IB History

The Weimar Republic

-By 1918, Germany was in shambles because the armies were in retreat, the navy was in mutiny and the
population was rioting because they were being starved by the British blockade.

-On November 9th, the Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, and a civilian government took over from him on the
advice of General Hindenburg and Ludendorff.

-In January of 1919, the people elected an Assembly who made a constitution for the new republic. The
Parliament was called the Reichstag, and was run by proportional representation. There would be an
elected President as well, who could dismiss the Chancellor or the Prime Minister, and govern by decree
(don't need Parliament's approval to pass laws) during an emergency.

-Friedrich Ebert was the first President, and a socialist. He was not a revolutionary, and he believed that
the Parliament should just run the way it was running.

-The Spartacists (Karl Liebnecht and Rosa Luxemburg) wanted a Communist-style revolution in
Germany, and in January 1919 they led a rebellion in Berlin against the new government.

-The Frei Korps put a stop to it quickly, and they were ex-servicemen who were violently opposed to
communism.

-So, Berlin was too dangerous for the new government, so it was set up in Weimar instead. in June 1919,
Ebert was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which put Germany at the feet of the Ally countries.
Because of this, the Weimar Republic was forever associated with this humiliation, and many Germans
despised them because of it.

-The Socialists, The Catholic Centre Party, and the Democratic Party supported the government,
but were abused by those who were opposed to it, the Nationalists (rich land-owners who wanted the
Kaiser back and set up the Frei Korps and hated communism) and later on, by the Nazis.

-The Frei Korps tried to forcefully take over in Berlin in 1920. This was called the Kapp Putsch (it was led
by a man named Dr. Kapp), and it would have worked, if only all of the workers hadn’t decided to go on
a general strike and paralyze the city. The Reichswehr (professional army) fled the city and refused to
defend. Nothing really happened to the rebels though, because even the judges hated the government
and wanted the Kaiser back.

-These rebellions against the government could have been stopped more easily, but the country was in
economic shambles after the Treaty. The combination of political and economic crisis is what proved to
be fatal for the Weimar Republic.

-In 1923, there was serious inflation because they lost both actual money (reparation payments) and the
ability to make any money (industrial output and any of their profitable territories.) They simply printed
off more money, but from 1921 onwards, the value of a mark plummeted. After falling behind on
reparation payments to Belgium and France, they decided to take over Ruhr (industrial heartland of the
country) in January 1923, and not leave until they got the coal they wanted themselves. The workers
went on strike, and industry halted.

-Only the rich could keep up because their land and factories grew in value alongside the prices. The
middle class was suffering though, and began listening to a man named Adolf Hitler, and Austrian who
served in WWI as a good soldier.

-Hitler wanted to avenge the Treaty of Versailles, he hated Jews, and wasn’t too keen on Democracy.

-After seeing the invasion of the Ruhr, and how the horrific economic conditions, he attempted the
Munich Putsch (seizure of power) in Bavaria with his Nazi party (National Socialist German Workers
Party). They hoped to get power here, then go to Berlin. Ludendorff came with him from a beer hall to
the Bavarian Parliament on November 9, 1923. The 3000 Nazi Storm Troopers/SA/Sturmabteilung were
shot at by the Bavarian Police. Some died, and Hitler was sentenced to a light sentence of five years, but
was released after just nine months. This made Hitler seem like a hero for many people, and he also

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learned how to conduct himself (don’t get power by force alone.)

-1924-1929 were considered a good time for Germany, because of Stresemann, who was Chancellor for
three months, leader of the small People’s Party, and then Foreign Minister until he died.

Stalin

-Communist Russia wanted to be a great industrial and agricultural power, hence their symbol of the
intertwined hammer and sickle. But this was a desire, not a reality for them. We can look at Lenin's New
Economic Plan, and see how the allowance for small private trade and small private ownership proves
this, because it demonstrates how the economic system was in shambles.

-The majority of the peasants were desperately poor, but there were a few people, called Kulaks, who
owned a little bit of land, employed other peasants, and owned a little bit of machinery (which was rare,
because Russia was so technologically behind the West,) and sold their surplus harvest to the cities.
Everyone sort of hated the Kulaks, who were the least bad off in a very bad situation.

-The Communist Party was split up in two branches, the Left Opposition (Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky,
who thought that the only way for Russia to grow and survive economically would be if they expanded
and modernised their industry rapidly) and the Right-Wing Deviationists (Bukharin, and Rykov, who
wanted to stick to Lenin's NEP at all costs.)

-Trotsky’s people advocated the spread of Communism and of revolutions in already developed
countries, because once they too became communist, they would be able to help out the economically
backwards Russia. This was called, International Socialism.

-Stalin’s take on the matter was completely different, because he thought that the only thing Russia
ought to be focusing on was Russia. If they could perfect the socialist system in their own nation, they
wouldn’t have to worry about anything else. This notion was called, Socialism in One Country. How
poetic...

-Stalin was a moderate, because he needed the support to defeat his rivals like Trotsky, who many
people hated because he was a relatively new member of the party, and the older members were
envious of the respect he was garnering. In 1917 after patching-up a dispute he had with Lenin, he
rejoined the party, and moved up the power-ladder very fast.

-Stalin had no trouble in finding other people who disliked Trotsky, so he teamed up with Zinoviev and
Kamenev to get Lenin's Testament shelved (which advocated Stalin's removal from office) and to argue
against all of Trotsky's propositions. In 1935, they got Trotsky ousted as Commissar for War.

-In 1926, after new elections in the Central Committee, Stalin felt it was safe to oust Zinoviev and
Kamenev, whose support he no longer had need of since new supporters were now in the Committee. He
teamed up with his old opposition, Bukharin, to do this. They were put on Show Trials (they weren’t
actually allowed to defend themselves, and they were forced to wrongly admit to crimes like conspiring
with Trotsky to take over the Soviet Union) because they were afraid for their families or because they
thought their deaths would help the country, or simply because of torture.

-In 1927, Trotsky was forced to leave the country, and in 1928, Stalin won enough support to become
the leader of the party. Soon after, in 1929, Stalin turned against his last ally, Bukharin, and ousted him
as well. He faced the Show Trial and execution as well.

-Stalin was a master schemer, so the fact that all of the other politicians had underestimated him
(Trotsky called him a Grey Blur, and said that he was mediocre and forgettable) helped him to easily
switch alliances until he got the position that he wanted.

-Now that Stalin was in the position of utmost authority, he felt it was safe to start acting on the
problems the country faced, and he did this ruthlessly. Ironically enough, the plan he settled on
implementing was the one his great opponent Trotsky advocated in his day, the rapid modernisation and
industrialisation of Russia. Stalin’s reasons for doing this lay in his fear of having Communism stamped
out by the economically ready and industrially superior Western nations like the US and Britain. If Russia
could catch up to them, they would not have to worry.

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-Stalin immediately began system of having three Five Year Plans, where they would start off by trying
to triple their industrial production in heavy industry (coal, oil, iron, and steel), then to double and triple
them again, and to then switch to light industry, like manufacturing consumer goods, so the Russian
people would have a better standard of living.

-The First Five Year Plan (1928-1932) dug mines, sunk oil wells, and built factories. They began to tap
into their natural resources, and new cities were beginning to spring up in the mountains, and previously
uninhabited areas. The workers were forced to work very fast and very hard, or else they faced life in
labour camps called Gulags. They offered Capitalist-style incentives to the workers. The authorities
claimed that the First Five Year Plan reached it’s goals a year early, but this is only true about the oil
industry. Nonetheless, huge improvements were made, even if they were made under very high
pressure and the workers were terrified.

-The Second Five Year Plan (1933-1937) continued the conditions of the first one.

-The Third Five Year Plan (1838-1842) was sort of a failure, because of the Second World War, and the
necessary switch they made to armament manufacturing instead of consumer goods manufacturing.

-Because of the Five Year Plans, the standard of living for the industrial workers in Russia really
improved, but it’s good to keep in mind that these improvements came at a cost. Many people were sent
off to Siberia because of their absenteeism in the workforce, and their lack of productivity sent them to
the harsh conditions of the labour camps. Illiteracy went down, there was free medical care, and there
were pension and sickness benefits.

-To switch to the other part of the Communist symbolism, those who were represented by the sickle
instead of the hammer were still suffering at this point.

-Lenin’s NEP had improved agricultural output, but the communists believed that they couldn’t continue
allowing all of the small private ownership of the Kulaks, because communism entailed that land should
be farmed in collective farms (Kolkhozy) or in farms owned by the state (Sovkhozy.)

-The peasants were happy about this, but the Kulaks weren’t. They resisted by burning their crops and
livestock instead of handing them over to the government. Within two months, about half of the
peasants in the country had been uprooted and had to change their entire style of living. Stalin swiftly
dealt with the Kulaks by sending many of them of long treks to the middle of nowhere, where many of
them just died. About 5 million died like this, and another 5 million peasants at least died during the
famine of 1932-33, that was partly caused by the fact that so many Kulaks burned their fields and
animals.

-To quell this disruption, Stalin granted concessions to some peasants, allowing them to have a few of
their own animals and vegetable plots, and allowing them to keep 10% of what they make and share it
amongst themselves instead of getting wages.

-By 1937, about 90% of the farmland had been collectivised. By the fifties, the numbers for agricultural
output finally reached their 1928 standards. Collectivisation wasn’t the huge success that the Five Year
Plans were, but they still made improvements and modernisation still took place. This was all at a grave
cost, though. Many people died.

-The Ukraine was called the bread-basket of Russia, and it was the part of the Soviet Union that made
the most grain. Because of this, the small little breaks in collectivisation weren’t tolerated here.

-The Sovkhozy would be organized by the state with workers who would be paid regulated wages, while
in a kolkhoz the system of payment was different. In Marxist theory this would turn the workers on the
Sovkhozy into proletarian workers as they would be working for a wage using materials that were owned
by the State. In both systems, a system of internal passports prevented movement from rural areas to
urban areas. Initially, Sovkhozy farms were the ones which were created by the state confiscating large
estates, while kolkhozes were typically created by combining smaller farms together.

-Stalin was becoming increasingly more paranoid as the years rolled on. The murders and
exterminations of opponents were up until now, justified as being necessary for the progress of the
nation. But now, the murders that were happening were only a result of Stalin’s fear of being replaced or

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having his position threatened.

-In 1934, the chief of the Leningrad Communist Party, Kirov, was murdered, and this gave Stalin an
excuse to start a campaign against all of the old Bolsheviks of his early days.

-The Purges were when anyone who was thought the disagree with Stalin or his government in the air
force, navy, or army was killed. About a third of the entire officer corps disappeared in this manner. This
was in all reality, a stupid thing to do, because it left the army in tatters, and rather weak. Eventually,
Stalin also had the head of the NKVD (secret police) shot (Yagoda) and all of his senior staff.

-The Nazi-Soviet Mutual Non-Aggression Pact was signed on August 23, 1939. If there were ever a
problem between the two countries, it was to be handled amicably. The pact was supposed to last for
ten years; it lasted for less than two. What was meant by the terms of the pact was that if Germany
attacked Poland, then the Soviet Union would not come to its aid. Thus, if Germany went to war against
the West (especially France and Great Britain) over Poland, the Soviets were guaranteeing that they
would not enter the war; thus not open a second front for Germany. There was a secret part of the pact,
where the two countries carved up Poland between themselves.

-In November 1943, Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt met in Teheran. Agreement was reached on the
scope and timing of operations against Germany, including plans for the Allied invasion of France. Stalin
reaffirmed his pledge to commit Soviet forces against Japan after the defeat of Germany. The final
communiqué also stressed the need for cooperation through the United Nations in meeting the problems
of peace. A separate protocol pledged the three powers to maintain the independence of Iran.

Roosevelt and the New Deal

-WWI was good for the US, but bad for Europe. The American presidents encouraged their people to take
advantage of the need for American goods after Europe was virtually in ruins after the war.

-In 1922, the Fordney-McCumber tariff made foreign goods more expensive, so they bought Americans
instead. Also, the presidents cut taxes so people could actually buy things. So, in the 1920’s, everyone
had a washing machine, and everybody was happy.

-The Stock Market crashed in October of 1929 when people freaked out and sold all of their shares (that
were bought with borrowed money) when a few shares began selling at high prices. Prices collapsed
because of this.

- There was a lot of over-production. Americans didn’t stop making a lot, even when the Europeans
regained the ability to make their own stuff. Prices fell, and farmers couldn’t pay their mortgages and
the banks took their farms from them.

-The same thing happened in industry, when they just made too much. No one bought this extra stuff, so
people got laid off, and once again, no one could buy anything so more people got laid off, etc.

-There were new forms of energy, and new fashions that didn’t involve as much old timey fabric, so coal
and cotton demand went down.

-Other countries put up their own tariffs in retaliation, so there was economic isolationism.

-There were the Poor Man Clubs that were closed down thanks to the Christian Women’s Groups, and
Gangsters stepped in to take control of the illegal liquor trade in Speakeasies.

-There was a lot of racism, and they cut down on immigration from Southern and Eastern European
countries. They government did nothing to stop the abuse of Black Americans.

-President Hoover (Rep.) was there for the first part of the depression, and he believed that Americans
should fend for themselves, and did nothing to help to state of the country.

-Hoovervilles were little shantytowns that were set up in and around bigger cities after people got
evicted from their homes and were forced to live in shacks they made themselves.

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-FDR was a Democrat who came from a rich Dutch American family, and after climbing the political
ladder in the country, won 42/28 states.

-He immediately began to make changes, starting with his 100 days of tackling immediate problems.
Then, the First New Deal from 1933-1935 would create jobs and set the USA on the road to recovery.
The Second New Deal would follow from 1935-1939 would be concerned with improving welfare
services.

-10000/25000 banks had shut down after everyone freaked out and took their money out. Roosevelt
needed to convince the people that their money would be safe in banks.

-The Emergency Banking Act closed all of the banks in the country for four days so people could stop
taking out their money, and then only the banks that were truly reputable and reliable were allowed to
reopen.

-Roosevelt started the traditions of the Fireside Chats.

-The Federal Emergency Relief Act gave $500 million to the hungry and jobless for work.

-The Economy Act cut down the salaries of state employees & prohibition was abolished.

-The Second New Deal gave Americans the Social Security Act, which provided pensions for the old,
widowed and maimed.

-The Wagner Act gave trade unions the legal right to negotiate wages for their members, and their hours
of work and wages were fixed by the Fair Labour Standards Act of 1938.

-The National Housing Act reduced rents and built new homes.

-FDR was re-elected in 1936, 1940, and 1944. In the end, it was WWII that helped the country get out of
unemployment the most.

-Wealthy business-men didn’t like FDR, and there was a lot of fear of growing Communism in the USA.

The Fall of Napoleon, 1812 & 1815

-Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812
-His Grand Army was only 1/3 French, and saw this as a way to unify Europe.
-Reached Moscow in September, and it was on fire, probably because of Russian defensive action.
-Because of this, they were forced to leave.
-In 1814, he was sent to Elba, but escaped, and rallied with surprising support in France.
-He took to the field again.
-He was defeated ultimately by the British and Prussian armies at Waterloo.
-Eventually, he was sent to St. Helena in South Atlantic, and died.

The Congress of Vienna, 1815

-All European states sent representatives after the downfall of Napoleon, in hopes of gaining a balanced
system of power.
-The decisions that France was not allowed to keep all of their acquired territory, that France was now
under that rule of Louis XVIII, that Spain was under the control of Ferdinand VII, and other
border/territorial disputes were settled. Among other things.
-Important people there included Alexander I (Russia), Metternich (Austria), von Hardenberg (Prussia),
de Talleyrand (France), and Lord Castlereagh (Britain).
-The Congress was for the most part successful, since the peace they achieved lasted around 40 years.
-Four powers dominated during the congress: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia

Metternich’s “System,” 1820’s-1840’s

-Metternich did not believe in having a compromise with liberalism or nationalism, he was the picture of
conservatism.
-He believed that loyalty to a dynasty was of the utmost importance.
-He didn’t believe in any moves that got Germany closer to constitutionalism in German states, because
this was dangerous for Austria.

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Liberal/Nationalist Revolts, 1848
-A series of republican uprisings against European monarchies occurred in this year, starting in Italy, and
making their way across the continent to Austria and Germany.
-In France, the Second Republic was established, putting Napoleon III in the presidential seat.
-Central Europe could have been swayed to submit to liberal political reform and unification, but the
monarchies in power had strong militaries, and they ended up crushing these revolts.
-For the most part, the liberals were let down, and monarchs remained in power.

Italian/German Unification, 1960’s

-The Italian states of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Emilia-Romagna saw nationalistic movements, and
in 1859/60, these states unified with Piemont.
-Piemont gives Savoy, Nice to France, and the French occupy the area around Rome (Lazio.)
-Garibaldi, led a movement in Sicily, and expelled the Bourbon Dynasty from there, in 1860.
-In 1866, Austria gives up Venice, and in 1870 Lazio is returned.
-Italian unification left Rome the capital, leaving the country very centralized, which was bad for the
south and for church (property taken).
-In Germany, Bismarck was the main man responsible for unification.
-Bismarck believed in Realpolitik (politics based on severe rationalism); he got power in Prussia, where
he was a reactionary; he believed that “traditional elites must join with the nationalists to survive.”
-In 1862, Kaiser Wilhelm I tried to get the military up and running again, and to calm the traditional
elites, he put Bismarck in charge of the Prussian Cabinet. (Minister-President of the Prussian Cabinet and
Foreign Minister.)
-In 1864, Bismarck made an alliance with Austria, because he wanted to get Holstein and Schleswig for
Prussia and Austria respectively, and did so. But, this caused administrative issues in Austria.
-In 1866, there was a 7 Week War because of the Schleswig territory issue between Prussia and Austria,
and Prussia won.
-Austria was no longer part of Germany.

Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871

-This war was waged on Prussia by France, and it marked the uprising of imperialism and military power
on the part of Germany. Bismarck was a driving force behind the war, as it was part of his plan to create
a unified Germany.
-The immediate cause for the war was when the throne of Spain was offered to a Prussian, and Bismarck
advised the offer to be accepted, but it was rejected because of French protest.
-Aggression ensued on both sides, and France declared war in July.
-France was not equipped with modern military patterns, and the reserves they had along the Rhineland
were not enough.
-Eventually, the French army was defeated, and Napoleon III was captured, and the Second Orleanist
Kingdom was in power in France.
-The Treaty of Brussels brought an end to the war, and France had to pay severely. France and Germany
now saw each other as mortal enemies, and this was a contributing factor to the First World War.

Timeline of Hitler and the Nazi Party

1923 - On September 24, Stresemann angers the German nationalists by stopping the
resistance in the Ruhr, causing the People's Party to lose support. This was an
opportunity for the Nazi party to gain more influence and votes.
- The German mark inflated more than it ever had, so this caused people who were
suffering (mainly the German middle class) to listen to Hitler.
- Hitler led the Munich Putsch in November, and ended up getting arrested. Also, many
members of the Nazi Party ended up getting shot and killed at the hands of the Bavarian
police. This obstacle kept Hitler in jail for a little while, but at the end of it, he learned
how to conduct himself. 1924 -The Dawes Plan was implemented.
- Stresemann began to make many improvements in Germany in this year including
stabilizing the German currency by installing the Reichsmark. The improvements that
Stresemann made to the nation was an impediment for Hitler and the Nazi Party,
because there were fewer depressed Germans to appeal to. 1925 - Franco-Belgian
troops withdrew from the Ruhr in this year, thanks to Stresemann’s agreement with
them to start paying their debt again. (The Dawes Plan.) This was an obstacle for Hitler
and the Nazis because it lessened their support.
- Germany signed a series of Locarno Treaties that improved international relations.
Once again, these national improvement lessened Nazi support.1926 - Germany was

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allowed to join the League of Nations, thanks to Stresemann. This new acceptance into
the international forefront made things more difficult for the Nazi Party and for Hitler,
because there were fewer problems in the country that he could promise to fix, therefore
fewer people to appeal to.
1927 - Hitler was allowed to make speeches in Bavaria again after the Munich Putsch.
This was a good thing for him and his party, because he would be able to do what he did
best: amass support by appealing to emotions publicly.
1928 -Even though support for the Nazi Party was lessening as the German economy
prospered, this year hinted at what was going to be an economic depression when
unemployment went up and the agricultural industries were declining.
-The Nazis were getting more and more support in the rural areas, where the farmers
were already beginning to suffer because of the state of depression of their industry.
1929 -Stresemann died in this year, and the world really began to face the truth of the
economic depression that was rapidly affecting them. This made support for the Nazi
Party skyrocket.
-The United States called back its loans from Germany, and this problem once again
worsened the state of the country, which caused the support for the Nazis to rise.
1930 -The German Chancellor, Bruning cut unemployment and welfare benefits. Support
for Bruning and his party, the Centre Party, plummeted. Conversely, support for the Nazi
Party went up.
-General Hindenburg called an election in September, and the Nazis got many more
votes. The Reichstag (Germany’s Parliament) was no longer the centre of political
control, because Bruning was now governing without the Parliament’s consent, by
decree. These occurrences were all advantageous for the Nazis.
1931 -Unemployment hit 4 million in Germany in May of this year, so there were more
people for Hitler to appeal to and to get support from.
-The conditions in Germany worsened, while the conditions for the Nazis got better.
1932 -During the elections of March of this year, Hitler won 13 million, while Hindenburg
won 19 million, so the Nazis were catching up in terms of support from the people.
-Bruning resigned from his position as Chancellor in May, and was replaced by Franz von
Papen, whose leadership was lacking. This left the door wide open for Hitler to make his
move.
-Von Papen lifted the ban on Hitler’s SA, so this was advantageous for the Nazis.
-The elections in July saw a rise in Nazi support to 38%, so they were the most influential
party in the Parliament.
- Unemployment reached 6 million this year, so this fuelled Nazi support even more.
1933 -When von Papen left, he was replaced by yet another incapable leader, von
Schleicher who left after he was refused the ability to govern by decree by Hindenburg.
-Two days later, von Papen was replaced by Hitler as Chancellor, who Hindenburg
thought he could use to settle the crisis and then throw away.
-Hitler began his assault on Communism as soon as he got into power, and eventually he
outlawed them.
-Hitler put through the Enabling Bill, which allowed him to make laws without the
Parliament’s consent for four years.
-Hitler then stopped the Socialists, the Centre Party, and the trade unions until the only
legal party left was the Nazi Party. This very quickly and very easily gave him dictatorial
power in Germany.

The National Socialist State

-Herrenvolk --> master race
-Hindenburg died in 1934, and Hitler abolished the titles of both Chancellor and
President and made himself the Fuhrer of Germany.
-Hitler cleared out of office anyone he didn't trust, and the country was divided into
districts that were controlled by a Gauleiter who Hitler appointed.
-The Gestapo (secret police) was under the control of Heydrich, and they had to seek out
and destroy any possible enemies of the party. They could just randomly pick whoever
they ‘suspected’ and put them into ‘protective custody’ which was imprisonment without
a trial.
-Himmler controlled the regular police and the SS (who were in charge of the labour
camps.)
-Hitler encouraged rivalries between people underneath him, like Goering and Goebbels,
Heydrich and Himmler, so it lessened the threat of them wanting to compete with him.

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 -Hitler in reality hated Socialism, but put on a socialist show at the party’s beginning to
attract more supporters. Because of this, there were many Nazis who liked the socialist
ideas. These people included Ernest Roehm, who led the SA.
-Roehm wanted big firms to be nationalized, and to scrap the professional army and
replace it with the SA, with him at the helm. Hitler didn’t want these things, because
he’d lose rich supporters and the people who were in the Reichswehr.
-The Night of the Long Knives happened on June 30 of 1934, and it was when Hitler
ordered the SS to move against the SA. At least 100 Brownshirts were shot, including
Roehm. Von Papen narrowly escaped death, and von Schleicher was killed. Goebbels and
Goering took this opportunity to take down any of their personal rivals. The army now
had to swear a personal oath to the Fuhrer.
-Young boys started in the Pimpfen at 6, then at 10 took a test to go the Jungvolk. At 14,
they could join the Hitler Youth. Between 18 and 25, a year of labour service had to be
done. After 1935, there were also two years of military service.
-Young girls started at 10 in the Young Maidens, then went on the League of German
Maidens at 14. They had to learn girly stuff. Kinder, Kirche, Kuche. (Kids, Church,
Cooking.)
-All of the teachers had to join the National Socialist Teacher’s League or be sacked, and
they had to teach what the Nazis said about Jews being biologically inferior.
-In 1933, he signed a Concordat with the Catholic Church where they promised to leave
each other alone. But this didn’t last long because the Catholics didn’t like the Nazis, and
their Youth groups went all West Side Story. Hitler then shut down church schools, and in
1937 Pope Pius XI condemned the Nazis. Priests and Nuns were sent to the camps. The
Protestant Church also resisted.
-In April 1933, the SA led a boycott against the Jewish doctors, shops, goods, and
lawyers. Jewish civil servants were dismissed. By 1935, they were forbidden to go into
many public places like swimming pools and park.
-In September of 1935, the Nuremburg laws stopped Jews from marrying any Non-Jews,
voting, and holding citizenship.
-In 1938, a German diplomat was shot by a French Jew, and the SS organised an attack
on Jewish property in Germany during the Crystal Night, where synagogues were burnt,
businesses were destroyed, and many were beaten to death.
-The Concentration Camps and the deliberate extermination of Jews didn’t start until
1942, but 20000 Jews were sent to labour camps in 1938.
-During the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Hitler cleaned up most of the Anti-Semitism to look
good globally. He didn’t shake any black people’s hands (he could either shake
everyone’s or no one’s. He chose no one’s.)
-Life was good if you weren’t a Jew, homosexual, a priest, a gypsy, a Communist, or a
Socialist.
-In 1933, there were no more trade unions, and no more striking.
-In 1934, Hitler began his rearmament policy and a year later, there was conscription.
This reduced unemployment, but was against the Treaty of Versailles. He started a
Luftwaffe. The Navy made big boats. Wehrmacht meant armed forces, and it’s what
Hitler called all this.
-In 1938, the Commander and Chief of the army, Fritsch and the War Minister were
forced to resign, and Hitler became the Minister of War.
-Hitler wanted to increase their exporting, reduce their importing, and end
unemployment. He wanted Autarky, which was economic self-sufficiency.
-The problem was that they could not make enough raw materials on their own to
sustain themselves. This would be fixed by having other countries that had the things
that they needed come under Nazi influence and control.
-Hitler’s Minister of Economics, Dr. Schacht, controlled the imports of raw materials. This
meant that firms had to make what the Nazis said, because all the raw materials had to
come from the government. They increased iron imports so that heavy industry could be
increased, and they could make arms. This brought an end to unemployment.
-Unemployment was combated with things like cheap housing for the workers, and big
construction projects like the Autobahn. The workers got perks like cheap theatre tickets
and vacations.
-Experiments to replace natural materials with synthetic ones failed. It ended up being
so that they rose how much they imported, and decreased how much they exported.

The Three Images of War

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Kenneth Waltz

War as the result of Human Nature:

States that war is the outcome of the very nature of human beings.

Supported by Confucius to present day behavioral scientists.

Implication: to prevent war one must change human nature!

Optimists: human nature can be modified to make war less likely

Pessimists: Human nature cannot be changed and war is inevitable.
Things that could be done to Change Human Nature:

Offer alternatives to war i.e.: demanding physical activities.

Education: humans to be educated with a love of peace and hatred of war (there are human societies
where war is unknown)
Cultural exchanges (better understanding btw peoples)
Screen Potential leaders: ensure that they are not predisposed towards violence.
Criticisms:

Human nature is infinitely variable.

Far too general for any practical use.
If war is caused by human nature then so is peace.
War As the Result of the Internal Structure of States:

Argues that wars are caused by ‘bad states´ / i.e.: an unpopular government engages in a war against
another state in an attempt to promote internal unity.

What is a ‘bad state´? In recent past bad = autocratic.

More difficult to define what constitutes a ‘good state´

Marxists define it in economic terms. Good state is one in which there is a fair distribution of wealth.
USA and allies define it in political terms based on multi-party democracy, sovereignty of people, …
Fundamentalists Islam defines it in terms of a states which bases itself upon the word of God.
Therefore, this theory has not much practical value when attempting to eliminate war.

War as the result of the Structure of the State System:

Argues that war is the result of the nature of relations between states, i.e.: Gov. of a state will represent
its own interests and in the event of a serious clash in interests there will be war.

Implications:

Groupings of states in an attempt to promote the wellbeing of all / establishment of an alliance which
would deter attack on an individual state / disarmament programs (i.e.: NATO, Non-Proliferation treaty)
Transfer of authority from national Gov. to regional or global organizations (i.e.: EC, UN)
World Government!
Criticisms:

Alliances in the past arguably have been as much responsible for the outbreak of war as they have been
useful in preventing it.
It does not address the most common form of warfare since 1945: civil war.
The Origins of the First World War

1. German Responsibility:

9
Fischer’s View: (German Historian)

Germany responsible for war b/c of its aggressive pursuit of its weltpolitik.
Germany willed the war in order to realize expansionist ambitions and to resole an acute domestic crisis.
Fear of ‘encirclement´ after the Triple Entente and Russian army reforms meant that ‘a moment so
favorable froma military point of view might never occur again´.
Germany put pressure on A-H to retaliate against Serbia (even if it meant General war) ß ‘blank cheque´
Criticism of Fischer:

German policy before 1914 seems contradictory and lacking in clear aims.
No evidence that German leader help expansionist aims before the ‘September Programme´ (which
Fischer uses to explain the German desire for war)
Places too much importance on the domestic crisis in the decision to launch a war in 1914 Bulow and
Hollweg dismissed war as a solution to the socialist problem.
More Correct View:

Distinguish btw Germany´s contribution to the growth in international tensions from 1900-13 w/ her role
during the July crisis itselft.
All Gov. responsible for tension until 1914 but not equally responsible for the fatal turn of events — for
which Germany was culpable.
2. The Responsibility of Other Powers:

Austro-Hungary:

Contributed to conflict in Balkans by lengthy delays in responding to Sarajevo. (i.e.: the ultimatum to
Serbia was not delivered until almost a month after Sarajevo.)
Decleration of war on Serbia came only 5 days after ultimatum
Refused to halt military operations (as Kaiser suggested) even though talks with Russia were scheduled
for July 30.
Russia:

Clear that Russia was the expansionist force in the Blakans.

Unable (unwilling?) to restrain/control Slaw nationalism even though it was a force endangering
peace/stability in Europe.
Balkan Wars might have been a ‘war by proxy´ for Russia.
Promise of support to Serbia (influenced decision to reject the ultimatum)
France: (not a crucial role)

Promised French support to Russia (but this was more the work of French ambassador in Russia rather
then official policy from Paris)
Hopes of recovering Alsace-Lorraine was worth fighting for but not sufficient for wanting war.
Britain: (not a crucial role)

Underestimated gravity of crisis in late July.

Maybe a clearer statement of British intent to support France would have restrained Berlin.
Naval talks with Russia convinced the German Chancellor that the ‘ring of encirclement´ was complete.
The Balkans
Tension between Russia and A-H. (A-H´s prestige depended on its influence in the Balkans)
Pan-slavism / nationalism
Do NOT in themselves explain how an Austro-Serb dispute excalated into a general European war.
Alliances, International Anarchy, and Armaments:
The system of alliances helps explain why so many powers became involved in the war of 1914.

After her isolation at the Algeciras conference, Germany realised that A-H was virtually her only ally and
the alliance w/ A-H took on a new importance. (blank-cheque of 1914 transformed a defensive alliance
into an offensive one)
Similarly France gave a ‘blank cheque´ (1912) to Russia turning a defensive alliance into an offensive
one.

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The importance of the alliance systems was not its existence but rather that their defensive nature had
been altered.

Alliance system reduced flexibility of responses in the event of a crisis (i.e.: German response to Franco-
Russian alliance was the Schlieffen Plan, therefore the answer to a Russian threat was to invade France!)
However in some respects the alliance system was in some disarray in early 1914 (i.e.: Britain
disanchanted w/ agreement w/ Russia over Persia // Britain still did not support France by July 1914)
Yet the system of alliances had been successful before at preventing conflicts and maintaining an aspect
of a balance of power. Why did war break out in 1914? One answer is that Germany was intent on war in
1914 (and thus rejected most proposals for mediation in 1914). Germany could not tolerate a diplomatic
defeat for her ally.

The Arms Race can be both a cause and an effect of international tension.

Determination of Germany to become a naval power threatened Britain.

Russian army reforms (due to be completed by 1917) led to a point of view of the German high
command that a preventive war against Russia in 1914 made sense.
Maybe the arms race contributed to the feeling that war could not be postponed indefinitely.
Gov. in the leading states had warlike attitudes (i.e.: in Germany the General Staff had enormous
influence.)
However there was a current of anti-militarism in both France and Germany (i.e.: in the socialist
movements)
Capitalism, Imperialism and Nationalism
Capitalism:

Arguments For:

Simple belief that industrialists had an interest in provoking war

Capitalist economic pressures were the driving force behind imperialist rivalries.
Anglo German Trade Rivalry
Arguments Against:

Armaments manufacturers had markets overseas which might be lost in wartime.

Financiers needed stability.
Anglo-German commercial links were growing closed from 1904-1914.
Imperialism:

Lenin said that the war was an ‘imperialist war´ b/c it sought a re-division of colonial territories.
Germany had a prime interest in acquiring the colonies of other states.
German Weltpolitik was a challenge to British/French Empires.
Yet, agreements were being made on colonial issues prior to the war.

Psychological consequences of a generation of imperialism: Exacerbating mutual suspicion and hostility

(contributed to the mood of 1914)
Contributed to ‘nationalist revival´
Conclusion:

Four central factors:

Legacy of Weltpolitik: failed by 1914 / harmed Germany´s relations with other powers / meagre
achievements contrasted with its high expectations / increased German feeling of insecurity.
Growth of Russian power: economic expansion, pop. growth, army reforms, and strategic railways (close
to German borders) alarmed Germany.
Disruptive effect of nationalism: threatened A-H in terms of her ability to act as a great power &
disintegration.
Inadequacy of Germany policy during the July crisis: failure to devise diplomatic alternatives in case the
Triple Entente held and France and Britain supported Russia.
Four subsidiary factors:

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The decline of the ‘Concert of Europe´: statesmen unwilling to behave with restraint for the sake of
‘Europe´ as a whole.
The Arms Race: increased expectations of war / led Germany to believe she had a better chance of
winning in 1914 rather then later.
The legacy of imperial rivalries: increased animosities among the great powers (affecting public opinion,
press, and Gov.)
The influence of domestic tensions: encouraged ruling circles to consider war as a relief from such
tensions.

Causes in the USA:

o Overproduction
o Uncontrolled use of credit-buying (concealed over-production)
o Speculation
o Weak banking structure
o Uneven distribution of wealth

The Effects of the Depression in the USA on Europe

o Recall & refusal to renew short term loans

o The collapse of the German economy
o The system of international debts and reparation payments
collapsed
o There had been an outflow of gold towards the USA / the Great
depression magnified this unhealthy tendency
o Shrinkage in world trade
o Prices fell due to lack of demand / rapid rise in unemployment
o Social problems led to a rise in political extremism
o Led to the development of Economic Nationalism (promote
recovery in ones own country at the expense of others)

Reasons for Economic Nationalism:

o Isolationist policies of the USA who imposed heavy import duties

which led to retaliation from European states
o Keynes promoted Gov. intervention and this tended to result in
economic nationalism
o USSR was the only one not to experience the effects of the
depression and this led to a belief in tight state control as the way of the
future.
o Failure to keep international agreements
o The rise of fascism which was highly nationalistic

Effects of Economic Nationalism:

o Short term benefits to some countries, i.e G.B and German, but it
is doubtful that there could have been long term benefits, but the
outbreak of WW2 totally changed the economic scene
o Caused a further contraction of the volume of world trade
(imposed imposition of tariff barriers)
o Contributed to deterioration in international relations
o Promoted Gov. intervention/management of the economy
o In the long term, world leaders came to recognize the
importance of economic cooperation and institutions such as the IMF and
the World Bank were established.

Characteristics: (during inter-war period)

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 o Strongly nationalistic
o Strongly/Violently anti-Communist
o Anti-Liberal-democratic
o Opposed to international org.
o Elitist and Authoritarian (‘Obedience not discussion’ — Mussolini)
o Close identity btw the party and the state
o Strongly anti-Semitic
o Glorified war (promoted Social Darwinism)
o Profoundly racist
o Had a paramilitary wing (ie: Blackshirts / S.A.)
o Promoted the myth of the race (use victories of the past)
o Placed emphasis on the myth of the predestined leader
o Made great use of symbolism (ie: swastika)
o Did not have a clear doctrinal base

Reasons for the Appeal of Fascism

o Fascism was not clearly developed in theory and could appeal to

all groups irrespective of status
o The emphasis upon law and order was appealing (it was seen as
an alternative to social unrest)
o People were turning to other forms of Gov. due to immense
economic problems.
o Weak governments were easy preys for the fascists
o The fear of communism led to support for the fascists who were
violently anti-Communist
o Fascism gave its members a sense of identity
o Fascism made great use of the potentials of the newly developed
mass media
o Traditional parties lacked inspiration and the fascists:
o Represented a dynamic alternative
o Were not opposed by the Gov. which they sought to bring down

Fascism in Italy
The Founding of the "Fasci di Combattimento" by Benito Mussolini

o In its early days, the program of the party had strong socialist
elements: progressive tax on capital / 85% tax on war profits / universal
suffrage (including women) / formation of a national militia / a minimum
wage / nationalization of the munitions industry / worker participation in
management / confiscation of church prop. (all those in Italics were to
disappear later)
o Until 1920 the Fascists had little success

Reasons for the rise of the Fascists (1920-22)

o Disgust in Italy at the terms of the peace treaties (didn’t obtain

A.H. territory)
o The Fascists represented a means to stop the socialists and the
communists (in the eyes of conservative politicians, who sought to
moderate and control Fascism to their purposes)
o Mussolini was backed by wealthy industrialists and landowners
(b/c of their fear of socialist reforms)
o Support from Pope Pius XI and the Vatican (who saw the Fascists
as an opportunity to normalize State-Church relationships)
o Lack of faith in Italy’s institutions (failures of WWI, post-war
violence, high U…)

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 o After the March on Rome (October 22) the King offered the post
of Prime Minister to Mussolini
o The violence of the Fascists (i.e.: blackshirts) intimidated
opponents
o The complicity of the police and the army (who didn’t suppress
Fascist violence)

The Establishment of a Dictatorship

The king remained the Head of State, but w/ Mussolini Italy moved gradually towards dictatorship (not to
the extent of Hitler’s dictatorship however)

1922-1924: The Fascists strengthened their position by:

o Excluding Socialists from the coalition

o Continuing to attract members (weakening opponents at the
same time)
o Continuing violence a/g political opponents
o The fact that the Vatican became increasingly pro-Fascist
o The lack of unity amongst opponents
o The Acerbo Law (July 1923) which stated that the party of
coalition which won an election was to be automatically awarded 2/3 of
the seats in parliament (this made strong Gov. possible)
o Winning the April 1924 election w/ 374 out of 535 seats in
parliament
o Use of electoral fraud in the south of Italy (to ensure Fascist
victory)

June 1924: the Matteotti murder, the murder of a critic of the Fascists (the socialist Giacomo Matteotti)
created an anti-Fascist backlash à extreme elements of the Fascist party demanded that Mussolini move
towards dictatorship.

A move towards dictatorship:

o December 25: a law passed complete power in Mussolini’s hands

and introduced several repressive measures:
o Political parties were banned
o Trade unions were banned
o Free press was ended (through takeover by Fascists or
censorship)
o Elected local officials were replaced by officials appointed by the
central Gov.
o Increased power of arrest and detention w/out trial
o Scope of death penalty widened (to include action against the
authorities)
o Setting up a special court to deal w/ ‘political crimes’
o Creation of a secret police force (OVRA)
o These strengthened Mussolini and the State rather then the
Fascists.

A Totalitarian State?

Totalitarianism: when the Gov. has a high level of control on most aspects of citizen’s lives.

Arguments against totalitarianism:

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 o The Fascists compromised w/ non-Fascist interest groups (i.e.:
the Church, the Monarchy)
o Mussolini could be dismissed by the King
o The Church still had considerable influence (unlike in Germany
under Hitler) in sectors such as education.
o Fascism had little influence in the South, and despite Fascist
propaganda the South remained under Church and powerful landowner’s
influences.

Arguments for totalitarianism:

o Italians had to conform to Fascist expectations (this was

enforced by the secret police and the militia)
o Public employees had to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime
o Youth movements had considerable influence
o A ‘Mussolini Cult’ developed.
o In 1938 racial laws were enacted (mainly directed against the
Jews) — there was little persecution until wartime at the urging of Hitler

The Corporate State

This was a feature of the Fascist state in Italy…Under corporativism, a group composed of
representatives of the employers, the workers, and the state would govern a corporation. This would
supposedly:

o End conflicts btw owners and labor and therefore:

o Ending class conflict
o Increasing production (no more strikes)
o Increase living standards

Fascist Economic Policies

o No attempt to destroy capitalism (Mussolini compromised with

the capitalist and left them in charge of their industries in return for their
support)
o ‘Productivism’ was the word used by the Fascist to describe their
aims — however this was vague and limited to a desire to boost
production…
o There were close bonds btw State and heavy industry (funds
were directed towards this area of the economy)
o There was little attention paid to development of the consumer
industries.
o Taxation levels were high (to fund investment in heavy industry)
o The lira was fixed at an artificially high level (b/c of national
pride)
o Protectionism increased — to protect heavy industry and
agriculture — since Mussolini sought to achieve autarky.
o Government intervention increase (partly b/c of the Great
Depression) and
o Private banks were taken over to finance for investment
o Allocation of raw materials was brought under Gov. control
o Direct control of major industries increased (see notes for
figures)

As a result Italy had a larger public sector then any European

country aside from the USSR

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Fascist Foreign Policy

o There is disagreement as to whether foreign policy was driven

by fascist ideals
o There is consensus that it was dominated by Mussolini
o Evidence suggests it came to be dominated by fascist notions
after the mid-1930s

Foreign Policy 1922-1936

Italy’s interests concentrated in three areas: the Mediterranean, Africa, and the Balkans; yet there was a
desire to ‘revise’ the settlement of 1919-1920.

o Mussolini obtained Fiume from Yugoslavia

o Mussolini invaded Corfu (Greek island) in respons to the murder
of an Italian general but was pressured (mainly by G.B.) into
withdrawing.
o Mussolini declared in 1926 a protectorate over Albania
o Mussolini sought to destabilize Yugoslavia; he signed a treaty w/
Hungary (also a right wing regime)
o He crushed a revolt in Libya w/ use of massive force &
executions
o He signed a treat of friendship w/ Ethiopia in 1928

By the late 1920s, Mussolini was becoming increasingly revisionist & frustrated at the failures of
traditional diplomacy, but the weakness of the Italian armed forces made him support the disarmament
efforts of the League of Nations and made him cooperate w/ Italy’s WWI allies.

o Relations w/ Germany were not good in the early years of Hitler’s

regime, Mussolini opposed Hitler’s designs on Austria by backing the
Austria Gov. and an Austrian right wing force. Later he moved troops to
the Austrian frontier to forestall what he suspected were German
interventions in Austria
o October 25: Mussolini ordered the invasion of Ethiopia (realizing
that the Allies would to little to stop him b/c they were worried over
Hitler’s Germany) The League of Nations imposed sanctions for this
actions but they did not succeed b/c:
o Oil was not included in the banned items
o Britain did not close the Suez Canal to Italian warships
o Neither Germany nor the USA were members of the League and
sanctions could therefore only be ineffective.

Now, Mussolini turned towards a more Fascist-driven foreign policy. The reasons for this change were:
anger at the actions of Britain and France (in response to his Ethiopian invasion) / the success of the
Ethiopian invasion and the lack of success of traditional diplomacy / the nature of Fascism which
demanded expansionist policies.

Foreign Policy: 1936-1943

o Intervention in the Spanish Civil War

o A move towards Hitler:
o The establishment of the axis in 1936
o The visit of Sept. 1937 of Germany by Mussolini
o Mussolini let Hitler annex Austria (Feb. — March 1938)
o Mussolini proposed the Munich conference when war btw
Germany and the Western Allies seemed likely

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 o Mussolini annexed Albania (an Italian protectorate since 1926)
when Hitler seized the whole of Czechoslovakia.
o In May 1939 a military alliance w/ Germany was signed (the Pact
of Steel)
o Italy was unable to support Hitler in Sept. 1939 and Hitler
accepted Italian neutrality
o In 1940, Mussolini (convinced of Hitler’s success) joined the war
but
 His invasion of Southern France did not fit Hitler’s plans
 His invasion of Greece obliged Hitler to intervene
 Initial success in N. Africa was then met by British
counter-attacks
o In June 1941, Mussolini participated in the invasion of the USSR
and in Dec. 1941, the followed Hitler in his declaration of war on the
USA.
o In July 1943, Allied troops landed in Sicily, the Fascist Grand
Council denounced Mussolini’s actions, and the King dismissed Mussolini
à Mussolini was then arrested.

The Reasons for the Fall of Mussolini

o Since 1936 his popularity had been in decline (i.e.: w/

involvement in the Spanish Civil War)
o His relationship w/ Germany was seen as sacrificing Italy’s
interests to those of Germany.
o Loss of the King’s support
o Defeats in WWII undermined his prestige
o Conditions w/in Italy deteriorated w/ the war.
o Corruption w/in the Fascist party
o Mussolini’s illness
o The invasion of Sicily by the allies (clear sign of Italy’s defeat)

Italy surrendered on Sept. 8th 1943, Mussolini was rescued by the Germans and set up at the head of a
German backed Rep. of Salo, and fought against Italy. He was then executed on April 28th 1945 at the
hands of pro-Allied Italians.

An Evaluation of Italian Fascism

o Failure in that it meant Italian involvement in WWII on

Germany’s side, loss of colonies, and Allied occupation.
o The desire for empire was more of a burden than an advantage.
(i.e.: Ethiopia did not bring Italy any economic benefits)
o The relationship w/ Germany meant that Italian interest were of
secondary importance, and post-1943 that Germany invaded Northern
Italy, used Italian workers as forced labor…
o Fascism caused economic stagnation in Italy. A high lira
damaged exports, wages fell, and there was massive U. (partly b/c of the
Great Depression)
o Fascism brought little social reforms and sided w/ the employers
against the employees.
o The reality of the Corporate State was that Fascists sided w/
employers and this system did little to represent the interests of the
workers. This system was effectively only a disguise for exploitation of
labor.
o Fascist rule was corrupt, and much needed reforms were not
carried out.
o Propaganda was used to claim successes, but remained
propaganda.

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 o Successes included improvements in public transport, success in
the campaign against the Mafia…
o The one major success was the ending of the conflict btw State
and Church. (the establishment of the Vatican as an independent state)

The ideological roots of Nazism

Its roots lay in two movements of the last 25 years of the 19th century:

o Anti-Semitism which grew during that period of depression and

from the racial theories of the time
o Radical right-wing politics (i.e.: Pan-German League) in favor of
authoritarianism.

From its founding to the putsch of 1923:

o Founded during the chaotic period immediately after WWI.

Bavaria was then under the control of a right wing Gov. which sheltered
extremists (including the Nazis)
o Formed Jan. 9th 1919 under the name German Workers Party
(DAP), Hitler joined as propaganda chief in Sept.
o Aug. 1921: Hitler became leader and introduced: the notion of
the leader / a more centralized system w/ all branches subject to the
authority of the original branch in Munich.
o June 1922: the now renamed National Socialist German Workers
Party (NSDAP) is banned in all states except Bavaria.

The Munich or ‘Beer Hall’ Putsch:

o End 1922: Germany defaulted on reparation payments

o Jan. 1923: Invasion of the Ruhr
o Aug. 1923: Streseman became chancellor (& called for passive
resistance and began negotiating w/ the French) ß Hitler saw this
chancellorship as the beg. of a communist takeover…he decided to lead
a putsch.
o Hitler decided to convince leading members of the Bavarian Gov.
to help him on his ‘March on Berlin’ he seized them, they gave their
consent but once released w/drew their aid. On Nov. 9th 1923 the Nazis
marched on Gov. buildings and were dispersed by gunfire and had their
leaders arrested.
o Hitler went for 5 years in prison, but now he was a nationally
known figure.

The Creation of a Nationwide Party Organization (1923-1928)

Background to this period:

o period of recovery / the Weimar Republic seemed to have

survived attempts against it and have gained support
o 1924: the Ruhr was reintegrated into the German economy / the
Dawes Plan (rescheduled payments and made loans)
o 1925: Locarno Treaties — Germany accepted the frontiers of
1919
o 1926: Germany joined the League of Nations
o 1928: Kellog-Briand Pact

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 These favored improved international relationships and recovery. The appeal of
extremists (i.e.: declined during this period).

Nazi Party Measures:

o Refounding of the Party, Feb. 1925: Hitler refounded the party

(which had been banned) to participate in the political processes of the
Weimar Republic. Hitler planned to use the democratic process to gain
power, and then destroy it.
o Consolidation of the ‘Fuhrerprinzip’: Dispute (over participation
in elections / the Party Programme) was ended when Hitler imposed his
views, and by 1926 his control of the party had been greatly
strengthened.
o Creation of a Party cadre: the country was divided into Party
regions w/ a leader for each region.

The Role of the S.A.: Hitler restricted its activities to propaganda and bodyguard duties
since he did not wish to antagonize middle class & wealthy supporters.

Nazism Becomes a Mass Movement 1928-33

The insecure foundations of economic prosperity:

o US short term loans were invested on long term projects

o Middle classes being ‘squeezed’ by gains made by: the leading
industrialists who were forming into large thrusts / the workers, whose
unions had pressured for higher wages, etc…
o World wide agricultural depression by late 1927

The effects of the may 1928 election:

Gain for left wing parties, decline of the right. The right and center parties concluded that coalition Gov.
had weakened them. There was danger that the parliamentary system would break down b/c coalition
Gov. would not be possible.

The Economic Depression 1929 onwards:

o Had to face w/drawal of US short term loans

o The Young Commission and the Great Depression served as foci
for right wing attacks against the Versailles settlement.
o March 1930: collapse of Gov. coalition / appointment of Bruning
(Catholic Center Pary) He tries to force unpopular budget measures.
o Sep. 1930: Election in which Nazis become the second largest
party in the Reichstag.

Propaganda:

o Modern techniques (press campaigns, whirlwind campaigns by

air, film shows, etc.)
o Forming special propaganda sections for individual interest
groups.
o Emphasis on appeal to youth.
o Nationalism as a uniting force.

The Struggle for Power 1930-33

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Obstacles:

o Reluctance of conservative right wing parties to ally w/ the

Nazis. They wanted: Nazi officials only in minor cabinet posts / Nazis to
drop many of their demands and restraining their followers.(becoming
more ‘civilized’)
o Attitude of Pres. Hindenburg
o Divisions w/in the party. Hitler did not want to alienate the army
& the wealthy industrialists. However, opposition w/in the party felt this
would betray the revolutionary nature of the party (such feelings were
strongest in the S.A.)

The Major developments of this period:

o See notes
o Jan. 1933: Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor b/c:
o Only way to have mass support for a right wing Gov.
o Instability during 1930-33 might turn to the advantage of the left
o He was persuaded the Nazis would become more moderate
o He was persuaded Hitler could be controlled (clear majority of
non-Nazis in cabinet)
o Hitler accepted b/c:
o Loss of seat in Nov. 1932 election foreshadowed a decline of the
Nazis
o He believed that once in power he could strengthen his position
o He hoped he could organize the next new elections so the Nazis
would obtain an overall majority
o He had demanded the Enabling Act to give him special powers to
deal w/ the crisis and thought this act would pass.

The Seizure of Power 1933-34

Situation in 1933:

o Only three cabinet posts held by Nazis / no Nazi Reichstag

majority / Hitler could be dismissed by Hindenburg
o Hitler represented only hope of the Right for mass support / the
Right could not simply govern through pressure groups (army, business,
etc.) / Hindenburg becoming increasingly senile.

The Election of March 1933:

o Nazis received generous donations from industrialists (who

feared a left wing revival)
o Goring (then Prussian Minister of the Interior) allowed Nazi
violence in the campaign to go on uncontrolled.
o Opponents of the Nazis had a passive attitude.
o The Reichstag Fire: Feb. 27th 1933 The man considered responsible was a communist à
The Nazis claimed it was a beg. of a communist takeover / Hindenburg passed the
‘Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State’ à Hitler could:
ignore restrictions on police power / take over the power of the German states à using
this, the Nazis arrested communists and other political opponents.
 Results: Communists were banned, and Nazis in coalition w/ the Nationalists
obtained a majority.

The Enabling Law

20
To obtain 2/3 majority needed to change the constitution the Nazis carried a campaign of intimidation:
they depicted opposition as unpatriotic / Nazis in the S.A. seized control of state Gov. / opponents in the
SPD and trade unions were arrested / the building where the Reichstag was surrounded by S.A. and SS
troops. This law granted Hitler the right to:

o make laws w/out Reichstag approval

o make treaties w/ foreign states w/out Reichstag approval

Hitler now no longer needed the support of political parties.

Creation of a one-party state:

o June 1933: SPD banned

o July 1933: Law makes all political formations (except Nazis)
illegal

Conflict between Hitler and the S.A.:

o The S.A. demanded that Hitler follow socialist measures as laid

down in the 1920 Nazi Programme
o The S.A. wanted a greater say in party affairs
o They wished to replace the army w/ a national militia

Hitler feared that they would lose him the support of the non-Nazi right, and the army. The army was
then the only group w/ the power to remove him.

The Night of the Long Knives:

Night of June 30th/July 1st: arrest of the main S.A. leaders by the S.S. / leaders are shot / Hitler
congratulated by Reichstag, Hindenburg, & the army.

Death of Hindenburg:

Aug. 2nd 1934: Hindenburg dies / Hitler replaces him w/out election à now referred to as the Fuhrer / new
oath of loyalty for soldiers and civil servants (to Hitler)

A Drive to a Totalitarian State, Main Measures of the Nazis: 1934-36

o Professions are ‘synchronized’ w/ Nazi beliefs. (i.e.: teachers /

judges)
o Purges of Gov. workers of communist sympathizers, Jews and
replacement by party members.
o Nazis tried to restrict the influence of the Church and the
application of the 1933 concordat (allowing the Catholic Church to have
its own school & property but to keep out of politics) Nazis took more
direct control over the Protestant churches…soon swastikas were
displayed alongside the Christian Cross.
o Membership of one Nazi youth group was obligatory for all
Germans until age 18.
o Toward workers: labor unions abolished, establishment of
‘Strength Through Joy’ movement which provided subsidised holidays,
sporting activities, etc.
o Creation of Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda
— bringing under control the mass media and using them towards Nazi
propaganda.
o Rapid expansion of the S.S. (w/ Himmler) In 1934 the S.S.
became an independent org. answerable to Hitler and Himmler only.
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 Gestapo was placed under its control. Reg. Criminal police merged w/
the S.S. in 1936.

Spanish Civil War

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The two sides were: The Nationalists (a loose coalition of right wing groups, including Army high
command, the Church, the landowners, monarchists, a the Falange [fascist party]) and the Republicans (
looser coalition of left wing groups, including socialists, trade unionists, communists, anarchists, and
moderate liberals)

The Nationalists sought to preserve Spain’s integrity, while Republicans wished to preserve the Second
Republic.

The Causes of the War

o Profound cause: long period of decline since the great days of

the Spanish Empire. Spain had made little progress, lost her empire, and
fallen behind in the industrialization process
o Deep divisions in Spanish society:
o Landowners vs. Peasants.
o Church vs. Anti-Clerical movements: the Church had enormous
power in Spain and was opposed to social reform, this led to groups that
sought to reduce the Church’s influence.
o Conservatives vs. Liberals. There was a lack of a political middle,
and extremists elements were increasingly popular.
o Massive divisions btw countryside and towns.
o The Spanish army had a tradition of interfering in politics.
o Long standing tradition of violence in Spanish politics, and
democracy had never really been established (therefore parties tried to
reverse election results through violence)
o ‘Democracy’ in Spain had brought about corrupts Gov. and
undermined the concept of democracy. (there was electoral fraud and
continuing landlord control under Spanish ‘democracy’ )
o There was a desire for autonomy in several regions of Spain.
Conservatives saw this as a threat to Spain.
o Anarchism was a powerful force in Spain.
o

The weaknesses of the Gov. of the Second Rep. (1930-36), its failure to
carry out reforms, and to act against those that were plotting against the
Republic. It also failed to maintain law and order.

o Army concern at the possibility of a communist takeover.

o The assassination of the right wing leader Calvo Sotelo in July
1936.

The Main Developments

The Main Characteristics of the War

o The conflict was extremely brutal

o There was widespread foreign intervention (b/c the conflict was
seen as a struggle btw right and left), Nationalists received support from
Germany and Italy, while Republicans obtained aid from USSR and
occasionally from France, as well as foreign volunteers and the
International Brigades.

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 o It has been characterized as an ideological war. The at first loose
coalitions developed to be strongly idealistic as excesses polarized
opinion. However the war was never clear-cut. And only the ideological
divide btw foreign supporters was clear. (USSR vs. Germany and Italy)
o It was seen as a ‘curtain raiser’ for WWII
o First major use of air power.
o Bombing of civilian targets
o Formations of armored vehicles (to predict Hitler’s Blitzkrieg)
o The bulk of the troops (despite foreign technology) were not well
equipped.
o It is claimed that it was a war btw professional soldiers and
armed workers (although gradually order and discipline was instituted
amongst the Republicans.)
o This war saw the use of propaganda to overcome resistance and
terrify populations
o It brought profound social changes in it wake. (especially in
Republican held areas)

The Effects of the War

o Tremendous loss of life (executions continued after the victory of

the nationalists)
o Material losses were great (this was important since Spain had
been backward before the war already) — i.e.: the Republicans sent all
the gold reserves to the USSR for safekeeping.
o Franco’s regime marked the end of democracy for the next 40
years.
o Agriculture remained backward and the landowners in control
o The Church became more powerful (in return for support for
Franco’s regime)
o Regionalism was suppressed, and the state highly centralized.
o Censorship was introduced
o No attempts at reconciliation, reconstruction.
o Cultural life suffered (b/c of authoritarianism of Franco)
o High degree of state control led to corruption.
o Franco’s foreign supporters wanted compensation. He had to
provide Germany w/ resources.
o Spain became diplomatically isolated.

The reasons for the Nationalist Victory

o Most of the army was on the nationalist side.

o The parts of the army that sided w/ the Republicans was
regarded w/ suspicion and not used well.
o Franco assumed control of the Nationalist side and unified it.
o The Republicans were not unified (politically & militarily)
o Foreign aid was more substantial & direct to the Nationalists,
and supplies from the USSR dried up when Stalin sought to reach an
understanding w/ Hitler.
o Britain adopted a non-interventionist policy.

East — West Relations after 1945

Definition: ‘cold war´ describes the conflict between the USSR and the ‘Western Powers´ in the period
following WWII / Period of tension characterized by conflict at diplomatic, economic and all levels short of
actual armed conflict between the principals on either side.

23
Origins:

breakdown of wartime co-operation between the Allies (Obvious at Yalta and Potsdam conferences)
possible to trace as far back as 1917 when the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia led to the creation of the
world´s first communist state (in conflict with the west)
Didn´t emerge until after WWII b/c the USSR and USA were both isolated after WWI and USSR could not
put into practive the ideal of exporting revolution.
Factors which contributed to the outbreak of the Cold War

Mutual suspicion
Nature of the official ideology of the USSR: stated the inevitability of conflict with western capitalist
states à contributed to suspicions from the west / not certain that Stalin was motivated by this Marxist-
Leninist ideology
Liberal-democratic system of the West was not well understood by Stalin: the allies were unable to
commit themselves ‘on the spot´ but had to refer to their parliament or congress, this was evidence for
Stalin of lack of faith.
Conflict btw fundamental aims of Stalin and Roosevelt:
Roosevelt had idealistic aims (‘four freedoms´: f. from want, f. of speech, f. of religious belief and f. from
fear)
Stalin had more concrete aims (regaining of Russian territory lost in WWI, control over E.E. …)
Tendency to interpret the actions of the other in the light of their own priorities.
Nature of Stalin´s regime: dictatorship of USSR was only justified if external forces threatened the
security of USSR, therefore to prevent the danger of being overthrown from within, Stalin had to have
external enemies.
Death of Roosevelt: Stalin had a great deal of respect for him / Truman was far less of an internationalist
+ far less willing to extent goodwill to the USSR / Churchill replaced by Attlee.
The bipolar nature of international relations: USSR and USA were the only real powers in the immediate
post-WWII period and as representatives of rival social systems they were forced into confrontation.

The Cold War develops — events 1944-1949

The Yalta Conference, February 1945:

Most of the discussions involved the arrangements for Europe following ending of the war since defeat of
Nazi Germany was only a matter of time.
The Allies had been united by a negative goal and had not agreed on a positive goal which could
continue to unite them once Hitler was not a threat anymore.
The Issues:

Germany:

Germany to be divided into zones of occupation as previously agreed.

Moved away from the ‘Morgenthau Plan´ (reducing Germany to an agricultural country but not
alternative was found.
Eliminate or control "all German industry that could be used for military purposes".
Trials of the leading war criminals were agreed.
Commission to be established to determine reparations.
The defeated and liberated states:

Complain by USA and GB that Stalin had not given the co-operation of Soviet authorities in areas
occupied by the Red Army.
Declaration on Liberated Europe (what was to be done with Liberated countries)
Agreed that action regarding these areas should be joint action.
Poland:

GB and USA had recognized Polish Gov. in exile while Stalin recognized the Lublin Committee (Polish
communists).
Suggested that the 2 groups co-operate and that ‘free and unfettered elections…on the basis of

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universal suffrage and secret ballot´ would be held.
No decisive conclusion on frontiers but agreed that Soviet frontier would advance westwards and Poland
would be compensated from German territory.
Japan:

USSR agreed to enter war against Japan within ‘2 or 3 monts of the ending of hostilities in Europe´
USSR to regain all territory lost to Japan in 1904/05 war and to have the major interest in the railways in
Northern China
The Potsdam Conference, July/August 1945:

Truman represented the USA / Churchill was replaced by Attlee / Truman informed Stalin of the US
atomic bomb.
Council of Foereign Ministers formed to draft peace treaties w/ defeated enemy states.
Reparations: USSR to begin collecting reparations from its zone / eventually to receive a percentage of
reparations from western zones.
Arrangements for trial of Nazi leaders went ahead in the American zone.
Areas of Disagreement:

Stalin wanted the districts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey.

Stalin demanded trusteeship of one of the former Italian colonies in Africa.
Stalin proposed joint action on Franco (rejected by western powers)
Stalin proposed discussion of situation in Syria and Lebanon but GB and FR considered this to be of their
concern.
USA and Allies not able to access areas of Europe occupied by the Red Army.
Stalin moved the frontier of the USSR westwards and handed over to Poland a large area of the Soviet
zone of Germany (including land to which the Allies had not agreed)
The breakdown of the alliance followed rapidly as conflicts arose in a number of areas:

Iran:

Northern part of the country to be a Russian sphere of interest / Southern part a British sphere.
During WWII country jointly occupied b/c on a supply route to the USSR.
September 1944: British negotiate an oil concession w/ Iranian Gov. for Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and
Standard Oil of USA à Soviet seek a similar concession / Iranians (encouraged by West) refuse.
USSR began to give support to groups opposed to monarchy in Iran / refused to withdraw troops in
1945 / established ‘independent´ republic of Azarbaijani.
January 1946: Iran complains to UN security council
March 1946: USSR agrees to withdraw troops
Iranian forces move to restore Gov. control over ‘Azarbaijani´ and Soviet troops move to the border /
both GB and USA threaten to support Iran à USSR backs down.
Turkey:

Teheran Conferency (1943): Churchill stated that USSR was entitled to better access to the world´s
principal sea routes.
March 1945: USSR demands that the treaty concerning the use of the Straits be revised / demand for
naval base on the Dardanelles / demand for return of the old Czarist provinces of Kars and Ardahan à
Turks refused and are supported by GB
August 1946: USA stated that any attack upon Turkey would justify action by Security Council of UN and
moved an aircraft carrier force to Istanbul.
Greece:

October 1944: Agreement btw Churchill and Stalin on spheres of influence in Balkans.
December 1944: British begin supporting the Greek monarchy against communist forces backed by
Yugoslavia and Albania (suspicion that Stalin was behind the communist moves)
Feb. 1947: GB informs USA of their inability to support the Greek Gov. (USA must step in or there would
be a further advance for the communist cause) à Truman decides to help stating his interpretation of
events in what became known as the Truman Doctrine.
Germany:

25
Allies agree that Germany should not be allowed to become a threat to them again / little agreement as
to how this ought to be done.
Early problems caused by the French (b/c de Gaulle had not been invited to any of the ‘Big Three´
conferences and did not feel bound by any of the agreements reached there)
More serious differences soon arise btw USSR and western allies:

Reparations:

Carrying out the Potsdam agreement proved difficult b/c of the v. poor state of the German economy.
USA + GB were having to send reparations from their zones to the Soviets (unable to sell industrial
produce to pay for imported food)
Soviets not sending the agreed food supplies from their largely agricultural sector
Spring 1946: USA + GB stop reparation deliveries to the Soviet zone.

Sept. 6th 1946: Byrnes (US Secretary of State) acknowledges that Potsdam agreement is not working
and proposed that GB and USA merge their zones to form one economic unit. à done in January 1947 w/
the French zone joining in 1949.

Political developments:

Under Potsdam agreement, setting up of ‘free democratic and anti-fascist´ parties had been provided
for.
June 1945: Soviets allowed formation of political parties / in contrast with developments in the west (i.e.:
French still talking of annexing the Saar)
December 1945: talks of merger btw Communist and Social Democrats à referendum in March 1946 but
rejected.
Soviets went ahead with the merger in their own zone.
German political leaders in the west decided to form groups within the other zones: Soviet attempt to
control German political parties had failed.
June 1947: anti-Soviet Reuteur elected as Mayor of Berlin / Not recognized by Soviet General Kotikov à
parties were henceforth to develop separately in the Soviet zone and the western zones.
The Council of Foreign Ministers:

March 1947; fourth session of the council began in Moscow: made no progess b/c of the announcation of
the Truman Doctrine à conference broke up.
Eastern Europe:

By May 1945 Red Army occupied a vast area of E.Europe / ‘Declaration on Liberated Europe´ was the
only guarantee that the Soviet area would not be used to strengthen USSR
Churchill had sought to improve the western position by:

Urging USA to order US armies to advance as far to the east as possible before ending of the war à
refused by Roosevelt who was suspicious of Churchill´s motives.
Attempting to convince the USA that its planned withdrawal of troops from Europe should not take place
so long as the Red Army had several million men under arms.
Churchill stated: "An iron curtain is drawn down upon their front. We do not know what is going on
behind."
Between 1945-47 the USSR strengthened the position of Communist parties in E.E. whilst denying
western officials access to the area.

Policy of Containment:

by 1947 the USA began to reshape its policy to meet what it saw as the growing influence of the Soviet
Union.
March 1947: Truman Doctrine.
June 1947: USA made known the means by which the above policy would be implemented: Marshall Aid.
It was hoped that the root cause of discontent (need for E. recovery) and spread of communism would
be halted.
USSR attended initial meetings but soon withdrew and obliged E.E. states to do likewise.

26
End August 1947: USSR replied to what it saw as a clear anti-Soviet measure by signing trade
agreements with several states thus tying them into the soviet economic system (Bulgaria, .CZ,
Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland and Rumania)
June 1947: article by a US State Department Soviet specialist stated that the USA must develop "…a
policy of firm containment, designe to confront the Russians with unalterable counter force at every
point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world…" / This
involved:
Decision to maintain large US forces in Europe in peacetime.
Establishment of a peacetime alliance (NATO) with a strong US commitment.
The Soviet Response:

Tightened its grip upon the states of E.E. (1948 coup brought the last of the E.E. states, .CZ, under firm
communist control)
Bilateral trade agreements.
Cominform established to strengthen links btw various communist parties.
Stated that WWII had been fought by USA and GB to eliminate German and Japanese industrial
competition and warned that the world was now divided into "…two fronts, one imperialist, the other
socialist and democratic…"
The Berlin Blockade: attempt to eliminate the only remaining area of western influence behind the ‘iron
curtain´ à failed.
Europe Divided

Europe by 1949 was divided into two rival camps each with their own political, economic and military
alliances:

Economically:
Western countries united through O.E.E.C. (initially formed to facilitate distribution of Marshall aid)
Countries of E.E. linked to USSR economically by bilateral trade agreements and Comecon (Council for
Mutual Economic Assistance — Jan 1949)
Militarily:
Brussels Treaty (March 1948) allied GB, FR, and Benelux countries in the event of an attack / N.A.T.O.
(April 1949) wider alliance.
Soviet countries united through the Warsaw Pact (1955)
Politically:
In western Europe various organizations were established to attempt to achieve greater unity.
In E.E. the USSR established Cominform to link together the various communist parties.
The effects of the development of the Cold War

International relations were dominated by the Cold War and all conflicts tended to be seen in terms of
the struggle btw the USA and the USSR à international relations were bipolar.
Europe was divided with a clear line of demarcation btw the capitalist west and the communist east.
Germany was not united: instead western and eastern zones gained independence separately and were
not prepared to recognize each other.
No peace treaty was signed with Germany: sense of insecurity amongst countries of E.E. (this was
solved in 1975 at the Helsinki Conference)
Unity in western Europe was encouraged by the Soviet threat and USA who hoped that western
European states would play a greater part in their own defences.
USSR tightened its control over the E.E. states à setting up of one party states.
USA abandonned its policy of avoiding peacetime commitments: it was instrumental in setting up of
NATO and other regional forces.
USA adopted the policy of containment à led to US involvement all over the world assuming that any
communist group was acting upon the orders of Moscow (i.e.: Korea, Vietnam) à USA became the ‘world
policeman´.
UN was never able to fulfil the role which Roosevelt had envisaged (peaceful settlement of international
disputes) b/c of the veto power of both the USA and USSR.
The Cold War spreads to the East

By 1949, the position in Europe was static: the last attempt to change the balance (Berlin Blockade) had
failed
With the advent of nuclear weapons neither side was prepared to risk open conflict in order to change

27
the position.
However, events in the East brought that area into the Cold War conflict:

The Communist takeover of China:

1927-1937: civil war between the Kuomintang (nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-Shek) and the Chinese
Communist Party (Mao Tse-Tung)
1937-1945: uneasy truce to allow both to fight the common Japanese enemy.
By 1945 the scene was set again for a renewal of the civil war.
Truman sent General Marshal to presuade both sides to form a coalition Gov. but Chiang Kai-Shek didn´t
wish to share power and the Communist party had grown in strength and was not settling for less than
real power sharing.
The US attitude:

USA had great interest in the future of China: supported China against its division by the Great Powers at
the end of the 19th century, and against Japan.
USA was aware of the corruption of Chiang Kai-Shek´s regime and of its lack of support.
USA was aware that becoming involved in China would be an enormous undertaking (size of country,
population, and backwardness)
As the Cold War developed in Europe, the USA became increasingly concern at the prospect of a victory
for the forces of Mao Tse-Tung.
USA thus provided some limited support for Chiang Kai-Shek but in 1949 the remnants of the
Kuomintang forces abandoned the mainland of China and fled to Taiwan (where they were protected by
the US navy)

Victory of the C.C.P. in the Chinese civil war coincided w/ the most intense phase of the Cold War in
Europe. The consequences were:

USA assumed that the takeover of the communists in China was inspired by Moscow. (in fact Stalin had
urged Mao to come to terms w/ nationalists b/c he didn´t feel that a communist revolution had a chance
of succeeding)
USA became increasingly eager to accept the policy of containment.
Considerable opposition in the USA to the recognition of the new regime in China.
Many people felt that China had been ‘lost´ b/c the USA had not taken the necessary steps to support
the Gov. of Chiang.
à McCartyism (purges of Gov. / ‘Red Scare´)

The Korean War 1950-1953

Korea under control of Japanese since late 19th century.

Cairo Conference (1943) suggested independence of Korea to follow defeat of Japan.
After Aug. 1945 (Hiroshima and Nagasaki), the Soviet forces occupied the area to the north of the 38th
parallel and the US forces the area to the south.
Development of the Cold War precluded co-operation btw the occupying forces.
By end 1948 there were two Koreas: the Republic of Korea (South) and the Democratic Peoples Republic
of Korea (North).
December 1948: Soviet and US forces withdraw from their zone of occupation.
The ‘defense perimeter´:

Jan. 1950: Secretary of State (Dean Acheson) oulined a perimeted beyond which the USA would not
tolerate the advance of communism (however, he failed to include South Korea within)
Why did he not include S.K.?

Budgetary reasons: USA did not wish to involve itself to any great extent in the defense of Korea.
Oversight on the part of the US secretary.
USA did not feel that there was any threat to South Korea.
Exclusion of S.K. seems to have encouraged N.K. and USSR to believe that USA would not resist
measures to unite two Koreas under communist rule.

28
The invasion of the South:

June 25th 1950: N.K. forces cross 38th parallel and invade south / Probable that USSR encouraged this
b/c:
Soviet supplies for N.K. far surpassed peacetime needs of N. Koreans.
Given the development of the Cold War it is unlikely that the Koreas would have taken such a step w/out
consulting the USSR.
Truman´s View:

" The attack upon Korea makes it plain beyond all doubt that communism has passed beyond the use of
subversion to conquer independent nations and will now use armed invasion and war."

"I recalled some earlier instances: Manchuria, Ethiopia, Austria. I remember how each time the
democracies failed to act it had encouraged the agressors to go ahead………If this was allowed to go
unchallenged it would mean a third world war."

Events:

US air, naval, and ground assistance sent to N.K.

UN Security Council acted (b/c Soviet Union had been absent since Jan. 1950)
Seoul fell on 28 June 1950.
10 July: Acheson states that US forces were in Korea to ‘restore the Republic of Korea to its status prior
to the invasion´.
During summer 1950 US forces pushed back towards Pusan.
15 September: Amphibious assault organized by MacArthur turned situation around à by 21 September,
clear that US firepower had won.
7 October 1950: US and UN changed their aims in Korea and decided on ‘the establishment of a unified,
independent and democratic government in the sovereign state of Korea´.
No longer a war of ‘containment´ but an attempt to ‘roll back´ communism.
October 3: Chinese deliver an ultimatum to the USA: "If the Americans cross the 38th parallel China
would be forced to intervene in Korea´.
October 19: Pyongyang taken à 16 October 350,000 men from Chinese army had entered Korea.
Motivation for Chinese entry in the war was found by RAND to be ‘rationally motivated´ b/c statements
issued by MacArthur´s headquarters led to belief that he intended to invade China.
By December 5, UN forces were back below the 38th Parallel.
Truman and Attlee decide to abandon their aim of uniting Korea.
July 3: Seoul lost / Chinese rely on numbers and are met w/ the ‘meat grinder´ strategy.
April: UN forces back over 38th parallel into the North.
MacArthur incident: MA called for military operations against China à dismissed on 11 April 1951.
Any extension of the war against China herself would have lost the US some of her allies, risked global
war or alternatively ‘delighted the Kremlin´ by pinning down even more US ground, air and naval forces
in the Far East while the Soviets looked on.
As an answer to MA´s accusation that the Truman administration had ‘no policy´: George Marshall
(Defense Secretary) stated that "it is…our policy to contain communist aggression in different fashions
in different areas without resorting to total war."
June 1951: Chinese propose an armistice.
March 1953: Stalin dies à not the time to confront the US.
July 1953: Eisenhower stated that "in the absence of a satisfactory progress at the truce talks, we
intended to move decisively w/out inhibition in our use of weapons and would no longer be responsible
for confining actitivities to the Korean Peninsula."
Armistice signed on 27 July 1953.
Outcome of Korean War:

From US point of view:

S.K. and therefore Japan had been saved.

Soviets forced into an arms race she could ill afford.
Chinese inclined to exercise greater caution regarding confrontation w/ US.
UN saved from a death blow.
Over-exagerated the Soviet threat

29
N.K had not been ‘liberated´.
For the Soviets/Chinese:

War had exacerbated Sino-American hostility.

Chinese gained in prestige (saving N.K. from MacArthur, inflicted major losses on UN forces, …)
China had united under foreign threat.
S.K. remained non-communist.
Money needed for reconstruction had been diverted to the war.
China had been denounced as aggressor.
Presence of the 7th Fleet in the Taiwan Straits meant that conquest of Taiwan (which would earlier have
been relatively easy) became impossible.
China was kept commercially isolated from the West and out of the UN for 22 years.
Not the last time that China would be faced w/ an implicit nuclear war threat from America.
Korean war had meant that US and Europe reamed and contemplated whether Soviets would risk
invasion of West Germany to reunify that country as well. It also drew a new line of the Cold War in Asia,
conflict was to continue in the Far East w/ Britain ‘holding that line´ in Malaysia and USA intervening in
South-East Asia.

Cold War to Co-Existence

1956: relations btw USSR and USA improved with the introduction of the notion of ‘peaceful co-existence
´ / but even before Khrushchev´s famous speech of Feb. 1956 the move towards peaceful co-existence
had begun in both the USSR and the USA.

Changes in the USA:

1952: victory of Republican Eisenhower

With his future Sec. Of State Dulles he began the policy of ‘rolling back´ communism (but in 1953 USA
didn´t intervene when the workers of East Germany rose in rebellion and were crushed by Soviet tanks)
Massive Retaliation:

Any attempt by the USSR to expand its influence in any part of the world would result in a US nuclear
strike against the Soviet homeland.
The background of this doctrine:

Belief in the monolithic nature of communism.

The period of the ‘red scare´ in USA.
Confidence in the nuclear superiority of the USA based upon the November 1952 explosion of the H-
Bomb.
The Domino Theory:

Made public by Eisenhower in April 1954 à massive US support for the French in Vietnam / failed to
prevent victory of the forces of Ho Chi-Minh.
March 1955: Domino Theory and Massive Retaliation came together:

Chinese communists began to bombard the offshore islands of Matsu and Quemoy help by nationalists.
Dulles stated that nuclear weapons would be used against China.
This policy of ‘brinkmanship´ forced the Chinese to back down but caused alarm amongst US allies.
The policy of ‘massive retaliation´ was ineffective b/c:

August 1953: USSR successfully tested the H-bomb.

Communism was not monolithic.
Eisenhower began to realise that some form of negociation w/ the USSR was necessary if a nuclear
disaster was to be avoided.

Changes in the USSR:

30
March 1953: Stalin´s death à he predicted that after his death "the imperialistic powers will wring your
[Soviet leaders] necks like chickens."
The new collective Soviet leadership felt that this was not accurate as issues could be settled peacefully
"on the basis of mutual agreement".
February 1955: USSR signed a peace treaty w/ Austria granting it independence / Khrushchev visited
Yugoslavia and made peace w/ Tito. The reasons for this were problably:
Open the way for improved relations w/ the USA and the West.
Improve relations w/ E.E. states.
Demonstrate to smaller, non-aligned states of the world that it was not necessary to belong to the
Western block to be safe.
Soviet leaders were gaining in confidence as they gained more experience of international relations.
The 1955 Summit Meeting: (July 1955)

First meeting between the leaders of the USA and the USSR since Potsdam.
Little was concretely achieved at the conference.
The conference was most significant in that it marked the tacit acceptance of both sides of the status
quo in E.
The Twentieth Congress of the C.P.S.U.:

Feb.: ‘peaceful co-existence´ announced officially by Khrushchev along w/ other changes.

Khrushchev made two sweeping statements:

Denied that war was the inevitable concomitant of capitalism.

Accepted the possibility of peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism.
à What Khrushchev had really down was to bring doctrine into line w/ what had been the reality of Soviet
policy for some time.

Notes on Khrushchev´s Speech:

Khrushchev´s speech "attempted to impress the West (by the theory of peaceful co-existence), E.E. (by
the concept of different roads to socialism), and the uncommitted countries (by the theoretical rejection
of violent revolution) the Stalinism had been abandoned."
Meant that "the main struggle would be economic" b/c thermonuclear weapons ruled out a war btw
USSR and USA (risk of mutual destruction was too great)
Khrushchev understood the status quo to mean the continued existence of anti-colonial nationalist
movements throughout the world which eventually would turn the odds against the West (with its
colonial past / and the US enmity towards revolution)
"paradoxically, the status quo was revolutionary"
‘the uncovering of Stalin´s mistakes sounded the death knell for his puppets, who in most cases were
still in power in E.E. They had risen to the top on the crest of Stalin´s infallibility ; destruction of the myth
involved their destruction also"
Poland: Riots in June 1956 / people united in hostility to the Stalinist police state which had subordinated
Polish interests to the requirements of USSR à Gomulka returns to power and purges the leading
Stalinists of the Communist party / Soviet leaders acquiesced the changes…provided that the new
policies did not threaten the safety of the Soviet Union.
Hungary: First Secretary agrees to return of Nagy as Premier in October 1956 but asks Russian troops to
keep the situation under control à they inflame situation and fighting brakes out à Nagy indicated that
Hungary would withdraw from the Warsaw Treaty (made at the Same time as the Suez War broke out
therefore Western concerns were elsewhere) à Red Army ‘restores order´ in Hungary / Hungary seemed
to negate all the previous moves towards a détente.
Hungarians and other E. E. states learned that there would be no liberation, that they could not look
forwards to tying themselves to the West…they would have to make the best deal they could w/ the
Soviets.
27 August 1957: Soviet Union announced a successful test of an inter-continental ballistic missile (ICBM)

4 October 1957: Sputnik I was launched

à recognition that "the Soviet Union was a viable, competing social system, with an advanced
technological base" caused "a weakening of American confidence, and initiated the first steps of an
agonizing reappraisal of the assumption and the direction of American policies".

31
The Effects of Khrushchev’s speech at the 20th Congress of the CPSU:

Contributed to improvements in the USA-USSR relations: seemed to indicate that communists did not
seek the eventual overthrow of the capitalist system (although this was not what Khrushchev meant by
‘peaceful co-existence)
Marked the beginning of serious differences btw the CPSU and CCP / the result was that:
The non-monolithic nature of communism became clear.
Soviets lost the undisputed leadership of the communist movement.
The Cold War changed in nature: no longer were relations bipolar.
Marked the beginning of the end for the old style Stalinists in E.E.
Led to an increasing acceptance of national communism.
The position of the CPSU was weakened b/c in saying Stalin had been wrong, the party which had
supported him was discredited.

Immediate Effect of Soviet Action in Hungary:

Partial return in the USA to policies favored by Dulles (Sec. Of State)

Short lived b/c of the Soviet technical advances which made ‘massive retaliation´ less realistic than
ever.
Dec. 1957: Khrushchev proposed banning of all nuclear missiles in Poland, .CZ, E. and W. Germany.

Jan. 9 1958: Khrushchev proposed summit level talks on:

Limiting bomb tests

Creating a nuclear free zone in central Europe.
E. and W. Germany
Proposal rejected by USA.
Jan. 26 1958: Khrushchev again suggested top level talks.

Mar. 1 1958: Khrushchev proposed a foreign ministers meeting to prepare way for a summit.

Mar. 6 1958: Khrushchev offered to fly to the USA.

Mar. 31 1958: USSR halts unilaterally the testing of nuclear devices.

Factors influencing Khrushchev´s decisions:

Internal reforms required forms more readily available in an atmosphere of international détente.
Such moves were popular in the USSR w/ the ‘Geneva spirit´.
Scientific advances by the USSR meant that Khrushchev could afford to make peace overtures w/out
being criticized.
Khrushchev realized the impossibility of winning a nuclear conflict.
In the USA his proposals caused debate and lack of US response was criticized / On editor commented:
"As I see it we have the choice of negiotiating w/ Russia or going to war………Mr. Dulles has become a
liability to peace."

Senator Fulbright stated:

"…Russian policy is not only what happened in Hungary. If it were only a question of military oppresiion,
we would have…a much more easily defeated adversary. But Russian policy is also the military
withdrawal from Finland; it is the Soviet signature of the Austrian Peace Treaty and subsequent military
withdrawal from that country; it is also Russian acquiescence in the recent modification in Polish
Communism; it is political support of the non-Communist nationalist movements in Asia and Africa and
economic aid to the countries of these regions. It is, most of all, an almost continuous propaganda
refrain calling for action to reduce the danger of nuclear warfare, coupled with proposals for a great
variety of approaches to this fundamental international problem."

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1958: US troops to Lebanon / British troops to Jordan b/c of fear of the spread of the successful left-wing
revolution in Iraq à Khrushchev very moderate in response.

Jul. 19 1958: Khrushchev called for a meeting of leaders of USA, USSR, GB, and India.

Eisenhower suggested this take place w/in framework of the UN Security council / July 22nd Khrushchev
agreed.
July 31-Aug 3 1958: Khrushchev returns from Peking and refuses to accept Eisenhower´s proposal.

Aug 23 1958: Chinese bombard island of Quemoy

Sept. 4 1958: Dulles warns of US intervention / Khrushchev refused to back the Chinese.

Oct. 6 1958: bombardment ended.

The Berlin Crisis:

Khrushchev announces that he intended handing over control of the city to the E. Germans and that
western allies would have to negotiate directly w/ them over access rights.
Why did Khrushchev take this action?

Prosperity of W. Berlin heightened problems of E. Germany.

3 million E. Germans had fled through Berlin since 1949.
West Berlin was an espionage center behind the ‘iron curtain´.
West Berlin was a western propaganda center.
More immediate reasons:

West Germany to join E.E.C. (integration w/ West)

Rapid rearmament of W. Germany.
Refusal of the West to recognize E. Germany.
To turn aside increasing criticism inside the USSR and from China that he was ‘going soft´.
To force the west to the bargaining table.
à Khrushchev gradually backed down

April 1958: Dulles resigned and dies the following month.

à Removes a ‘cold war warrior´ from control of US foreign policy.

1959: Two Foreign Ministers Meetings were held / Khrushchev visited the USA and w/ Eisenhower stated:

"…that all outstanding international question should be settled not by the application of force but by
peaceful means through negotiation."

Khrushchev agreed to attend a summit meeting in Paris in 1960.

The U-2 Incident:

May 5: Khrushchev announced that 4 days previously an American plane had been shot down while
flying over the Soviet Union.
CIA agent Powers held by Soviets
Khrushchev´s reponse stresses that it was very likely that Eisenhower had known nothing of the plane´s
flight / thus it was w/ studied moderation that he responded to the incident.
Eisenhower authorizes Herter (Sec. Of State) to assert that the US had the right to spy on the Soviet
Union.
May 11: Eisenhower assumes personal responsibility for the flights and did not indicate he was going to
stop them (did stop them but did not make the decision public)
Khrushchev nevertheless went to Paris / told de Gaulle he could not participate until the U-2 affair was

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settled.
Eisenhower announced that further U-2 flights had been cancelled.
Khrushchev does not content himself w/ the mere announcement of the suspension (partly b/c "his
position in Moscow and within the Soviet bloc might [then] have been gravely weakened")
Khrushchev invited back to meeting in Paris but President Press Secretary issued a statement asserting
that Soviet participation at the 3 o´clock meeting would be taken as withdrawal of Khrushchev´s
conditions
Khrushchev is given a copy of the statement and the conference expires as on the following day he
makes a violent attack on Eisenhower.
à shifts blame for collapse of the summit from the American President to the ranting Russian leader.

By the early 1960s the Cold War situation was ripe for change b/c:

Sino-Soviet Split:

International relations not bipolar.

CCP attacked Khrushchev´s policies w/ regard to the West / brought in the open w/ a series of articles
published in CCP newspaper ‘Red Flag´ entitled ‘Long Live Leninism´.
Reasons for the Split:

Inevitable challenge to Soviet supremacy amongst world communist movement by China / Khrushchev
announced the sweeping 1956 changes w/out consulting Chinese angered them.
The two countries were at very different stages of post-revolution development (Chinese were closer to
their revolution and held far more revolutionary fervor than the Soviets)
Mao rejected Khrushchev´s argument that war was not inevitable and was opposed to ‘peaceful co-
existence´ (seen as betrayal of peoples who were still struggling to be free)
Bipolarity was challenged as former European power became independent states (many showed great
interest in the non-aligned movement)
Revolutionary fervor in the USSR was becoming a thing of the past: more and more Soviet leaders had
not experienced the 1917 Revolution.
USA was entering its period of greatest prosperity and the consumer society was losing much of the
ideological fervor.
West Europe was recovered from the devastation of the war and was entering a period of prosperity /
feeling that having the future of European continent decided by the USA and USSR was not entirely
satisfactory.
à These factors were to result in the late 1960s in the policy known as détente.

1961, The Berlin Wall:

President Kennedy himself visited the city to show solidarity of USA w/ the citizens of W. Berlin and that
USA and allies would not allow Berlin to be taken over by E. Germany.
Reasons for:

End the flow of East German citizens to w. Germany.

End the ease of contact btw East and West (which resulted in comparison of East/West Germany)
Put pressure on the west to negotiate over the future of Berlin and to try to obtain acceptance of the
regime in power in E. Germany.
The Cuban Missile Crisis:

1959: Batist overthrown by a rebellion led by Fidel Castro.

Feb. 1960: Castro signs a trade agreement w/ the USSR
USA — Cuba relations deteriorate / Eisenhower authorizes training of Cuban refugees for an eventual
attempt to overthrow Castro.
Jan. 1961: Bay of Pigs (landing of Cuban exiles) à fiasco.
Dec. 1961: Castro declared himself to be a Marxist à USA organizes expulsion of Cuba from the
Organization of American States.
June 1962: Cuba begins receiving shipments of arms from the Soviet Union.
October 1962: US spy planes flying over Cuba discover a number of missile launching sites capable of
firing rockets w/ nuclear warheads.

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October 22nd 1962: President Kennedy announces blockade of Cuba to prevent missile delivery (several
Soviet ships were heading for Cuba)
Fear of nuclear conflict escalates
October 28th 1962: Khrushchev backs down and orders return of Soviet ships / agreement worked out
btw USA and USSR.
The Agreement:

All Soviet missiles to be withdrawn from Cuba.

USA promised not to invade Cuba.
Results:

Hot-line established btw Kremlin and Washington to avoid the risk of nuclear war through a breakdown
in communications.
Aug. 1963: USSR and USA signed the first test ban treaty.
USSR realized it had been powerless to resist the US navy à determination to increase the strength of
the Soviet navy and obtain bases to allow operation all over the world.
Cuba became increasingly dependent upon the USSR / USA cut off all diplomatic and trade relations w/
her.
Contributed to the fall of Khrushchev.
Vietnam 1964-1975:

War ended in complete victory for communist forces

First major military defeat suffered by the USA
Major powers (USA/USSR and China) made sure that there was not direct great power conflict.
The Six Day War 1967:

Conflict btw Israelis and several Arab states.

Opportunity for the USSR to extend its influence in the region à extended conflict btw superpowers to
taking place all over the world.
De Gaulle and ‘Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals´:

1963-68: signals coming from Western allies were not clear to USSR.
Due to differences within the alliance arising from the foreign policy of de Gaulle.
De Gaulle worked towards a concept of a Europe united from the Atlantic to the Urals à making the point
that the area outlined had common interest sand ought therefore to develop a policy which was not
dictated by great power rivalry.
Reasons:

Long standing suspicions of the USA and GB (saw them as not being truly European power and having
different interests from FR and Germany)
Past treatment in the hands of the USA and GB (dating back to WWII): not been invited to conference of
the ‘Big Three´ / USA had agreed to supply GB with missiles but not France.
Desire to free Europe from the constraints of superpower politics.
To secure for France a more important say in world affairs.
Actions:

Refused to accept the Test Ban Treaty (1963)

Withdrew France from unified NATO command(1966)
Temporarily withdrew France from E.E.C. negotiations.
Signed a treaty of friendship w/ W. Germany.
Blocked British entry into the E.E.C.
Made efforts to improve relations w/ the USSR and the Eastern Bloc.
1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia:

Aug. 1968: reforming policies of new Czech leader, Dubcek, prompted armed intervention by Warsaw
Pact forces.
The West went no further than condemning the intervention.
à Breshnev Doctrine: Breshnev explained the intervention by stating that if counter-revolutionary forces

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threatened the progress that had been made in any socialist state then it was a concern for all socialist
states and not simply an internal matter.

Argued that event in 1968 in .CZ contributed to the climate of détente by making clear the positions of
the USA and USSR and the limits to what they would accept in areas in which their influence was
paramount.

Détente

Definition: ‘relaxation of tension´ / used to describe the policies of the USA and the USSR (and their
allies) aimed at normalizing relations in the period beginning 1968.

Reasons for ‘détente´:

A. U.S.S.R.

Desire to obtain a final settlement of the political situation in Eastern and Central Europe: since there
had been no peace treaty w/ Germany at end WWII and western allies never recognized the territorial
changes.
Deterioration of relations btw USSR and China, meant the USSR wanted to settle its frontiers in the west
so it could face the Chinese threat.
Improve the standard of living of the citizens of the USSR: two reasons:
Allow more funds to be devoted to the production of consumer goods.
Facilitate the importation of advanced western technology.
B. U.S.A.

Given situation in Vietnam the USA wanted to improve relations w/ the USSR partly to avoid being
overtaxed but also to bring the conflict in Vietnam to an end w/out humiliation.
Election of Republican Nixon in 1968: easier to move towards détente b/c he had a strong anti-
Communist record and could not be accused of ‘selling out´ the USA.
It was recognized (esp. after Prague 1968) that the political situation in Europe could not be changed by
force w/out a major nuclear conflict.
à Both sides were also motivated by a desire to slow down the arms race since real superiority was no
longer a viable foreign policy objective in the nuclear weapons arena.

C. Europe

No hope of changing the status quo by any means other than negotiation.
Desire to reduce the extent to which their actions were limited by the relations btw the superpowers.
Well aware that their countries would form the theatre of any ‘limited´ nuclear conflict btw the
superpowers.

The main Events:

1963 — First W. German move to normalize relations w/ the states of E. Europe.

1966 — President Johnson stated that Europe could only look forward to a secure future if differences
btw east and west were negotiated.

1967 — Harmel Report (concerning future of NATO) looks forward to détente: "Military security and a
policy of détente are not contradictory but complementary.

1969 — Warsaw Pact calls for a conference on European Security.

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Sept. 28th 1969 — Brandt became the Chancellor of West Germany and began to implement his
‘Ostpolitik´.

The Main Areas of Progress in Détente to 1975

Military:
1967 — Outer Space Treaty.
1968 — Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
1971 — Seabed Pact
1972 — Biological Warfare Treaty
1972 — S.A.L.T. I (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty)
Economic: trading btw USA and USSR increased rapidly /
Export of high technology from the USA to the USSR
Opening of US trade complex in Moscow and vice-versa
Mutual access to ports.
à Also increased trade btw USSR-Europe and W.-E. Europe.

Scientific: Co-operation in several areas:

Pollution control.
Cancer and heart disease research.
1975 — Space (Soyuz and Apollo space crafts docked)
Political:
Exchanges of visits by the leaders of the USA and USSR.
The ‘High Point´ of Détente

European Conference on Security and Co-operation

(Helsinki Agreement — 1975)

Recognition of the territorial status quo.

Co-operation in humanitarian and other fields / granting of greater freedom of movement for people,
ideas and the press.
Co-Operation in the field of economics, science and technology, and of the environment.
Creation of a ‘review mechanism´ in the form of future conferences to map out new areas for co-
operation.

Détente was soon in serious trouble b/c of a number of events which exposed difficulties:

Groups in the USSR and E. Europe had been set up to monitor human rights progress à by 1980 these
groups had been suppressed.
Soviet actions in Africa: using Cuban troops the USSR was by 1979 involved in many African states
including Angola, Mozambique, and Ethiopia / Soviet action in the ‘Horn of Africa´ was sensitive b/c it lay
so close to the oil supply routs from the Middle East.
Moralistic tone of early Carter presidency and the increasing emphasis placed upon ‘linkage´: détente in
areas of interest for the USSR should be linked to ‘good behavior´ from the USSR elsewhere in the world.

1977 — NATO countries agree to increase defense contribution by 3% (response to Soviet military
buildup)
Revolution in Iran (1978/79) à destabilized a vital region.
Action of Vietnam (i.e.: invasion and occupation of Cambodia)
Sept. 1979 — Carter protests at presence of 3,000 Soviet combat troops in Cuba.
Dec. 1979 — USSR invaded Afghanistan: condemnation of USSR in UN General assembly and worldwide
protests
Grain embargo on the USSR + boycott of 1980 olympics.

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Election of Ronald Reagan (determined to respond to ‘a growing Soviet threat´)
What reasons lay behind the collapse of détente?

The main partners each hoped to gain something different.

Political and socio-economic characteristics of both USA and USSR remained unchanged: the potential
for conflict had only been obscured by détente but not really reduced.
Changes within the USA (setback in Iran / hostage crisis) à mood moved away from a desire to
compromise (manifest in victory of Ronald Reagan in 1980)
USSR had not given up its desire to progress towards an eventual ‘universal, stateless, classless society
´: i.e.: détente seemed to be restricted to Europe.
The View of the USA:

Soviets were exploiting détente: getting access to western markes and yet they refused to accord
human rights and carried out a massive military buildup.
Further détente must involve ‘linkage´.
USA had fallen dangerously bhind the USSR in both nuclear and conventional forces.
Afghanistan was seen as proof of the Soviet world domination plan.
The View of the USSR:

Détente broke down as a consequence of growing economic depression in the west.

There was interference in the internal affairs of the USSR(i.e.: over human rights issues)
Failure of USA to ratify S.A.L.T. II (after Carter had signed in 1979)

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