5.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 31 August 2005


(i) 1.0 Water Treatment
Water found in nature is never
H2O alone. Instead, it exhibits as
H2O+X and X stands for the
measurable and controllable chemical
parameters. The impurities in the
water can be grouped into three types-
suspended impurities, dissolved salts
and microbiological impurities.
Suspended impurities are solid
particles and colloidal matters that
float in the water. Suspended
impurities include clay, algae, fungi,
organic and inorganic matter, mineral
Sl. Operation
No
1 Aeration
2 Screening
3 Sedimentation
i. Plain
ii. Aided with coagulation
4 Filtration
5 Disinfection
6 Chemical
7 Special processes
(Advanced methods) by
using activated carbon,
alumina,other adsorbents,
ion exchange, membrane
process and electrochemical
TWAD Technical Newsletter
matter etc. Dissolved solids are soluble
materials which are dispersed or
dissolved in water and cannot be
removed by conventional filters. Total
dissolved solids include minerals and
organic substances.
1.1 Convential Water Treatment
Commonly, the conventional
water treatment plants accommodate
the following units:
• Aeration,
• Coagulation,
• Flocculation and sedimentation,
• Filtration, and
• Disinfection
Impurities removed
a) Dissolved gases CO2, H2S etc,
b) Dissolved minerals like iron,
magnesium and manganese,
c) Dissolved organic matter causing bad
taste and odour.
Floating matter
Larger and heavier solids
Smaller and lighter suspended solids
Fine suspended and colloidal matter and some
living organism including bacteria
Killing of living pathogenic organism i.e
protoza, bacteria, virus etc.
Dissolved minerals, other organic materials,
salts causing harness, precipitation of iron, Mn,
fluorides etc.
Tastes, odour, trace metals, pesticide, and salts.
32 August 2005
 Table 1.1.2 Area requirement for water treatment
plant
Capacity of plant Area requirement
Sl.No ( MLD) (hectares)

1 10 0.65
2 20 1.00
3 30 1.30
4 40 1.50
5 50 1.80
6 75 2.20
7 100 2.60
8 125 3.00
9 150 3.30
10 200 4.00
11 300 5.00
12 400 6.00
13 500 6.80
14 1000 10.30
15 2000 15.60
Note: Values given in the above table are only rough estimate and actual may vary
depending upon the site condition and orientation of various units.

Aerator:
Aeration facilitates removal of undesirable gases and to add oxygen to convert
unwanted substances to a more manageable form. Further, it helps to treat water
containing CO2 and H2S gases. Among gravity type, diffused air type, spray type, and
mechanical type, the cascade aerator under the first category is commonly considered.

Design parameters of Cascade Type Aerator (Gravity):

Number of steps
Space requirement
Head required
Tread of step
Rise of step
Velocity of water in the
Collecting channel
CO2 removal efficiency
H2S removal efficiency
: 3 to 6 normally ( maximum could be
More than 10, in fact more the number,
Higher the efficiency)
: 0.015 to 0.045 m2/m3.h.
: 0.50 to 3.0 m.,
: 20 to 40 cm,
: 20 to 40 cm,
: 0.6 m/s to 0.9 m/s,
: 20 to 45%,
: 35%.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 33 August 2005

Spray Aerators:
ƒ Diameter of nose
ƒ Rate of discharge
ƒ Spacing of nozzle
= 2.5 to 4.0 cm,
= 18 to 36 l/hr at 6.8m pressure,
= 0.03 to 0.09 m2 of aerated area
For each m3/hour .

Table 1.1.3 Design criteria for Flash Mixer:

Sl.No Parameters Range of values

1 Detention time 30 to 60 seconds
2 Velocity of flow 0.9 m/sec
3 Depth 1 to 3 m
4 R.P.M of blades 100
5 Power requirement 0.041 KW/ 1000 cu.m per day
i.e 0.25HP/MGD
6 Loss of head 0.4 to 1.0 m

Table 1.1.4 Design criteria for Flocculator:

Sl.No Parameters Range of values

1 Depth of tank 3.0 to 4.5 m
2 Detention time 20 to 30 minutes, normally 30
minutes ( 30 to 60 min. in colder
months when water reaches
freezing point)
3 Velocity of flow 0.2 to 0.6 m/sec, normally 0.4
m/sec
4 Total paddle area 10 to 25% of cross sectional
area of tank
5 Peripheral velocity of blades 0.20 to 0.60 m/sec
Recommended range for best
performance 0.3 to 0.4 m/sec.
6 Position of blades Paddle tip to be 2 to 3cm above
the floor level and below water
surface
7 Distance between paddle tip 1.0 m
8 Range of velocity gradient 10 to 75 sec-1
9 Range of dimensionless factor 104 to 105
10 Power consumption 0.041 to 0.055 KW/1000 m3/day

TWAD Technical Newsletter 34 August 2005

 Table 1.1.5 Sedimentation rates for various materials:

Sl.No Type of material Dia.(mm) Rate of

settlement
( m per hour)
1 Coarse sand 1.0 365.75
0.5 193.84
2 Fine sand 0.25 97.53
0.10 29.26
3 Silt 0.05 10.61
0.005 0.14
4 Fine clay 0.001 0.005
0.0001 0.0005

Table 1.1.6 Design parameters of sedimentation tanks:

Sl.No Parameter Guide line value

1 Detention time
a) Plain sedimentation
b) For coagulated water
c) Vertical flow ( up
flow) clarifier
2 Number of units
3 Depth of tank
4 Velocity of flow
5 Surface loading:
i) Horizontal flow
circular
ii) Vertical flow
6 Extra storage for sludge
collection
7 Weir loading
8 Floor slope
9 Length to width ratio
10 Slope for sludge without
mechanical scrappers
11 900 V Notch weirs
3.0 4.0 hours
2.0 to 2.50 hours
1.0 to 1.50 hours
2 or more ( one as stand by)
3.0 m ( 2.50 to 5.00 m)
0.3 m/sec ( 0.2 to 0.3 m)
36 m3/m2/day ( 30 m3/m2/day to 40
m3/m2/day)
40- 50 m3/m2/day
25%
100 to 300 m3/m/day ( upto 1500
m3/m/day in well designed tanks )
1 in 12 or 8% for mechanically
scrapped circular and square tanks.
1% for mechanically scrapped
rectangular tanks.
2 or more ( 3:1 to 5:1)
1.2:1 to 2:1 ( vertical:horizontal)
About 5.0 cm deep, 15 to 30 cm
apart on centers.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 35 August 2005

 12 Distance between paddle tips 1 m.

13 Paddle tips above the floor 2 to 3 cm

level
14 Clearance between tip of Not exceeding 15cm.
scraper and tank of wall
15 Paddle area 10 to 205 of area swept by paddles
16 Scrapper velocity One revolution in 30 to 40 minutes
or tip velocity of scraper 0.3
cm/sec or below.
17 Velocity of water in outlet Not more than 0.4 m/sec
conduit
18 Power requirement for About 0.75 KW/m2 of tank area
scrapping arrangement

Table 1.1.7 Design parameters for slow sand filter

Sl. Parameter Guideline value

No
1 Rate of filtration 100 – 200 lph per sq.m
2 No.of filter units 0.25* Q0.5 ,where Q –m3/h
Minimum 2 Nos,
Minimum workable size 10 sq.m
Maximum size Between 2000 and 5000 sq.m
3 Length and width ratio 2:1
4 Depth of water over sand 1.0 1.5 m, exceptionally as high as 2.0 m
5 Effective size of sand 0.2 to 0.3 mm
6 Uniformity coefficient of 3.0 to 5.0
sand
7 Depth of sand bed 0.75 to 0.90 m
8 Under drainage General tendency of using standard bricks
with dimensions 5 x 11x 22 cm. Joints in
under drainage normally 8 mm or less in
width
9 Gravel bed gradation ( Top most layer- 1 mm to 2 mm,
Normal depth of each layer Second layer – 3 to 6 mm,
6cm, the total depth 30 cm) Third layer - 9 to 18 mm,
Bottom layer – 27 to 54 mm.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 36 August 2005

 10 Internal depth of filter bed ( Free board – 0.3m,
usual dimensions) Water depth – 1.30 m,
Filter media - 0.90 m,
Gravel support – 0.30 m,
Bricks drains – 0.30 m,
Total depth – 3.00 m.
11 Effluent weir level above 20 to 30 mm
sand bed

Table 1.1.8 Performance of Slow Sand Filter:

Sl.No Water quality Purification effect of slow sand
parameters filtrations
1 Colour 30 to 100 %
2 Turbidity Generally reduced to less than 1 NTU
3 E-Coli Between 95 to 100%, often 99 to 100%
reduction in the level of E-Coli.

4 Cercarie Virtual removal of Cercarie of

5 Viruses
6 Organic matter
7 Iron and manganese
Schistomosa, Cysts and Ova.
99 to 100% removal
65 to 75 % reduction in chemical oxygen
demand
Largely removed

Rapid sand filters:

Number of beds required = (Q0.5)/4.69
Where Q = Plant capacity, m3/hour.
Table 1.1.9 Design criteria of Rapid Sand Filter:
Sl.No parameter Guide line value
1 Rate of filtration 80 to 100 lpm/sq.m
2 Length/width 1.25 to 1.33
3 Maximum head loss 2.5 to 3.0 m
4 Under drains ≥60
Length of lateral/Dia 6 to 13 mm
Dia. Of perforations 0.2 %
Total area of per./Tot.filter
area 0.25 to 0.30
Total area of per./Tot.area of
laterals Spacing of laterals 30cm maximum
Total area of manifold 1.75 to 2 times

TWAD Technical Newsletter 37 August 2005

5 Rate of ashing 15 to 90 cm/minute
6 Amount of wash water 2 to 4 % of the total water filtered
7 Time of washing 10 to 15 minutes, time between
washing – 24 to 48 hours
8 Pressure for washing 1 kg/ sq.cm
9 Maximum permissible 1.8 to 2.5 m/s
velocity in the manifold
10 Effective size of sand 0.45 to 0.75 mm
11 Uniformity coefficient 1.3 to 1.7

Table 1.1.10 Difference between slow sand filter and rapid sand filter:
Sl.No Parameter Slow sand filter Rapid sand filter
1 Rate of filtration 100 to 200 2000 to 6000 lits./sq.m/hour
lits./sq.m/hour
2 Size of bed Large Small
3 Depth of bed 30 cm of gravel 60 to 45 cm of gravel
75 cm of sand 75 cm of sand or less
4 Size of sand Effective size of 0.25 Effective size of 0.45 and
to 0.30 mm higher, uniformity coefficient –
uniformity 1.5
coefficient – 2.5 to 3
5 Grain size Un stratified Stratified with smallest grains
distribution and at the top and coarsest at
sand in filter bottom.
6 Under drainage Split tile laterals laid Perforated pipe laterals
system in coarse sand and discharging into main pipe or
discharging into to a diffuser-plate bottom
tile or concrete main
drain
7 Loss of head 0.15 to 0.90 m 30 cm initial to 2.50m.
8 Length of run 30 to 60 days 24 to 40 hours
between cleaning
9 Penetration of Superficial Deep
suspended matter
10 Method of Scrapping off surface Scour
cleaning layer of sand and
washing removed
sand Washing
surface sand in place
by traveling washer

TWAD Technical Newsletter 38 August 2005

 11 Amount of wash 0.20 to 0.60 % of 4 to 6 % of filtered water
water used in water filtered
cleaning sand
12 Prefatory Generally confined to Flocculation and sedimentation
treatment of aeration, could also are common
water include flocculation
ans sedimentation
13 Supplementary In the absence of Chlorination and other
treatment of flocculation, supplementary treatment are
water confined to common
chlorination
14 Cost of Higher Lower
construction
15 Cost of operation Lower Higher
16 Depreciation of Lower Higher
cost
17 Bacterial 98 to 99% Comparatively less., 90%
efficiency

trivalent ferric iron (Fe3+). The ferric

1.2 Iron removal
iron exhibits in insoluble, precipitate,
Groundwater is the main source form. The ferrous form is soluble in
of drinking water supply schemes in water and invites scientific
most of the villages of Tamil Nadu. interventions. Iron forms complexes
However in some parts of our country, of hydroxides and other inorganic
dissolved iron in under groundwater complexes in solution with substantial
makes it difficult to be used for amount of bicorbonate, sulphate and
domestic and industrial water supply. phosphate. Pyrites (FeS2), Oxides
Commonly, excessive iron in (Fe3O4) and carbonates(Fe2CO3 ) are
groundwater is a well-known problem some of the identities of iron.
in most of parts of the world.., iron Rainwater leaches the iron from the
shows its presence in the form of earth crust and keeps either in colloidal
2+
bivalent, ferrous iron (Fe ) and or dissolved state in groundwater.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 39 August 2005

Review Of Iron Removal Techniques

N REMOVAL CHNIQUES sedimentation and filtration

The following four processes accomplishes the removal of iron.
usually do the removal of dissolved Gravity aeration, spray, air blowing
iron from groundwater: and mechanical aeration are the
¾ Aeration / gas transfer, common ways adopted in the aeration
¾ Absorption, process. The oxidation of the Fe2+
¾ Ion exchange, and state to Fe3+ is accomplished by
¾ Electro Chemical molecular oxygen is reported to
2+
By aeration, dissolved ferrous involve the initial formation of FeO2
iron is oxidized to insoluble, ferric which then reacts in the following
precipitate. Aeration followed by manner:

FeO2 2 + + Fe(H2O)2+ =
Fe(OOH)2+ + Fe(OH)2+ ------------(3.1)

Fe(OOH)2+ = Fe3+ + HO2- --------------------------------(3.2)

Normally, when iron in ferrous ( Fe2 +)

Raised platform, gravity
form is in dissolved state, on oxidation
3+ aeration arrangement, filter media,
it becomes ferric (Fe ) and then gets
sludge removal component form the
precipitated in the form of ferric oxide
common system in all the said four
. This process goes well in the PH
methods. DANIDA and IRP (Upflow)
range, 6.7 to 8.4 . In the acidic range,
type function as up-flow and rest use
the process retards.
gravity down flow principle. Each type
Four types of hand pump
has its own merits and demerits.
attached iorn removal plants have been
Bastar type has the provision of a
tried and reported so far. They are
detention chamber for pre aeration and
i) DANIDA ( Maharastra state),
sedimentation besides arrangements
II) WHO,
for lime addition to raise PH. All the
III) BASTAR, and above methods were constructed in
iv) IRP (upflow type) different villages and put to use. The

TWAD Technical Newsletter 40 August 2005

material of construction was brick confirm that tepidocrocite and
masonry in cement mortar. Pre pyrolusite are both effective for the
fabricated ferro cement plants were removal of dissolved iron including its
also installed under DANIDA complexed and organic forms. The
programme. pyrolusite, however is reported to be
more advantageous in cases where the
DANIDA type has higher size
contaminated waters have low
filter media and flow is upwards. It
alkalinities. Both of these materials
deserves the advantage of less
are hygienically safe besides being
chocking and easy backwash.
economical.
However efficiency is low and low
maintenance cost. In WHO type, the Cost wise ion exchange
media is like slow sand filter. methods are costlier and it further
Efficiency is high. Requires frequent requires high recurring cost for O & M
cleaning. Backwash is not possible . Removal of iron by the principle of
and maintenance cost is also high. electro-coagulation, flocculation has
also been studied at laboratory. A
In case of Bastar type, the
combination of aluminum and graphite
maintenance needed is still more.
electrodes is employed for the
Very useful where water is blackish or
electrolysis process. The field test is
turbid and has low pH . Needs addition
not yet performed.
of lime. Frequent and close
supervision are essential. As it is evident from the
literature, aeration followed by
Lepidocrocite and Pyrolusite sedimentation and filtration will be the
have been studied for the cost effective simple method. And it
2 +
characteristics of absorption of Fe involves no handing of any chemicals
ion. Lepidocrocite (O=Fe-OH) is a and invites less care.
ferric oxyhydroxide. The findings

TWAD Technical Newsletter 41 August 2005

Figure 1.1 Hand Operated Domestic Iron removal plant

Table 1.2.1 Specification of Iron removal plant ( Using hand pump )

Sl.No Parameter Population
250 500 1000
1 Design flow, 10000 20000 40000
lit./day
2 Tray aerator 2 Nos. of 0.60m X 2 Nos. of 0.80m X 2 Nos. of 0.80m X
Number and 0.60 m 0.80 m 0.80 m
size
Height
Media 0.30m 0.30m 0.30m
Size of media Calcite/Marble/coke Calcite/Marble/coke Calcite/Marble/coke
25 – 40 mm 25 – 40 mm 25 – 40 mm
3 Sedimentation 1.3 m X 1.30 m X 1.6 m X 1.60 m X 2 Nos.
tank 0.75 1.00 1.6 m X 1.60 m X
Size 1.00
Detention
time 2.5 hours 2.5 hours
2.5 hours
4 Sand filter 1.60 m X 1.60 m 2.35 m X 2.35 m 1.60 m X 1.60 m
Size

Numbers 2 Nos. 2 Nos. 3 Nos.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 42 August 2005

Table 1.2.2 Cost estimates -Hand pump with Iron removal unit( Base
year 1996):
Population Design flow Capital cost O & M cost
( cu.m/day) Total Total Total Total
cost, Rs/ cost, Rs./ cost, Rs/ cost, Rs./
Day m3 Day m3
250 10 17000 1700 61.60 6.16
500 20 19700 9850 81.60 4.10
1000 40 22000 5500 112.00 2.30

Figure 1.2 Plan and elevation of hand pump attachable Iron removal plant

TWAD Technical Newsletter 43 August 2005

Figure 1.3 Plan and elevation of hand pump attachable Iron removal plant

TWAD Technical Newsletter 44 August 2005

Table 1.2.3 Design specifications for Continuous Iron Removal unit for
Community water supply:

Parameters Capacity of plant, cu.m/ hour

Design capacity 5.0 10.0 20.0
Raw water 2.0, 2 Nos. 3.0, 2 Nos 7.0, 2 Nos
pump,HP
Overhead reservoir 66 132 264
capacity, cu.m
size
4.7m x 4.7mx3.0 m 6.2m x 6.2mx3.50 8.7m x 8.7mx3.50
m m
Tray aerators: 4 5 6
Numbers
Collecting trough 1 1 1
Tray size 1.30m x 1.30m 1.60m x 1.60m 2.10m x 2.10m
Height of each tray 0.30m 0.30m 0.30m
Sedimentation tank 2.9m x 2.9m x 3.7m x 3.7m x 5.25m x 5.25m x
size 2.5m 3.0m 3.0m
Sand filter size 1.69m x 1.69m 1.85m x 1.85m, 2 2.60m x 2.60m, 2
Nos. Nos
Clear water storage 4.7m x 4.7m x 6.2m x 6.2m x 8.7m x 8.7m x
tank 3.0m 3.5m 3.50m

Table 1.2.4 Cost estimates- Iron removal plants for Community WSS:

Design Capital cost O & M running cost

capacity, Total cost, Total cost, Total cost, Total cost,
cu.m/hour Rs./Day Rs./Cu.m Rs./Day Rs./Cu.m
5.0 95000 792 235.60 2.35
10.0 133000 554 397.00 1.65
20.0 215000 448 608.00 1.26

Note:Cost furnished are based on rough cost estimate 1996 as base year.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 45 August 2005

Figure 1.4 Continuous Iron removal plant for community water supply system
– capacity 5.0 cu.m/hour

TWAD Technical Newsletter 46 August 2005

Figure 3.12 Hand pump attached Iron removal plant ( BASTER model)

TWAD Technical Newsletter 47 August 2005


1.3 Desalination of Water
Methods of desalination are the
following:
¾ Distillation,
¾ Ion-exchange,
¾ Electro dialysis, and
¾ Reverse Osmosis ( Membrane
Technology ).
Distillation:
• Single or multistage distillation is
preferred if energy is available at
low cost,
• Involves simple operational
procedures,
• Mechanical compressors are used
in vapour compression distillation,
• Operation and maintenance
problems are encountered.
Ion-exchange:
• Salts are removed by exchange of
ion,
• Produces pure water,
• Suitable for preparing boiler make
up water,
• High installation cost and
maintenance cost prohibit the
usage of this method.
Electro dialysis:
• Cell assembly separated by
membranes,
• Direct current potential drives ions,
• Applied for brackish water
desalination,
• High installation cost, skilled
personnel for O & M,
TWAD Technical Newsletter
• Single stage electrodialysis plants
are not feasible where input salinity
is high ( 3000 – 5000 and above ),
• DC Power source and rectifiers are
required. In rural areas the plants
remain idle most of the time,
• Frequent cleaning , mostly, 9 to 10
times per month and is difficult,
• Ed membrane has life 4 to 5 years
and need replacement very often.
Requires strict preservation
condition.
• Cost wise, Rs. 6.0 lakhs for
installation for a small village and
Rs50/= per 1000 litres for O&M,
• Product qualtity is less than half of
raw water input. Most of raw water
goes as brine. Land disposal of
brine is difficult.
Reverse Osmosis
• Process is just opposite to Osmosis,
• Flow is reversed across the
membrane by pressure,
• Purified water is called as permeate
or product water,
• Concentrated reject is called as
brine,
• The Osmotic pressure, Π, of a
solution can be determined by the
equation
Π = 1.12 ( T + 273 ) Σ mi, --------( 3.3)
where T – Temperature, 0C
Σ mi - summation of molalities of all
ionic and
non-ionic constituents in the solution.
• Applied pressure for brackish
water – 2760 to 4137 Kpa
• Applied pressure for Sea h water –
5155 to 6895 Kpa
48 August 2005
• The rate of water passage through a
semipermeable membrane is
defined as
Qw = ( ∆ p - ∆Π )* kw *A/t -----( 3.4)
Where Qw = water flow rate
through membrane,
A = membrane area,
t = membrane thickness,
∆ p= hydraulic pressure differential
across the membrane
∆Π= Osmotic pressure differential
across the membrane.
kw = membrane permeability
coefficient for water
• The rate of salt passage through the
membrane is given by
• Rate of water flow is proportional
to the pressure differential across
the membrane,
• Rate of water flow is proportional
to the pressure differential across
the membrane,
• Rate of salt flow is proportional to
the concentration differential
across the membrane,
• Salt flow is independent of applied
pressure,
Conversion or recovery is defined by
Y = 100 * Qp/ Qf ----------------- ( 3.6)
Where Y – percentage conversion,
Qp – product water flow rate,
Qf - Feed flow rate

Qs = ∆ C* ks *A/t --------------( 3.5 ) Salt passage is defined by

Where Qs = Flow of salt rate

SP = 100 * Cp/ Cf ---------------- ( 3.7 )
through membrane,
A = membrane area, Where SP – percentage salt passage,
t = membrane thickness, Cp – Salt concentration in
∆ C= salt concentration differential product water ,
across the membrane Cf - Salt concentration in
ks = membrane permeability feed water.
coefficient for salt,
Salt rejection SR = 100 – SP.---( 3.8 )
Table 1.3.1 Osmotic pressure for different waters:
Sl. Type of water TDS in Osmotic pressure
No mg/l Bar Kg/sq.cm m. of water kpa
1 Brackish water (Low) 1500 1 1.02 10 100
2 Brackish water (Medium) 5000 3 3.06 30 300
3 Brackish water (High) 12000 7 7.14 70 700
4 Sea water ( High) 35000 23 23.46 230 2300
5 Inland water 50000 37 37.74 370 3700

Materials of Membrane :
¾ Cellulose acetate,
¾ Aromatic polyamide polymer.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 49 August 2005

Table 1.3.2 Comparison of Polyamide and Cellulose acetate membranes

Sl.No Parameter Polyamide Cellulose acetate

1 Working pressure 28 Bar 30-42 Bar
2 Maximum back pressure of 3.5 Bar --
treated water
3 Maximum operating temperature 35 0C 30 0C
4 Maximum storage temperature 40 0C 30 0C
5 pH range 4 - 11 4.5 – 6.5
6 Hydrolysis Unaffected Affected
7 Bacteria Unaffected Affected
8 Free chlorine 0.1 mg/l 0.5-1.0 mg/l
9 Oxidising agent Resistant Moderately resistant
10 Operating life 3 – 5 Years 2 – 3 Years
11 Salt Passage 5 –10% 4– 10%

Membrane modules: Hollow fibre:

• Membranes are assembled in
modular units that compact a
large membrane surface in a
cylindrical container fitted with
inlet and outlet connections.
Types of RO modules:
• Spiral Wound,
• Hollow fibre,
• Flat plate module , and
• Tubular module.
Spiral wound:
• Size: 10.2 cm and 20.4 cm
diameter, 40.80 cm long,
• Conversion limited to 10 to
15%,
• Connected in pressure vessels
upto 6.70 metre long,
• Single tube with six modules in
series can be operated at a
conversion of 50%.
• Asymmetric structure with an
inside diameter of 42 µm and
an outside diameter of about 85
µm,
• Upto 4.5 million of fibres
gathered into a bundle,
• Bundles placed in pressure
vessel upto 1.20 m long with
diameters between 10.2 cm and
25.40 cm,
• A single hollow-fibre
permeater can be operated upto
50% conversion.
Tubular module:
• Tubular module can be have 13
cm internal diameter porous
tubes upto 366 cm. Long,
• Tubes are connected in series,
• Less membrane area and not
recommended.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 50 August 2005

 Photo 1.5 Construction of membrane modules

Photo 1.6 Winding of spiral wound membrane

Salient details of Sea Water based Narippaiyur DSP:

¾ Capacity : 38,00,000 litres/day,
¾ Process : Reverse Osmosis,
¾ Intake : Open Sea with an intake mouth of FRP
Pipe, ( inside sea 440 m from shore),
¾ Sea water Drawal system : FRP and HDPE pipes of 450 mm dia.
¾ Raw water TDS : 35000 mg/l ( Approximately ),
¾ Product water TDS : 500 mg/l,

TWAD Technical Newsletter 51 August 2005

 ¾ Raw water pH : 8.10,
¾ Pretreatment ; Prechlorination, acid addition, coagulation,
Filtration ( dual media & catridge filters)
Adding antiscalants, dechlorination.
¾ Desalting by : RO membranes 56 Nos.in each stream,
¾ High pressure pump : 600 HP (2700 lpm x 620 m Head approx.),
¾ Post treatment : pH elevation by lime addition.

Table 1.3.3 Membrane separation-Contaminant Filtration

Size of filter Contaminant Pressure Materials filtered
removal ( psi)
Conventional 1 mm or > 1,000 Fibre,sand,hair,pollens, red
filtration ( CF) 10,000 Ao blood cells, flour, and yeast.
Microfiltration 10 mm or >100 Fibre, bacteria,pigments,
( MF) 200-100,000 Ao smokes, dust, emulsified oils,
colloidal silica, waxes, heavy
metals, and latex.
Ultrafiltration 0.02 mm or Upto 250 Colloidal silica,dye, carbon,
( UF) 10 200 Ao polymers, food stuffs,
protein, and gelatin.
Nano filtration 0.001 mm or Upto 1,000 Sugar, synthetic dye, metal
(NF) 5-10 Ao ions, salts ( except chloride
salts and alcohols )
Reverse Osmosis 0.0005 mm or Upto 1,000 Chloride salts and atomic
(RO) 1 - 5 Ao radii.

Capital cost tendency to inactivate ion-exchange

Installation cost of RO plants (Rough ) bed.
in Rupees in lakh = 0.21274* T+9.535
Where T = Capacity of plants in Ion –exchange: Commonly used ion
10,000 of litres per day. exchangers are
¾ Natural and synthetic zeolites,
Softening and hardness removal: ¾ Carbonaceous ion-exchangers, and
Normally the following two methods ¾ Synthetic resins.
are adopted:
9 Lime and Lime-soda softening, and Natural and synthetic zeolites,
9 Ion –exchange .
ƒ Thomsonite, Stilbite,
Lime and Lime-soda softening: Lime ƒ Natrolite, Brewsterite,
soda process is recommended even if ƒ Laumonite,
hardness is greater than 500 mg/l. It is ƒ Harmotome, Plilolite.
suitable for waters containing turbidity, Gel structures prepared from
colour and iron salts which have
ƒ

sodium silicate and aluminium

sulphate.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 52 August 2005

Carbonaceous ion-exchangers :
Some type of coal get the exchange
property when treated with fuming
sulphuric acid.
Synthetic resins: An ion-exchange
resin consists of an insoluble
polymeric matrix that is permeable.
Fixed charge groups and mobile
counter ions of opposite charge are
incorporated in the matrix. These
counter ions can be exchanged for ions
in the external liquid phase.

Table 1.3.4 Exchange capacities and salt requirement for cation exchanger
Nitrate removal
Sl.No Cation exchanger Capacity Common salt
( Kg/cu.m) ( kg/kg) exchanged (Kg/l)
1 Green sand 7 to 14 3.5-7.0
2 Synthetic siliceous zeolite ( inorganic) 14 to 37 2.5-3.5
3 Sulfonated coals 12 – 70 2.0-4.0
4 Cation- exchange resins
Low capacity 16-25
Medium capacity 30-60
High capacity 70-100 2.0-4.0
5 Anion- exchange resins
Medium capacity 40-65
High capacity 70-100 2.0-4.0

1.4 Application of Activated Carbon:

¾ Dechlorination,
¾ Colour removal,
¾ Odour removal,
¾ Oil removal,
¾ BOD/COD reduction,
¾ Iodine removal,
¾ Ozone removal,
¾ Iodination,
¾ Silver sterlization,
¾ Heavy metal reduction,
¾ Phenol removal,
¾ Trihalometnane removal,
¾ Amines removal.

1.4.0 ADSORPTION COLUMN DESIGN

In any adsorption column, the active zone (δ) advances through the bed at
various times. At the beginning of break through level, at which the lower end of δ
barely touches the bottom of the column, the total volume of treated water is

TWAD Technical Newsletter 53 August 2005

represented by Vb. The total volume of treated water upto the complete exhaustion of
the bed is designated by Ve. Performing a mass balance on the active zone during
breakthrough, the total mass of fluoride that escaped removal from the beginning to
the completion of break through is given by.

Fn+1 + Fn

Me = Σ (Vn+1 – Vn)
2

where the indices n and n+1 refer to the volume/concentration that broke through
active zone at a time step of ∆t from tn to tn+1. At the time of the completion of
breakthrough, the total mass of fluoride introduced into the influent of active zone (δ)
is (Ve – Vb) (Fo). Hence the mass of the fluoride adsorbed in the active zone (Ma) is

Fn+1 + Fn

Ma = (Ve – Vb (Fo) - Σ (Vn+1 – Vn) 2 ...

Ma is also given by
Ma = As δ ρp (x/m)ult
Where As is the superficial area of the bed, ρp the packed density of the adsorbent, and
(x/m)ult is the ultimate adsorption of capacity of unit mass of adsorbent.

(Ve – Vb) (Fo) - Σ (Vn+1 – Vn) [(Fn+1 + Fn)/2]

δ=
As ρp (x/m)ult

The depth of column and regeneration of flow (v) of water through the
can be designed for practical column is directly proportional to the
application based on the said equation hydraulic gradient (i) ]

The Darcy’s Law can describe ie., v = ki

flow through the column. The velocity Where v – velocity, m/s.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 54 August 2005

k represents the permeability of the The discharge rate will decrease
adsorbent media. As per the continuity proportionate to the increase in the
equation, the rate of flow through the depth of media over and above the
column (Q) can be given as active zone thickness.

Q = ki A Keeping the depth of the

Where A – cross sectional area, m2 adsorbent medium as equal to the

active zone depth, the area of cross
Q – flow rate m3/s
section of the column can be increased
The hydraulic gradient is the for obtaining the desired rate of flow
head / pressure lost during the flow in for the practical applications.
unit length. If ‘h’ is the head causing
flow in the depth of the media (l), the 1.4 Disinfection
hydraulic gradient is Plain chlorination: Chlorine is
i = h/l applied to water as the only treatment

Substituting Q equation in i for public health.

Q = kA h/l Pre Chlorination: Applied to water

prior to any unit treatment process.
Hence, the rate of flow depends upon
the cross sectional area, head causing Post Chlorination:Applied after all

flow, column height and permeability other treatments.

of the adsorbent media. Super Chlorination: Heavy

The depth of the media should chlorination required for quick

be greater than the active zone (δ). The disinfectant action or destruction of

maximum rate of flow can be had only taste and odour may produce high

if the depth of the medium is equal to residuals. The dose of chlorine may be

the active depth (δ) for a given area of as high as 10 to 15 mg/l with a contact

cross section, period of 10 to 30 minutes.

ie Qmax = k A h/δ

TWAD Technical Newsletter 55 August 2005

Dechlorination: Removal of excess Electrolytic Chlorinator:
chlorine by adding reducing agents like When direct current is passed
Sulphur dioxide etc. through a NaCl solution, hydrogen and

Rechlorination: In large distribution chlorine are produced. Chlorine thus

systems, a very high dose is applied at generated dissolves in the water and

the post chlorination stage. forms sodium hypochlorite.

Components:
Source:
¾ Salt saturation tank,
Chlorine, either gas or liquid,
¾ Electrolysis cell,
Bleaching powder ( 20 to 30%
¾ D.C. power source, and
chlorine), High strength calcium
¾ Booster pump or orifice
hypochlorite ( 60 to 70 % Chlorine ).
assembly.

(ii) Table 1.4.1 Salt and power requirement

Capacity (Kg/Day) Salt ( Kg/Day) Power ( KW/Day)
100 0.3 0.45
200 0.6 0.90
500 1.5 2.25
1000 3.0 4.50
2000 6.0 9.00
4000 12.0 18.00
8000 24.0 36.00
10000 30.0 45.00
20000 36.0 54.00

Bleaching powder requirement ( kg/d) = ( Q * chlorine demand, mg/l)

--------------------------------------------
Available Cl2 in B.Powder in fraction

Ozonation:About 99.9% destruction of E-coli within 100 seconds. Cost is high.

Ultra violet radiation: UV radiation is effective in killing all types of bacteria and
viruses.

Efficient disinfection is achievable if

¾ Water if free from suspended and colloidal substances,
¾ Free from phenols,
¾ Water flows in thin films or sheet.

TWAD Technical Newsletter 56 August 2005

4.2.2 Solar disinfection

TWAD Technical Newsletter 57 August 2005

References

1. Journal of Indian Water Works Association, Mumbai,

2. Journal of Institution of Public Health Engineers( India), Kolkata,

3. Journal (Civil) of Institution of Engineers( India), Kolkata,

4. Journal (Environmental Engg.) Institution of Engineers (India), Kolkata,

5. Technical news letters,TWAD Board, Chennai,

6. Dr.P.Mariappan, Ph.D., thesis.

7. Dr.A.G.Bhole, Design of water treatment plants,IWWA, Nagpur,

8. B.S.Kapoor, Environmental Sanitation, S.Chand & Company, New Delhi.

9. NEERI Publications,

10. G.S. Bajwa, Practical hand book Public Health Engineering.

11. Everything about water web site,

12. Ion-exchange India Ltd., Web site,

13. Osmonics web site,

14. Manual on water supply and treatment, CPHEEO,New Delhi.

15. Journal of Environmental Health, Nagpur,

16. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection,Varanasi.

17. Journal of Pollution Research, Karad.

18. Journal of everything about water.

19. Watermaker asia web site, Mumbai

TWAD Technical Newsletter 58 August 2005