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1 January 2003 45
Cell-surface display allows peptides and proteins to be purposes [13,14]; and detection of single amino acid changes
displayed on the surface of microbial cells by fusing in the target peptides after random mutagenesis [15].
them with the anchoring motifs. The protein to be dis- There are several reviews on the applications of cell sur-
played – the passenger protein – can be fused to an face display [16 – 19] – here, we review recent advances in
anchoring motif – the carrier protein – by N-terminal the development of microbial cell-surface display systems,
fusion, C-terminal fusion or sandwich fusion. The focusing on the characteristics of carrier and passenger
characteristics of carrier protein, passenger protein and proteins affecting the efficiency of surface display.
host cell, and fusion method all affect the efficiency of
surface display of proteins. Microbial cell-surface display Carrier protein (anchoring motif)
has many potential applications, including live vaccine During the 1990s, many different carrier proteins (anchor-
development, peptide library screening, bioconversion ing motifs) were developed for the surface display of pro-
using whole cell biocatalyst and bioadsorption. teins. The use of different carriers often results in different
physiological effects on host cells. For example, using
The first surface expression system was developed by proteins that are essential for cellular functions or struc-
George P. Smith in the mid-1980s, who displayed – on the tures, such as outer membrane proteins and subunits of
surface of bacteriophage – the peptides and small proteins cellular appendages, might lead to growth defects and
fused with the pIII protein of the filamentous phage [1]. destabilization of cell envelope integrity. A successful
Since then, various phage display systems have been carrier should meet the following four requirements: it
developed to express foreign proteins on the surface of the should have an efficient signal peptide or transporting
phage. However, the size of foreign protein to be displayed signal to allow premature fusion protein to go through the
on the surface of phage is rather limited [2]. The microbial inner membrane; it should have a strong anchoring struc-
cell-surface display system was developed to solve this ture to keep fusion proteins on the cell surface without
problem and for several other unique applications. Micro- detachment; it should be compatible with the foreign
bial cell-surface display is carried out by expressing a sequences to be inserted or fused (i.e. the carrier should
heterologous peptide or protein of interest (the passenger not become unstable on the insertion or fusion of hetero-
or target protein) as a fusion protein with various anchor- logous sequences); and it should be resistant to attack by
ing motifs, which are usually cell-surface proteins or their proteases present in the periplasmic space or medium.
fragments (carrier proteins). Depending on the character- Each type of carrier has different characteristics and
istics of passenger and carrier proteins, C-terminal fusion, might thus be useful for specific applications. For example,
N-terminal fusion or sandwich fusion strategy can be bacterial fimbriae, S-layer proteins, ice nucleation pro-
considered. tein (INP) and some outer membrane proteins (such as
Microbial cell-surface display has a wide range of bio- Escherichia coli TraT) are efficient carriers for immuno-
technological and industrial applications (Fig. 1) includ- stimulation purposes [3,20,21] and are therefore particu-
ing: live vaccine development to expose heterologous larly useful for developing recombinant vaccines.
epitopes on human commensal or attenuated pathogenic The location in the carrier for the insertion or fusion of
bacterial cells to elicit antigen-specific antibody responses peptide or protein to be displayed is important because it
[3,4]; screening-displayed peptide libraries by sequential influences the immobilization efficiency, stability, specific
binding and elution or, more efficiently, by fluorescence- activity and post-translational modification of the fusion
activated cell sorting [5,6]; antibody production by express- protein. For example, four positions in FimA (amino acids
ing surface antigens to raise polyclonal antibodies in at positions 25, 45, 80 and 105) were examined as fusion
animals [7]; bioadsorbents for the removal of harmful sites for inserting the neutralizing epitopes of the cholera
chemicals and heavy metals [8–11]; whole-cell biocatalysts toxin B chain. Three positions (amino acids at positions 25,
by immobilizing enzymes [12]; biosensor development by 45 and 80) were compatible but one of them (amino acids
anchoring enzymes, receptors or other signal-sensitive at position 105) was not [22]. In another example, 11
components for diagnostic, industrial or environmental potentially permissive sites of Caulobacter crescentus
S-layer protein were examined as fusion sites to display
Corresponding author: Sang Yup Lee (leesy@mail.kaist.ac.kr). heterologous peptides but nine of them resulted in
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46 Review TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.21 No.1 January 2003
Host strain
Antibody production Oral vaccines
Selection of a host strain for surface display is an
important factor that cannot be neglected. A good host
Screening of peptide libraries should be compatible with the protein to be displayed and
Cytosol should be easy to cultivate without cell lysis. Also, the host
strain should have low activities of cell wall associated and
Mutation detection extracellular proteases. It was shown that cholera toxin B
Whole-cell subunit (CtxB) was displayed successfully in an ompT
biocatalyst for (encoding the outer membrane protease T, OmpT) nega-
bioconversion tive strain but was released into the medium in a wild-type
Biosensor strain possessing intact OmpT [26,27]. For Gram-negative
TRENDS in Biotechnology bacteria, including E. coli, the fragility of outer membrane
caused by the display of proteins can be a problem.
Fig. 1. Applications of microbial cell surface display.
Nevertheless, E. coli is still an attractive host because the
availability various genetic tools and mutant strains and
the high transformation efficiency makes it an ideal host
proteolysis of the fusion peptides [23]. Therefore, it is for screening a large peptide or protein library after
important to identify the best fusion or insertion site surface display.
between the carrier and the passenger proteins. Gram-positive bacteria seem to be more suitable for
Because the protein to be displayed should face towards whole-cell catalysts and whole-cell adsorbents because of
the surrounding medium, it is necessary to identify the the rigid structure of their cell walls; Bacillus and
regions of the carrier protein that are exposed outside the Staphylococcus strains have been used most often. Screen-
cells. There are several ways to do this, the simplest, and ing of peptide and protein libraries displayed on the sur-
most efficient, method is homology comparison. Aligning face of Gram-positive bacteria has not yet been reported.
the sequence of the carrier protein with its homologous Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a good host for surface display
variants of known structure can suggest potential expo- of proteins and has several advantages over other bacteria.
sure sites. Xu and Lee used this approach to identify eight First, it is generally recognized as safe, which allows its
external loops of E. coli OmpC and successfully used one of use in food and pharmaceutical applications. Second, its
them to display poly-histidine peptides [11]. Another protein folding and secretory machineries are similar to
method is calculating the hydropathy profile of the carrier those of mammalian cells, which allows display of mam-
using predictive algorithms or computer programs [24]. If malian proteins better than bacterial system. Third, its
these methods cannot provide answers, another, experi- fermentation characteristics are well-known and fourth,
mentally more demanding, method can be used: reporter passenger proteins can be displayed by linking to the cell
sequences can be inserted randomly into the primary wall via a glycosyl phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or by
sequence of the carrier protein to detect the presence of disulfide bonds.
reporter protein on the cell surface.
Surface display systems developed for Gram-negative
Passenger protein (target protein) bacteria
The passenger protein to be displayed is selected by the Gram-negative bacteria possess a complex cell envelope
required application. However, it should be noted that structure that consists of cytoplasmic membrane, peri-
passenger proteins themselves also influence the trans- plasm and outer membrane. This means that the surface-
location process and final surface display. Different pas- anchoring motif, fused with the protein to be displayed,
senger proteins fused to the same carrier protein are should pass through the cytoplasmic membrane and
transported to the different locations in the same host periplasm to the outer membrane. The targeting and
strain [25]. The characteristics of passenger proteins are anchoring mechanisms of carrier proteins vary among
known to affect transportation process significantly. The the different surface proteins and different approaches
folding structure of the passenger protein (such as the have been used to develop successful display systems.
formation of disulfide bridges) at the periplasmic side of As shown in Table 1, most of carrier proteins developed
the outer membrane can affect its translocation [26,27]. In to date are based on the outer membrane proteins.
addition, the insertion of amino acid sequences containing Hoischen et al. [29] described a novel system that allows
many charged residues or hydrophobic residues results in display of recombinant proteins on the cytoplasmic
inefficient secretion in bacteria. Passenger protein con- membrane using the L-form cells of E. coli and Proteus
taining four phenylalanine residues could not be displayed mirabilis. Fig. 2a shows various anchoring motifs that
on the cell surface because of inefficient secretion [28]. have been used for the surface display of proteins in Gram-
However, the protein could be displayed successfully when negative bacteria.
phenylalanine residues were either deleted or substituted Various gene fusion strategies can be considered in
by serine residues [28]. However, when this strategy of Gram-negative bacteria. The N-terminal fusion approach
changing amino acid sequences is used, it should be noted is suitable when the carrier protein possesses a directing
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Review TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.21 No.1 January 2003 47
and anchoring domain in its C-terminus part. Peptidogly- bovine adrenodoxin (Adx) on the cell surface. This system
can-associated lipoprotein (PAL) is a typical carrier pro- can be used for whole-cell steroid bioconversion [30]. When
tein of this type. PAL binds to the peptidoglycan layer with the cholera toxin B subunit (CtxB) was displayed using
its C-terminal portion and to the outer membrane with its this system, the passenger domain was released from the
N-terminal cysteine modified by a lipid moiety [13]. cell surface by protease cleavage within the linker space
Members of the immunoglobulin A (IgA) protease family [26]. Shigella VirG protein, which is responsible for the
contain C-terminal autotransporter structures that pro- deposition of filamentous actin, has been used as an
mote the translocation of the N-terminally attached anchoring motif for displaying PhoA and MalE on the
passenger domains across the outer membrane [27]. The surface of E. coli [24].
C-terminal domain forms porin-like b-barrel channels on Several outer membrane proteins carry targeting
the outer membrane to facilitate the transportation of the sequences on their N-termini. These proteins can be
N-terminal passenger domain. E. coli adhesion protein used as carrier proteins to construct display systems by
AIDA-I was used as an anchoring motif to display dimeric C-terminal fusion method. The Lpp – OmpA hybrid is a
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48 Review TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.21 No.1 January 2003
Lipoprotein Plasma
membrane (c) Poly-histidine linker
LacY, SecY
162 aa LQVDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLD
PSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLDPSGHHHHHHSGLEDILQSKG
PUL complex
IgA protease
Pullulanase L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L8
T S GVT
N NG
R L7
E. coli OmpC F D
A N
TA A Y
I GSL G
T Q R G
L Q G V GW GR Y
N KD NE N SW G E A L TR D A
D VD E T D Q R A N R
N N
D
QF G
S A N V M N G Q D G T K K E
D
N I
G V L F G S N D A G
F S S T A K D D N
D D P N F P G R N S I
W R Q D T
Y Q N E D A N D
Flagellar OUT H T G T
Y
V F S T G G
K
S
A
E
Y
T
N
F
Q
L
L
K L
L
N
D
L Y Q R V G G Y N V S T Q E Y Y N I
G M V G Y K G V I V
I A DT S Y T A A
D R G R G D K
L F G Y A
V Q T V
G Q A I L V Y L
Outer K Y N
Y S
G
Q
A G
F G Q D G
Membrane G Y I A A S
K L V G Q A V L
Y G K N T A T A
E G L P T Y V
L E F F L Y
Y Y T Y
D T W Q R D N G K R
D Y Q Y
L Q D L S Q
K V Q V G F G Y I Y I F L F M F
N T G
S F D G
G
A EV
IN G D
Q Y
F D Y G L
V E
G F
DA
N
N D F G N
K N
Y N KD L TG
TRENDS in Biotechnology
Fig. 2. Cell surface display systems in Gram-negative bacteria; green circles represent heterologous passenger proteins. (a) Surface display systems developed in Gram-
negative bacteria. The patents describing these display systems are as follows: S-layer protein (US5874267), OmpC (US6274345), PhoA (US535697), OprF (WO9324636),
OmpA (DE4243770, EP0474891), lipoprotein (WO950479), IgA protease (WO9735022), Pilin (WO9410330), Lpp –OmpA (WO9310214, WO9849286), INP (WO9737025,
WO9967366, WO0246388) and Flagella (WO006010). (b) Cell-surface display system using ice nucleation protein (INP), which is a representative example of the N-terminal
fusion method. The INP is the most stable and useful carrier to express foreign proteins as large as 60 kDa. (c) Cell-surface display system using E. coli outer membrane pro-
tein C, which is a representative example of sandwich fusion method. In this system, poly-histidine (poly-His) peptides of up to 162 amino acids could be inserted into the
seventh external loop (L7) of OmpC and could be efficiently exposed on the E. coli cell surface.
good example of this type. An Lpp – OmpA chimera alkaline phosphatase are displayed by the C-terminal
consists of the signal sequence and first nine N-terminal fusion method using pullulanase as an anchoring motif.
residues of the mature E. coli lipoprotein, and the residues However, pullulanase seems to be unsuitable as a carrier
46 – 159 or 46 – 66 of the E. coli outer membrane protein A protein in most cases, unless its release from the cell
(OmpA) [8,12]. The Lpp part is necessary for proper surface can be prevented.
localization to the outer membrane; the OmpA part is Sandwich fusion is the most commonly used strategy for
responsible for the transportation of foreign proteins fused the surface display of proteins in Gram-negative bacteria.
at the C-terminus across the outer membrane. Three classes of proteins have been used as carrier pro-
Pesudomonas syringae ice nucleation protein (INP) is teins: outer membrane proteins (OMPs), subunit proteins
another popular anchoring motif that has been used of extracellular appendages and S-layer proteins.
successfully to display by C-terminal fusion several pro- OMPs form transmembrane b-barrels on the outer
teins, including levansucrase [31], carboxymethylcellulase membrane. The b-Barrels are composed of antiparallel
(CMCase) [32], salmobin [33] and organophosphorus hydrol- b-strand pairs connected by short loops on the periplasmic
ase (OPH) [34]. INP is an outer membrane protein found in side and by long loops on the external side. The external
Erwinia, Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas. It nucleates ice loops are generally less conservative and therefore seem to
formation in supercooled water and causes frost injury to be tolerant to a certain degree of modification, such as
plants. Its internal repeats serve as templates for ice substitution, insertion and deletion. These external loops
nucleation and the length of this region is adjustable in- can potentially be used as fusion sites for the display of
frame [31,32]. It will therefore be possible to display pep- heterologous proteins. It has generally been believed that
tides or proteins using INP motifs of different lengths, the external loops of OMPs could only accept foreign
which increases the likelihood of avoiding potential steric peptides of 70 amino acids or less owing to the disruption of
hindrance among the displayed proteins. Whereas most membrane integrity of carrier protein [18]. This limitation
cell-surface display systems are limited in the size of also applies when bacterial surface appendages are used
foreign protein that can be expressed, the INP-based as sandwich fusion partners. However, it has more
system can express proteins as large as 60 kDa (Fig. 2b). recently been demonstrated that the E. coli OmpC could
Klebsiella pneumoniae pullulanase, an extracellular be used as a sandwich fusion partner, displaying much
enzyme, stays on the cell surface temporarily by means of longer polypeptides of 162 amino acids, which is the
the fatty acid attached to its N-terminal cysteine and is largest peptide inserted to date using the sandwich fusion
gradually released into the medium [35]. b-Lactamase and method [11] (Fig. 2c). The E. coli LamB, which is a
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Review TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.21 No.1 January 2003 49
current applications. Almost all of the cell-surface display as a carrier protein. More examples of displaying mam-
systems developed for yeast are GPI anchor-dependent. S. malian proteins on the surface of yeast are expected to
cerevisiae a-agglutinin has widely been used to display appear.
various peptides and proteins such as hepatitis B virus
surface antigen, lipase, glucoamylase, green fluorescent A peek at the future development
protein (GFP) and blue fluorescent protein (BFP) [14,41]. Despite the successful development of various cell-surface
Some newly identified yeast cell-wall proteins, such as display systems, problems remain to be solved and
Cwp1p, Cwp2p, Tip1p, Tir1p/Srp1p and Sed1p, have been improvements to be made. For example, questions have
proven capable of displaying of a-galactosidase [40] and been raised over the quality of the peptide library dis-
GFP on the surface of S. cerevisiae. Notably, sixfold to played on the cell surface because of the potential bias
eightfold higher levels of a-galactosidase could be dis- introduced by the sequence-dependent variation in expres-
played by using Cwp2p and Sed1p instead of a-agglutinin sion level. In the development of whole-cell biocatalysts by
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Review TRENDS in Biotechnology Vol.21 No.1 January 2003 51
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