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ICTs may be the only way to recapture the real world of science and mathematics and reopen it to the
learner. They can animate, simulate, capture reality, add movement to static concepts, and extend our touch
to the whole universe.
This article explores the gap between the world of scientists and that of science education in developing
countries and introduces a program that is attempting to bridge this gap.
14 The Potential of Technologies for the Enhancement of Science and Mathematics Teaching and
Learning
Wadi Haddad and Sonia Jurich
The authors review the potential of technologies in motivating learning, decoding concepts, reinforcing the
basics, applying knowledge, enhancing exploration, bringing the world into the classroom and creating
collaborative environments.
The Jason Project was created to encourage scientists and students to collaborate on research expeditions
using advanced communications technologies. This article describes this project and the benefits it has
brought to all involved.
Information and communication technologies provide the tools for a “learning by doing” strategy that
increases students’ awareness of science as a lively and highly relevant subject. This article presents two
examples of Internet-based collaborative environments for science education using the “learning by doing”
approach: GLOBE and CSILE.
27 International Virtual Education Network (IVEN) for the Enhancement of Science and Math
Learning in Latin America
Wadi D. Haddad, Coordinating Adviser, IVEN
IVEN is a pilot collaborative cross-country project in Latin America that aims to harness the potential of
information and communication technologies by combining conceptions of effective learning with appropriate
computer, video and communication technologies.
The article outlines efforts in reforming science, mathematics, and technology education and describes the
kind of professional development programs that Project 2061 has designed for Panama and the plans for
scaling up such programs at a national level.
The IMMEX project offers an innovative, problem-solving software system that is designed to pose complex,
real-life problems to students, for which there are multiple solution pathways.
"For Maria Elena, the TALC is a window to the world, allowing her to access up-to-date medical articles and
e-mail family and friends. Her education and personal satisfaction have taken a quantum leap."
This article explores the advantages, forms, uses and costs of web-based simulations, and provides 8
examples of simulations for mathematics and science instruction.
This article reviews evaluation studies of effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and explores
the question of whether computer tutorials should be adopted.
45 Interactive Radio Instruction for Mathematics: Applications and Adaptations from Around
the World
Andrea Bosch, Education Development Center
Fourteen applications of IRI in mathematics have been developed in 12 countries worldwide. The author
reviews these programs, their evolution, their effectiveness in terms of learning gains, outreach, and decrease
in gender gaps, and their cost-effectiveness.
The technologies underlying computer and Web instruction offer new opportunities to ascertain the actual
instruction taking place with computers or the Web and new means of measuring the student outcomes.
55 Sources of Objective Assessment of Web and Multi-media Learning Materials in Science and
Mathematics
Norma Garcia and Laurence Wolff, Inter-American Development Bank
This article describes some web sites that offer non-commercial, objective judgement of the quality of web-
and software-based science and mathematics educational materials.
sciLINKS, an innovative initiative by the National Science Teachers Association, harnesses the power of the
Internet by linking relevant, age-appropriate, peer-reviewed Web pages to the pages of science textbooks by
placing sciLINKS icons and codes in textbook margins at key subject areas.
This issue of TechKnowLogia presents selected Math and Science web sties of interest to readers of all
ages. These sites cover the spectrum of simulations, animations, problem solving, lesson plans, exhibits, and
related links in English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Chinese.
Animation has progressed extensively since the coming of the digital revolution. Animation software comes in
a variety of forms; each configured toward a highly specialized need. This article explores several varieties of
animation software and their uses.
This article summarizes a study on the use of distance education in the nine high-population countries (E-9)
to achieve basic education for all.
The Joint Board of Teacher Education of the Western caribbean, identified information and communication
technologies as a critical resource to improve the quality of teacher education through the better
management of their operations. This article describes the development of a College Manager Information
System and database - conceived and executed with no external assistance - and the experiences gained
and lessons learned.
Management Science and Math e-Learning for Social Studies Early Childhood Language
of Education Education the Work Place Development and Education
Systems Parental
Education
• Experiments that are too risky, expensive or time con- ADVISORY EDITORIAL COMMITTEE:
Joanne Capper, Sr. Education Specialist, World Bank
suming to be conducted in a school laboratory, such as Claudio Castro, Chief Education Adviser, IDB
those involving volatile gases; Gregg Jackson, Assoc. Prof., George Washington Univ.
• “Tidy” experiments that require precision so that stu- James Johnson, Deputy Director, GIIC
dents can see patterns and trends; students may not be Frank Method, Dir., Washington Office, UNESCO
Laurence Wolff, Sr. Consultant, IDB
able to achieve the necessary precision without simula- Mary Fontaine, LearnLink, AED
tion tools; Sonia Jurich, Consultant
• Experiments that break the laws of nature, such as ex-
ploring kinematics collisions that violate conservation of MANAGING EDITOR:
Sandra Semaan
momentum law; and
• When ethical issues are at stake, such as in the case of GENERAL QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS
some biology experiments. FEEDBACK ON ARTICLES
EDITORIAL MATTERS:
TechKnowLogia@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
Simulations should not totally replace hands-on activities.
They should rather prepare the learner to conduct real-life SPONSORSHIP AND ADVERTISING
experiments - in the same manner that flight simulations pre- Sandra@KnowledgeEnterprise.org
pare the student-pilot for test flying.
ADDRESS AND FAX
Knowledge Enterprise, Inc.
Beyond Replication P.O. Box 3027
Oakton, VA 22124
U.S.A.
If technology-enhanced programs are taped classrooms, Fax: 703-242-2279
digital texts and PowerPoint transparencies, then we are
missing on the tremendous potential of technologies that can This Issue is Co-Sponsored By:
animate, simulate, capture reality, add movement to static
UNESCO,
concepts, and extend our touch to the whole universe. With Academy for Educational Development (AED),
imagination and appropriate tools, we can steal the thunder Educational Testing Service (ETS)
and touch the lightening!
Wadi D. Haddad
• The brain downshifts under perceived threats and learns optimally when appropriately challenged;
• Concepts are learned best when they arise in a variety of contexts, are represented in a variety of ways, and when students
have a chance to use the concepts on authentic tasks;
• Learning to do well involves practice in doing. Students cannot learn to think critically, analyze information, communicate
scientific ideas, make logical arguments, work as part of a team, and acquire other desirable skills unless they are permit-
ted and encouraged to do those things over and over in many contexts; and,
• Effective learning requires feedback. Students must be able to feel free to express ideas and to receive analysis and com-
ment from their peers. Such feedback helps students reflect on their ideas and performance, and see relationships among
items of knowledge and test their validity.
Instructional Implications
These new understandings are leading to enhanced instructional programs in sciences that have the following characteristics:
• Hands-on: Students are actually allowed to perform science (directly and vicariously) as they construct meaning and ac-
quire understanding. It takes these subjects out of the realm of the magical or extraordinary.
• Minds-on: Activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop higher-order thinking processes and skills, and
encouraging them to question and seek answers that enhance their knowledge and thereby acquire an understanding of the
physical universe in which they live.
• Reality-on: Students are presented with problem-solving activities that incorporate authentic, real-life questions and issues
in a format that encourages drawing on multi-disciplinary knowledge, collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert
sources, and generalization to broader ideas and application. The objective is to promote students’ insight into the real sci-
entific, technological, business and every-day world, and the skills needed to live and work effectively.
Views of Learner Passive; vessel receiving knowledge Active; connecting prior knowledge
from external sources to new formal knowledge
Principle Implications
Thinking is a continual process and is fundamental to Instruction should provide opportunities for thinking
learning mathematics. The development of mathematical and reasoning throughout the math curriculum; basic
thinking does not linearly follow the acquisition of basic skills instruction should not be separated from thinking
skills. skills instruction; if students practice skills before they
understand the underlying concepts, they will have
difficulty learning the conceptual knowledge later and
lack the power to use mathematics.
Thinking and knowledge are not separate components of Students must be provided opportunities to construct
mathematical competency but rather are highly related. mathematical knowledge through thinking and rea-
The quality of mathematical thinking and reasoning is de- soning, and to think and reason with their mathemati-
pendent on what one knows, and the development of what cal knowledge, as they attempt to make sense of their
one knows is dependent on mathematical thinking. experiences through real world problem solving.
Students actively construct knowledge through doing and Instruction should help students understand mathe-
problem solving rather than by passively assimilating infor- matical concepts rather than just give them isolated
mation from the teacher and textbook. facts and procedures. Students should solve problems
in order to construct formal mathematics knowledge
(e.g. representing physical events with algebraic sym-
bolism).
Problems are solved in various ways and knowledge is of- Students should be encouraged to solve mathematical
ten constructed by groups of people. problems collaboratively, listen to and challenge each
other, and value different problem solving approaches.
Instructional Implications
Just as in science, these understandings are leading to enhanced instructional mathematics programs that have the following
characteristics:
• Hands-on, involving students in really doing mathematics - experimenting first-hand with physical and simulated objects
and mathematical constructs before learning abstract mathematical concepts.
• Minds-on, focusing on the core concepts and critical thinking processes and skills needed for students to create and re-
create mathematical concepts and relationships in their own minds.
• Reality-on, allowing students to explore, discover, discuss, and meaningfully construct mathematical concepts and rela-
tionships in contexts that involve real-world problems and projects that are relevant and interesting to the learner.
Benefits
A hands-on, minds-on and reality-on approach makes science and math education:
• Engaging in the sense that students are involved in the learning process and not viewed simply as “receptacles” for
knowledge;
• Authentic, since what they are learning has meaning to them as individuals, as members of society, and as workers in the
market place; and,
• Sustainable in the sense that the students are quipped with modern tools for life-long learning.
1
Some parts of this article have benefited from materials posted on NCREL’s web site: http://www.ncrel.org
2
Mindshifts: A Brain-based Process for Restructuring Schools and Renewing Education, by Geoffrey Caine, Renate Nummela
Caine, and Sam Crowell, Tucson: Zephyr Press, 1994.
1
Molly Teas, Former Program for Capacity Building in Science (PCBS) Program Director and now a consultant to the pro-
gram. Yoshiko Koda, Human Development Network, Education Group, The World Bank. The views expressed in this article
are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed to their organizations.
2
TIMSS was originally conducted in 1995 for the 4th grade, 8th grade, and the final year of schools. In 1999 the study was re-
peated for the 8th grade (TIMSS-R). The 1999 study included 41 countries and data from 38 of those countries are publicly
available. The number of developing countries that participated in the study increased in 1999.
3
Classification of the country’s income level is based on the World Bank’s Edstats.
4
For a more comprehensive discussion on science education policy issues in developing countries, see Lewin 2000 and Cail-
lods 1997.
5
To Contact the ICSU Program for Capacity Building in Science:
Call: +1-202-326-6680 (Molly Teas AAAS), or write to:
Molly Teas or Shirley Malcom
ICSU Program for Capacity Building in Science (AAAS)
1200 New York Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20005-3920, USA
T
people relate to nature. The Internet brings into the schools
he famous astronomer Carl Sagan used to say that all the power of instruments that no school could ever afford.
At the web site of the Space Telescope Science Institute
children start out as scientists, full of curiosity and questions
(http://oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/), students can observe plan-
about the world, but schools eventually destroy their curios-
ets and stars through the lens of the Hubble Space Telescope.
ity. The first, and probably most challenging task in an ef-
At the Molecular Expressions Website
fective teaching/learning process is to motivate students to
(http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu), they may examine tiny insects
learn. For math and science teachers, this task can be even
under fluorescence microscopy, or study details of DNA
more daunting, since their subjects are highly abstract, com-
structure.
plex, and appear disconnected from the students’ reality.
New pedagogic methods indicate that students are motivated
when the learning activities are authentic, challenging, mul- Decoding Concepts
tidisciplinary and multisensorial. Authentic activities have a
close relationship to the “real world,” that is, to the students’
surroundings. They build on experiences that are meaningful
to the students and challenge their view of the world and
I CTs have the potential to improve the learning process in
their curiosity. Being authentic, these learning activities help different ways. As research suggests, the acquisition of sci-
to break the walls between different types of learning: lan- entific and mathematical concepts is similar to the acquisi-
guage, arts, mathematics or science. Through the use of tion of a new language. When confronted with verbal or
real-life stimuli, they cater to different types of learners - written material that has unfamiliar vocabulary, most people
visual, auditory, sensorial, and psychomotor. tend to shy away or openly reject the material. A similar
reaction occurs when students are confronted with strange
Computer-aided instruction (CAI) profits from three advan- In a chemistry class on acids and bases, students can use
tages of technology over the human brain: speed, memory simple spreadsheets to store a series of pH measurements for
power, and the capability to repeat tasks indefinitely without posterior analysis. Spreadsheets, different from paper-pencil
reducing performance. These programs offer students the process, store large amounts of data and provide immediate
opportunity to practice basic skills on their own time and visualization as tables, charts and graphics. This fast re-
pace. They function as automated tutors, presenting a hierar- sponse favors the detection of errors and new lines worthy of
chy of concepts and skills that the students need to master inquiry. Data logging is a type of software that enables the
before they are allowed to proceed to the next level. Gener- use of actual sensors and probes connected to the computer,
ally, the material is divided into modules of increasing diffi- as described in the above example about acceleration. Rather
culty. Students are evaluated at the end of each module, re- than feeding the information manually to the computer, the
ceiving an immediate feedback. If they respond correctly to sensor uploads the measurement, thus reducing the margin of
a determined percentage of questions, they can move to a error, and reproducing a situation that is closer to an actual
more advanced unit. Otherwise, they may either repeat the experiment. ICT has also the potential to link what is
module, or enter remedial modules, until they have mastered learned in the classroom to contexts that are familiar to the
the skill. Some programs integrate computer and textbook students. Through videos and video clips, students can see
instruction. Students who are struggling with a specific topic scientists working in environments to which they do not have
can practice the lesson as long as they need without the pres- access, and help them to visualize how the concepts learned
sure of their more advanced peers. The program can keep a are employed in real-life situations.
history of the students’ performance: the lessons they have
mastered, within how many attempts, the topics where they Computer simulations go a step further and enable teachers
A
could be done without the rats. After a lesson on models,
critical skill of a scientist is the ability to ask good students maintained online discussions with the scientists
about the validity of models for scientific research. They
questions and develop appropriate strategies to pursue the
reviewed data concerning bone growth and remodeling
answers. The inquiry process is a source of affective and
(adapted from the real database, which was found too diffi-
intellectual enjoyment and a main reason that many are
cult for the students to comprehend) and had to criticize the
drawn to science. This sense of adventure is taken away in a
evidence in terms of modeling assumptions. The project,
traditional classroom, where questions and answers are un-
which has been expanded, enabled students to go beyond the
related to students’ interests, and where research is reduced
acquisition of basic science concepts to developing critical
to a word in the textbook. The problem for many educators
thinking skills and appreciation for science with the support
is that “doing science” requires resources that are unavailable
of actual scientists.4
in traditional classrooms, such as large databases and well-
equipped laboratories.
Beyond the Classroom Walls
ICTs have the potential to let students explore the world in
cost-effective and safe ways. Videos and computer anima-
tions can bring movement to static textbook lessons. As de-
scribed before, spreadsheets can store and analyze data,
S cience and mathematics are universal disciplines of
while computer simulations enable vicarious experiences in knowledge that have no national barriers and can be applied
safe environments. Using these tools, students can initiate to all areas of life. However, the limited resources of tradi-
their own inquiry process, develop hypotheses and test them. tional classrooms create a false impression that the fields of
In a virtual reality setting, students can manipulate parame- science and mathematics are self-contained and have little
ters, contexts and environments, and try different scenarios. relationship with life outside school. Science and mathe-
In the process, they learn science and about science content matics teaching becomes theoretical, “bookish,” and to many
but also the reasoning behind the content, and the methods youth, boring.
utilized to reach scientific conclusions. Most of all, they
Endnotes
1
Adapted from: Haddad, Wadi D. and Jurich, Sonia (2000). Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for
the Enhancement of Science and Mathematics Education: A Review of Research, Methodologies and Tools. Washington, DC:
Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. (Unpublished)
2
For a description of simulations for skills training and medical use, see Castro, Wolff & Garcia’s “Skills Training:
Where Simulations are at Home,” and Jurich’s “Technology for Skill Training: A Medical Affair” in the July/August 2000 is-
sue of TechKnowLogia.
3
Rodrigues, S. (1997). Review of Computer Based Technologies on Students’ Learning of School Science. Computers
across the Secondary Curriculum. Victoria Department of Education, Australia. Available at:
http://www.sofweb.vic.edu.au/lt/pdfs/chapter3.pdf.
4
Linn, M.C., Shear, L., Bell, P. & Slotta, J.D. (1999). Organizing Principles for Science Education Partnerships: Case
Studies of Students’ Learning about ‘Rats in Space’ and ‘Deformed Frogs’. Educational Technology Research & Develop-
ment, 47 (2): 61-84.
5
Scardamalia & Bereiter in Schacter, J. (1999). The Impact of Education Technology on Student Achievement: What
the Most Current Research Has to Say. Milken Exchange on Education Technology. Available at:
http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME161.pdf.
6
See at TechKnowLogia archives the following articles on educational use of radio and television that talk about
scripted lessons: “Are you Talkin’ to Me? Interactive Radio Instruction; ” Tilson’s “Ethiopia: Educational Radio and Televi-
sion;” Oujo’s “Radio – Wiring the School with Wireless;” and Castro, Wolff, & Garcia’s “Mexico’s Telesecundária: Bringing
Education by Television to Rural Areas.”
7
For instance, Jackson’s “Technology for Teacher Support” in the November/December 2000 issue of TechKnowLo-
gia. See also the WorthWhileWebs section in this issue.
Paradigm International Limited, a Nigerian software Omaha North High School is setting the example for the
development firm, launched a series of software that will paperless society. With over 1,000 computers for the
address the specific educational and technological needs of 2,200 students and 150 faculty, this high tech high-school
the country. The series includes Schools®, Lingua®, uses everything from email to Internet browsing to keep
PrintWatch® and PiHyper®. Schools® is a fully students connected, interested, and learned. Students and
customizable shareware package that can be used to teachers (and parents) communicate with each other over
manage the entire information system of Nursery, Primary email – everyone has an email account. Teachers have
and Secondary schools. Using multimedia, it can store, also developed their own web pages where students can
retrieve, query and report desired data about the staff, access lectures and lesson plans and read each other’s
students, inventory and accounts of an institution. It was writings, as in the case of teacher Brad Fuersts’ English
developed as shareware to encourage automation of class.
elementary schools as much as possible.
A marketing teacher at Omaha North, Lori Shea, says her
Lingua® is a word processor and translator for English, classroom is 98% paperless. "I was really bored with my
Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba and a custom language of the user's old teaching ways," she said. "Before, my idea of using
choice. The implications are that documents may be technology was to write out transparencies for the
produced on the computer with native dialects. This overhead. Now I can't even remember the last time I told
software will be useful to publishing outfits, religious them to get paper out to do something. They're literally
groups, multimedia and entertainment related using technology in everything they do."
organizations, local and foreign educational institutions,
business centers, individuals, foreigners and Nigerians in Despite being faced with the usual challenges of being so
the Diaspora. Chairman of Paradigm, Mr. Olumuyiwa high tech – students emailing “notes” during class, and
Asaolu, hopes that Lingua® will open up a new world of teachers that are reluctant to use new technologies –
printed and electronic literature such as in the production Omaha High continues to move forward and show the
and translation of indigenous textbooks, tracts, song books, world that this model can really work.
multi-captioned movies, etc. as well as enhance the
learning of other languages. "It's nice because there's no paper involved," said Brian
Bremer. "Every one of us - I mean every one - likes it."
PrintWatch® is an automatic printer monitoring
application that will record and can produce a month’s Source: Omaha World-Herald
worth of reports about the printing activities of a particular http://www.omaha.com/index.atp?u_div=3&u_hdg=5&u_s
printer or network and comes with built-in security that id=62927
makes the product "tamper-proof." PiHyper® is a tool for
software developers that will help produce more efficient
and robust programs. US-Based Online MBA Program
for Lebanese Students
Source: This Day, January 25, 2001
http://www.allafrica.com
Michigan-based Oakland University began offering, in
January 2001, an online MBA program for students in
Lebanon. This move was inspired by the fact that Detroit,
MTN, a large cellular company in South Africa, and SBS Ralph Appadoo, President and CEO of Sylvan
Africa Holdings Ltd., a leading IT firm, will be International Universities, announced in January, “Today
establishing a fully-equipped computer center at the three preeminent international private universities joined
Hantam Secondary School at Calvinia. The center will be together to become charter members of a global university
equipped with personal computers, printers, Diginet lines, network that will bring tangible benefits to each institution
telephones lines and network cabling. Software giant, and its students.” Universidad Europea de Madrid (UEM),
Microsoft, has also donated about R40,000 worth of Universidad del Valle de Mexico (UVM) and Universidad
software, including Windows 98, Office 2000 and de las Americas (UDLA) signed memoranda of
Encarata. Six people will be trained in computer skills and understanding calling for broad cooperation among the
applications. three institutions. Total student population of this network
reaches nearly 55,000 students. Sylvan will apply its
The center will help bring Hantam into the information “Sylvan Signature” approach to the networks’ programs.
age, as well as serve as a community learning center for This approach includes the integration of English
local businessmen and others to hone their computer skills. Language Proficiency, as well as the use of Information
MTN Chief Executive, Sifiso Dabengwa, says, "MTN is a Technology both as a learning tool and as subject matter.
young company, which started operations under the new
democratic government. Through its social vision it has To learn more about SIU and its programs, go to:
managed to position itself as a leader in understanding the http://www.sylvan.net.
needs of the community within which it does business. We
at MTN have dedicated ourselves towards helping the Source: Sylvan Learning Centers, Press Release, January
community. We are aware that MTN's contribution is only 18, 2001. http://www.sylvan.net
a drop in the ocean, but we believe our contribution will go
For me, it is all about answering the question “Why?”-- Dr. Robert Ballard
Imagine collecting arthropods in the treetops of the Amazon cational and scientific institutions. We then identified a di-
rainforest canopy, measuring the temperature of flowing lava verse group of scientists and experts who conduct ongoing
in Hawai’i, or descending in a submersible into the mysteri- research at our field locations and could share the excitement
ous depths of the Sea of Cortez. At your side is a research of their work with students and teachers. Some of our team
team made up of prominent scientists, top-notch teachers, members this year include: Sam Gon, director of science for
dedicated students, leading technology providers, and skilled the Nature Conservancy of Hawai’i, who uses GIS (Geo-
multimedia experts. Your mission is to search for answers to graphic Information Systems) and GPS (Global Positioning
science’s big questions. You are part of the JASON Project. System) tools to map and study Hawaiian ecosystems;
Luanne Johnson, conservation biologist for the USGS (U.S.
Twelve years ago, Dr. Robert Ballard (see box ) created the Geological Survey) Biological Resource Division, who man-
JASON Project to encourage scientists and students to col- ages a research and conservation project on the Palila honey-
laborate on research expeditions using advanced communi- creeper; Jim Kauahikaua, geophysicist for Hawaiian Volcano
cation technology. A prominent scientist, explorer, and edu- Observatory, who studies how lava flows using infrared
cator, Dr. Ballard and his visionary project have bridged the video and other tools, and Frank Howarth, an entomologist
scientific and education communities by making scientific with the Bishop Museum, who studies arthropod communi-
research an exciting adventure for students and teachers in ties living deep within Hawai’i’s lava tubes.
the classroom. The mission of the JASON Foundation for
Education, founded in 1990 to administer the JASON Proj-
ect’s year-long learning expeditions, is to bring the excite- Dr. Robert Ballard
ment of exploration and discovery to middle-school students
and teachers and help them to gain the scientific literacy and Dr. Robert D. Ballard founded the JASON Project in 1989
technological skills that they need for the future. after receiving thousands of letters from school children
wanting to know how he discovered the RMS Titanic. Dr.
There has been much recent debate about education reform Ballard is also the founder and head of the Institute for
and the level of student performance in math and science.1 At Exploration (IFE) in Mystic, Connecticut, an explorer in
the same time, the field of science education has experienced residence at National Geographic, and Commander in the
a rapid transformation in response to the increasing ubiquity
U.S. Naval Reserve.
of information technology. Amidst these heated battles and
changing times, the JASON Project, like its namesake Jason
of Greek mythology, is working hard not to lose sight of the Dr. Ballard has led or participated in more than 100 deep-
Golden Fleece.2 The quest for knowledge—to understand sea expeditions using deep-diving submersibles.
earth’s systems, to study life on earth, and to understand the These included the first manned exploration of the Mid-
technology that makes this research possible—is the driving Ocean Ridge, the discovery of warm water springs and
force behind the JASON Project. their unusual animal communities in the Galapagos Rift,
the first discovery of polymetallic sulfides, the discovery
I would like to share this ever-evolving experiment in sci- of high temperature black smokers, the discovery of
ence education with you by describing our experience with R.M.S. Titanic and the German battleship Bismarck, and
the JASON Project and then discuss some of the current
recent archaeological discoveries from the Black Sea
challenges and opportunities for science educators through-
out the world. floor.
*
Bram Duchovnay is the JASON Project Content Manager. For the last four years, he has worked on a variety of curriculum
development, evaluation, professional development, international, and online projects.
1
The National Science Board’s Preparing Our Children: Math and Science Education in the National Interest (page 3) ex-
plains that according to the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS), “U.S. students are not taught what
they need to know,” NSF (March 1999). For a different opinion, see W. Gibbs and D. Fox “The False Crisis in Science Educa-
tion,” Scientific American (October 1999).
2
The JASON Project takes it name from the Greek hero Jason, who in the mythology of the Western world was the first great
explorer to sail the seas. Over 3,000 years ago, according to legend, Jason outfitted a ship called the Argo and set out in search
of a famous golden fleece, the woolly hide of a golden ram. Jason took with him a crew that included the most famous of
Greek heroes and called his crew the Argonauts, a word that literally means "sailors (Greek nautes) on the Argo."
3
Some of our live broadcasts have been easier to coordinate than others. For example, during JASON X, JASON transformed
two barges from the local town of Iquitos, Peru into an enormous production studio and towed them several hours up the Ama-
zon river. Fortunately, these barges remained afloat. Nine years ago, ten days before our third expedition to the Galapagos Is-
lands, the barge carrying most of our expedition equipment sank in 9,000 feet of water. A historic recovery effort led by the
U.S. and Ecuadorian government and JASON supporters worldwide replaced the equipment and the broadcasts began on time.
4
Key government sponsors include National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Aeronautic and
Space Administration/Agency (NASA), Department of Education (DOE), and the Office of Naval Research (ONR).
5
Almost three-quarters of surveyed teachers reported that students’ class participation, interest in school, and attitudes towards
science activities improved as a result of the JASON Project, and 65 percent of surveyed teachers reported that they used
JASON materials to meet education standards, JASON X Evaluation Report, (September 1999).
6
Preparing Our Children reports that in the U.S. only 1 in 3 teachers feel prepared to teach life science and only 1 in 10 feel
prepared to teach physical science. Only 1 in 2 feel prepared to integrate computers into instruction. The CEO Report on Edu-
cation and Technology reports that only 20 percent of middle school teachers were science majors in college (February 1999).
Global Learning and Observations The students conduct measurements and analyze the data
to Benefit the Environment that are then sent to be stored in a central database. Scien-
tists utilize this data for their research. Data and findings
(GLOBE)
are available to all participants in numeric and graphic
representation, and ongoing communication between
GLOBE offers teachers and students, from kindergarten to
schools and scientists is maintained. To ensure that the
high school, the opportunity to participate in actual scien-
data collected is compatible, participant schools must use
tific research. The project, open to schools around the
the same software and measurement tools and must com-
world, focuses mostly on mapping and understanding pat-
ply with established scientific protocols (which are all on
terns and changes in three major areas: atmos-
their web page). In addition, the teachers receive training
phere/climate, hydrology/water chemistry, and land
and ongoing support.
cover/biology. The project, launched on Earth Day 1994,
is administered by an interagency partnership that includes
A four-year evaluation of GLOBE found that participating
some of the most renowned scientific organizations in the
students perform better than their peers in activities that
United States, including the National Oceanic and Atmos-
require understanding of science, including ability to inter-
pheric Administration (NOAA), the National Aeronautics
pret data and apply science concepts. They also showed a
and Space Administration (NASA), and the National Sci-
greater appreciation of science. In addition, the project
ence Foundation (NSF).
instills in the students pride for their work, which is taken
seriously by scientists and community members. Two
GLOBE has three main objectives: improve mathematics
examples demonstrate the reach of GLOBE.
and science education, raise environmental awareness, and
contribute to a worldwide scientific database about Earth.
In a USA town, a Fire Company asked a group of students
To attain these objectives, GLOBE scientists help teachers
who participated in the GLOBE project to examine the
and students develop meaningful science projects, such as
reason for a foul smell in their station. The students made
measurements of pH in the water or analyses of tempera-
a series of pH measurements of the local water supply and
ture readings to observe changing patterns. GLOBE proj-
became suspicious of gas pollution in the area. Govern-
ects can be implemented in different ways: as part of a
ment scientists, using the students’ measurements, were
science class, a separate class, a club, a lunch group, and
able to confirm a gas tank leak in the vicinity. The gas
any other creative venue. In kindergarten and grades 1-3,
was infiltrating the soil and causing health problems.
GLOBE teachers work with fewer than ten children per
From this experience, the students gained more than the
project. Groups for older children can be much larger.
community applause and recognition. They gained first-
Parents may participate as volunteers and, in some cases,
hand experience that science can be exciting and, most of
they have been instrumental in ensuring the continuity of
all, that science is essential for our everyday life.
the measurements while the teachers take some vacation
time.
In Switzerland, GLOBE students associated with students
from a nearby technical institute to install solar panels on
1
Schacter, J. (1999). The Impact of Education Technology on Student Achievement: What The Most Current Research Has to
Say. Milken Exchange on Education Technology. Available at: http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME161.pdf.
Wadi D. Haddad
Coordinating Adviser, IVEN
In order to face the formidable task of enhancing science and IVEN is not: IVEN is:
mathematics education, harness the potential of information
and communication technologies, and achieve economies of X technology project ! education project
scale and expertise, the three participating countries have X curriculum reform ! instructional reform
agreed to develop an International Virtual Education Net- X substitute for class- ! classroom enhance-
room ment
work (IVEN) for the Enhancement of Science and Mathe-
matics Learning that combines conceptions of effective X resource add-on ! integrated system
learning with appropriate computer, video and communica- X Internet-dependent ! Internet-based
tion technologies. X complicated ! sophisticated
Fernando Cajas*
Project 2061
American Association for the Advancement of Science
This article describes the current work of Project 2061 in Latin America, par-
ticularly in Panama. First it provides a background on the AAAS/Project 2061
efforts in reforming science, mathematics, and technology education. Then it
sets the context and nature of current science, mathematics, and technology
education reforms. The article describes the kind of professional development
programs that Project 2061 has designed for Panama and the plans for scaling
up such programs at a national level. It ends with a set of recommendations to
improve the teaching and learning of science, mathematics, and technology
education in Panama.
What Is Project 2061 to get started; Atlas of Science Literacy (2001) illustrates the
growth of conceptual connections among benchmarks (e.g.,
Project 2061 of the American Association for what ideas about gravity are to be introduced at different
the Advancement of Science is a long-term ages, where specific ideas about gravity come from, how
science, mathematics, and technology educa- they are connected, and where they lead); Resources for Sci-
tion reform initiative that benefits K-12 stu- ence Literacy: Curriculum Materials (in preparation) sheds
dents. The Project maintains that achieving light on the content and instructional characteristics of text-
adult literacy in science, mathematics, and technology re- books that can contribute to student learning; and Resources
quires (a) establishing clear, coherent learning goals; (b) cre- for Science Literacy: Professional Development (1997a) pro-
ating the instructional resources to pursue those goals; and vides materials and information for building the knowledge
(c) creating a supportive environment for their successful and skills teachers will need to help their students reach the
implementation. learning goals.
With the publication of Science for All Americans (1990) and Project 2061 In Latin America
Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993), Project 2061 con-
tributed a set of coherent learning goals that have helped to During the last three years Project 2061 has been exploring
shape state and national standards, including those presented the status of science, mathematics, and technology education
in National Science Education Standards (National Research in Latin America, particularly in Panama. We have found
Council, 1996). Over the past 15 years, Project 2061 has that:
promoted a systemic approach to improving K-12 science,
mathematics, and technology education, as described in • teaching tends to be based on memorization of facts
Blueprints for Reform (AAAS, 1998a). Its most recent efforts (teaching is telling, learning is remembering);
have resulted in tools for improving specific parts of the • curricula are incoherent and do not address important
system: Designs for Science Literacy (2000) lays out princi- scientific, mathematical, and technological ideas;
ples for increasing curriculum coherence and suggests ways
References
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990). Science for All Americans. New York: Oxford
University Press. http://www.project2061.org/tools/sfaaol/sfaatoc.htm
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993). Benchmarks for Science Literacy. New York:
Oxford University Press. http://www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1997a). Resource for Science Literacy. New York: Ox-
ford University Press.
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1997b). Ciencia Conocimiento para Todos. México:
Harla. http://www.project2061.org/esp/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1998a). Blueprints for Reform. New York: Oxford
University Press. http://www.project2061.org/tools/bluepol/blpframe.htm
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (1998b). Avances en el Conocimiento Cientifico.
México Harla. http://www.project2061.org/esp/tools/sfaaol/sfaatoc.htm
• American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000). Designs for Science Literacy. New York: Ox-
ford University Press.
• American Association for the Advancement of Science, (2001). Atlas of Science Literacy. Author; Washington
D.C. http://www.project2061.org/tools/atlas/default.htm
• Black, P. & Atkin, J. M.(1996). Changing the Subject: Innovation in Science, Mathematics And Technology
Education. Routledge: London.
• National Research Council (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington D.C.: National Acad-
emy Press.
• National Research Council (1999). How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice. M. S. Donovan, J. D.
Bransford and J. W. Pellegrino (Eds.). National Academy Press: Washington D.C.
http://books.nap.edu/catalog/9457.html
• Schmidt, W. H., McKnight, C. C., and Raizen, S. A. (1997). A Splintered Vision: An Investigation of the U.S.
Science and Mathematics Education. TIMSS, United States. Kluwer Academic Publisher: Dordrecht.
http://nces.ed.gov/timss/
• Stigler, W., & Hiebert, J. (1999). The Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for Improving Edu-
cation In The Classroom. New York: Free Press.
*
The author thanks Kathleen Morris (AAAS/Project 2061) and Yoshiko Koda (World Bank) for their comments.
The IMMEX Project is many things: it is a resource to educators who are interested in inte-
grating meaningful technology into their curriculum, an educational research team investi-
gating the role of metacognition in computer-based learning activities and a program dedi-
cated to providing training in technology to both pre-service and in-service teachers. At
the heart of these activities is an innovative, problem-solving software system called
IMMEX (Interactive Multi-media Exercises) that is designed to pose complex, real-life
problems to students, for which there are multiple solution pathways.
For example, in our most extensively used problem called, True Roots, a high school stu-
dent named Leucine becomes unsure that her parents are her true biological parents. So, to
be sure, she launches an investigation into the possibility that she was switched at birth.
She knows that there were 5 other children born on that same day at the hospital. True
Roots presents students with the following resources for each of the other children born on
that day: pedigrees, fingerprints, bloodtypes, karyotypes, DNA fingerprinting, birth certifi-
cates of all 5 of the other families and children born on that day as well as her own infor-
mation. She also has newspaper clippings and records of interviews with various family
members and hospital workers. The problem can neither be solved by simply looking at
one or two pieces of information, nor is there a single correct or perfect strategy that will
give the student the solution; students need to synthesize information from the various
sources and apply their knowledge of genetics in order to find the solution.
Creating Problem-sets
IMMEX has shown to be an exceedingly flexible tool for educators due to the ease with
which problem-sets can be created or modified. We encourage teachers to create their own
problem-sets (most problem-sets are teacher authored) or to modify existing problem-sets
in order to ensure relevance to their classroom and curriculum. Problem-sets can be rela-
tively easily adapted to make them easier or harder depending on the students’ needs, and
For example, we have found that without intervention, whatever type of strategy students use the first time going through a
problem-set, they will continue to rely on this type of strategy in successive cases as well as in similar problem-sets, regardless
of effectiveness. We have found that having students review a graphical representation of their strategy and explaining their
selections and the selection order, to be most consistently successful in modifying a student’s strategy. For more on this study,
see The Use of Artificial Neural Nets (ANN) to Help Evaluate Student Problem-solving Strategies.
(http://www.umich.edu/%7Eicls/proceedings/abstracts/ab108.html)
Training Teachers
We have also learned that, no matter how effective and dynamic the IMMEX problem-solving software is, effective software is
only part of the education technology equation—extensive teacher training in technology is also required. To this end, the
IMMEX Project has been funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology,
(PT3), initiative to work with a consortium of educators to train new teachers to use new technologies to enhance learning and
effectively infuse technology into their curriculum. Both California State University of Northridge and the University of Min-
nesota use the IMMEX model not only to demonstrate exemplary implementation models, but also to train teachers in Internet
usage, PowerPoint, Microsoft Word, and other basic computer skills. There are even problem-sets designed to establish effec-
tive strategies in handling various situations that often arise when dealing with administrative, school site and classroom man-
agement.
To date, IMMEX problem-sets on the web have been used over 40,000 times as well as countless sessions on standalone com-
puters in individual classrooms. Although most of the available problem-sets are intended for secondary science classrooms,
there are IMMEX problem-sets for primary levels as well as disciplines, such as math and history.
To learn more about the IMMEX project and its commitment to education through technology and future
projects, visit our website at http://www.immex.ucla.edu.
If anyone doubts the value faculty and students place on the siastically received. JHPIEGO decided to build on the expe-
technology-assisted learning center (TALC) at the Universi- rience in Haiti by setting up a similar center at UMSA.
dad Mayor de San Andrés (UMSA), La Paz, Bolivia, they
have only to ask Maria Elena Sanchez (fictitious name). Getting Started
Maria Elena is a medical school student who skips lunch to After discussing the process for establishing a TALC, UMSA
be able to afford the $.80 (US equivalent) per hour charge to and JHPIEGO agreed to partner in establishing a TALC in
use the TALC. For Maria Elena, the TALC is a window to the Health Sciences Library. JHPIEGO would provide the
the world, allowing her to access up-to-date medical articles equipment and arrange for Internet access, while the UMSA
and e-mail family and friends. She is able to develop com- would make an adequate room available and provide staff to
puter skills and hone her use of English (the language of administer the center. As it turned out, the administrator (also
many scientific publications). Her education and personal a librarian) would be the key proponent for the center and
satisfaction have taken a quantum largely responsible for its success.
leap.
With the support of Bolivian
This article describes how the idea of physicians in the United States,
establishing a TALC in a Health UMSA began by renovating and
Sciences library in Bolivia grew into furnishing a room within the Health
a springboard for a university Sciences Library. In September
participating in the on-line world in 1999, JHPIEGO and technical
innovative ways. personnel in Bolivia installed eight
computer workstations, a network
An Idea Takes Shape server, Internet access through a
JHPIEGO, an affiliate of the Johns cable modem connection, and a CD-
Hopkins University, is a non-profit ROM library of health related titles.
corporation that works globally to improve the health of
families by strengthening reproductive health services. It Implementation
accomplishes this goal by strengthening the education and With the TALC established, training, access, and cost-
training systems that support healthcare professionals. recovery were the next issues to address, and these would
ensure sustainability of the center in terms of supply and
Under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Agency for demand.
International Development, JHPIEGO began working with
authorities, faculty, staff and students at the UMSA medical Training
and nursing schools in 1998. The goal was to strengthen pre- Training, in addition to Internet access, is an essential ele-
service education and training so that UMSA could produce ment of the service the TALC provides. About 30% of the
medical and nursing graduates who were better able to meet TALC’s operating hours are spent on training. In the first
the primary health care needs of Bolivia's population. As two months of the TALC’s operation, Chief Medical Librar-
JHPIEGO helped introduce updated reproductive health in- ian and TALC Coordinator Marilín Sanchez trained three
formation into the curriculum, it began to see the need to groups of faculty (with the help of a consultant co-trainer).
provide faculty and staff with long-term access to current She taught each group two sessions per day, three days per
health resources. Given the extremely limited resources in week for one month. In the next 6 months, she trained three
the Health Sciences library at UMSA, JHPIEGO realized that additional groups, until about 20% of the 250 faculty mem-
electronic access in the form of computers, CD-ROMs, and bers had been trained. Faculty from the Nursing, Medical and
the Internet would provide the best solution. At about the Nutrition schools had received training, while faculty from
same time, JHPIEGO had finished establishing a TALC at an the School of Medical Technology was scheduled for up-
in-service training center in Petionville, Haiti at the Institute coming training. In addition to university faculty, JHPIEGO's
of Haitian Health and Community Service, which was enthu- in-service trainers residing in La Paz had also been trained at
the TALC.
1
Financial support for this project was provided by the Office of Population, Center for Population, Health and Nutri-
tion/Global Programs, Field Support and Research Bureau/CMT Division, U.S. Agency for International Development, under
the terms of Award No. HRN-A-00-98-00041-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of JHPIEGO and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the U.S. Agency for International Development.
2
The authors can be reached by e-mail at kcurran@jhpiego.org (Kelly Curran), nmaier@jhpiego.org (Natalie Maier) and
tnorton@jhpiego.org (Theresa Norton); by phone at 1.410.955.8558; or by postal mail at JHPIEGO Corporation, 1615 Thames
Street, Suite 200, Baltimore, Maryland USA 21231.
Pre-historic man simulated a hunt by throwing spears at a target. For the past 30 years, computer simulations have been de-
veloped to assist in education and training. Many instructional simulations are now available on the Web and more are sure to
come over the following years.
Educational simulations provide interactive representations of reality. They allow students to test or discover how a phenome-
non works, what affects it, and how it impacts other phenomena. The student is able to manipulate the model of reality and
quickly discern the impacts of the manipulation. While most traditional instruction is aimed at helping students minimize their
mistakes, most educational simulations are designed to have students make many mistakes and learn from them more quickly
than would otherwise be possible.
Most simulations are designed for individual student interac- “ExploreMath.com” offers a series of high school mathe-
tion, or for small groups of students sharing one computer. matics simulations, most of which show the relationship
Web-based simulations also make possible, for the first time, between equations and their corresponding two-dimensional
the use of data input and control by thousands of students graphs. The user can modify the equation and see how that
scattered across the globe. affects the graph, or modify the graph and see how that alters
the equation. This is one of the few simulations that permit
A teacher, before a class, can demonstrate web-based simu- the latter form of interaction. There is also a library of lesson
lations. That will require only one computer per class, but plans that make use of the simulations.
unless the class is quite small, an LCD projector will be http://www.exploremath.com
needed so that all students can see the computer screen. This
is generally considered the least preferable way of using University of Minnesota’s “Geometry Center” offers several
simulations because it removes students from the direct in- interactive simulations of college-level geometry. Generally
teraction. However, the benefits to students can be enhanced the user specifies functions or coordinates, and then sees the
by having the class decide on each move to be taken or by geometric representation. The simulation includes hyper-
letting individual students take turns controlling the keyboard bolic triangles, Lorenz equations, projective conics, and
as the others look on. Teichmuller navigation. These interactive components are in
the two-fold link titled, “Interactive Web and Java Applica-
tions.” There are brief instructions for using the simulations,
EExxaammpplleess ooff SSiimmuullaattiioonnss but no instructional guides or lesson plans. This site also
ffoorr MMaatthheemmaattiiccss aanndd SScciieennccee offers downloadable software and other resources for teach-
IInnssttrruuccttiioonn ers of advanced geometry. Although the site is no longer
being maintained, it remains functional.
http://www.geom.umn.edu
The following are the best simulations that were found dur-
ing a brief review of English language sites. Many of these The “Visual Calculus” site has an extensive set of visual re-
sites require Shockwave, Flash, and sometimes other plug- sources to accompany a two-semester college course in cal-
ins. If your computer does not already have what is needed,
1
Gregg Jackson is Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Education Policy Program at The George Washington Univer-
sity in Washington DC. John Jones is a master’s degree student in that program.
It is clearly tempting to say that “more research is neces- • Program objectives – the tutorial’s objectives must
sary,” the self-protective statement so common among re- correspond and complement the educational goals de-
searchers. No one will err by requiring more research on fined by the teacher;
anything, but research is a too vague word for a field with so • Purpose for use – CAI is a tool, not a replacement for
many intervening variables. The term CAI is not universal a well-planned learning experience; research suggests
and may indicate programs other than drill and practice tuto-
References
• Burchfield, M.L. & Gifford, W. (1995). The Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction on the Science Process Skills of
Community College Students. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Asso-
ciation.
• Cotton, K. (2000). Computer-Assisted Instruction. School Improvement Research Series (SIRS) # 10, Northwest Re-
gional Educational Laboratory. Available at: http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/5/cu10.html.
• Cooley, L.A. (1997). Evaluating Student Understanding in a Calculus Course Enhanced by a Computer Algebra Sys-
tem. Primus, 7 (4): 308-316.
• González, G.M. & Birch, M.A. (2000). Evaluating the Instructional Efficacy of Computer-Mediated Interactive Mul-
timedia: Comparing Three Elementary Statistics Tutorial Modules. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 22
(4): 411-436.
• Hativa (1994). What you design is not what you get (WYDINWYG): Cognitive, affective and social impacts of
learning with ILS – An integration of findings from six years of qualitative and quantitative studies. International
Journal of Education Research, 21 (1): 81-111.
• Kulik, J. A. (1994). Meta-analytic Studies of Findings on Computer-based Instruction. In Baker, E.L. & O’Neil, H.F.
(Eds). Technology Assessment in Education and Training. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Washington, N., Parnianpou, M., & Fraser, J.M. (2000). Evaluation and Assessment of a Biomechanics Computer-
Aided Instruction. Computers & Education, 32: 207-220.
• Wheeler, J.L. & Regian, J.W. (1999). The Use of a Cognitive Tutoring System in the Improvement of Abstract Rea-
soning Component of Word Problem Solving. Computers in Human Behaviour, 15: 243-254.
1
A summary of the evaluation is found at www.carnegielearning.com/k12/mathematics/research/ whitepapers; the evaluators
are part of the Carnegie Learning organization.
2
The authors recognize that hardware limitations hurt the efficiency of the multimedia module.
3
This review did not look into the effectiveness of CAI for skill training and graduate studies.
Interactive radio instruction (IRI), a methodology developed Honduras developed another series of primary school math
in the early 1970s to turn a typically one way technology called mental math in Honduras that attempted to introduce
into a tool for active learning inside and outside of the setting and recognizable storylines into the conceptualization
classroom, continues to be an attractive educational strategy of math skills. This series was adapted in El Salvador and
in developing countries after more than two and a half the Dominican Republic. Other integrated IRI programs
decades. Fourteen applications of IRI mathematics have have emerged that are heavily tied to the communities they
been developed in twelve countries worldwide either as part serve. Both versions of IRI math and the integrated series
of an integrated educational series, or as the sole subject that have been evaluated thus far have proved to be highly
matter for the radio program. (See "Are You Talkin' to Me? effective in improving educational outcomes.
Interactive Radio Instruction,” TechKnowLogia,
November/December 1999). IRI mathematics in Venezuela, Other IRI series have also been developed. Since the
the largest of the IRI programs, has reached over 3 million original Nicaragua Math, twenty-six countries around the
students in first to third grades since 1995. (See "Interactive world have developed IRI programs for a multitude of
Mathematics for Basic Education: The Venezuelan subjects, including science, health, English, Spanish and
Experience with IRI,” TechKnowLogia, May/June 2000). Portuguese, environmental education, early childhood
IRI Math in Bolivia helped teach math to over a million development, conflict prevention, teacher training, integrated
students from 1987 to 1998 before it was discontinued due to secondary education, and adult basic education. In each
political changes. IRI Math in Guinea promises to reach out case, local specialists have designed the series specifically to
and transform a struggling African education system in West be engaging and to meet learning objectives in that country.
Africa. In the Dominican Republic and Zambia, Many of the series have not gone to scale, yet after twenty-
mathematical skills are integrated with language lessons and six years and repeated studies on pedagogy, cost and
other subject matter to make education accessible to sustainability, the interest in IRI does not seem to be waning.
populations that otherwise might be bypassed – children of
agricultural workers and children left orphaned by the What makes IRI different from other distant
devastating effects of HIV/AIDS. These examples and other
versions of IRI math continue to improve the quality of the learning methods?
learning process, to expand the reach of educational services,
and to reduce the equity gaps that exist between rural and IRI is distinct from most other forms of distance education
urban students and between girls and boys. because its primary goal has been the improvement of
educational quality. Unlike many distant learning efforts that
The original model for IRI math, created in Nicaragua by a are primarily designed to address issues of access, IRI began
team from Stanford University in the early 1970s, sought to as a tool to use in the classroom to counteract low levels of
combine the low cost and high reach of the radio medium teacher training, poor achievement among learners, and few
and a clear understanding of how people learn. While this resources. While IRI has demonstrated that it can be used to
IRI series was abandoned with the onset of the revolution in expand access and increase equity in both formal and non-
Nicaragua which resulted in a change of government, these formal educational settings, it retains a development strategy
original scripts served as the basis for adaptations in grades 1 and methodology that requires that active learning, attention
and 2 in neighboring Bolivia, and in various levels in to pedagogy, and formative evaluation are included in the
Thailand, Cape Verde, Haiti and Guinea. IRI teams in design.
90
80
70
60
50
control
40
30 experimental
20
10
0
B olivia (m ath) N icaragua Thailand- P apua N ew South A frica H onduras (adult
(m ath) northeast(m ath) G uinea (science) (English) ed.-Spanish/
fem ales)
Sources: Tilson, Jamison, Fryer, Edgerton, Godoy-Kain, Imhoof, Christensen and Roy (1991); Leigh, 1995; Corrales, 1995.
80
70
60
50
40 control
experim ental
30
20
10
0
B olivia-urban B olivia-rural Thailand-central Thailand- South A frica- South A frica-
plain northeast urban rural
Sources: Tilson, Jamison, Fryer, Edgerton, Godoy-Kain, Imhoof, Christensen and Roy (1991); OLSET,
1995
14
12
10
8 girls
boys
6
4
2
0
P N G Science H onduras m ath H onduras Spanish South A frica English
*Scores are represented as percentage correct and represent differences between in achievement between control and experimental groups.
Sources: Hartenberger and Bosch (1996); Tilson, Jamison, Fryer, Godoy-Kain and Imhoof (1991); Project LearnTech, (1994); Leigh, (1995).
Another study of learning gains conducted in Honduras the products are relevant and effective. Because most of the
shows that the combination of IRI and other interventions radio programs have gone through this extensive formative
may have synergistic effects. The study found that when IRI evaluation and have built-in strategies of training, active
programs are introduced with new textbooks, the impact learning and quality control, high level use can be
upon learning gains almost doubles the impact of just maintained relatively easily over time and the dilution of
providing textbooks (with an effect size of .61), indicating quality associated with some other strategies, such as
that a well constructed multi-channel approach where pyramid training schemes, can be avoided. Teacher training
different educational strategies are deliberately aligned and and other recurrent costs stay relatively consistent over time
traditional and nontraditional approaches reinforce each after the development stage and vary depending on how
other may have the greatest impact upon learning (Godoy- much training is integrated into the program, subject being
Kain, 1991). taught, and the special circumstances of the country. Other
recurrent costs include airtime, distribution of simple
What is known about the economics of IRI supplementary print materials such as one page worksheets
inserted into local newspapers or distributed at the beginning
projects? of the year, batteries and radios, and the maintenance of a
management system or unit focused on IRI.
Alongside the data on learning gains is a growing body of
literature analyzing the economics of IRI. A brief description IRI is also different from many other educational strategies
of how IRI projects are generally designed and implemented because of the wide reach of the radio broadcasts. As a
will help to understand the implications of these studies. IRI result, increasing the number of learners increases the cost
projects are front-loaded, that is, they have higher initial very little. In contrast, most other interventions with high
fixed costs associated with creating management and variable costs will require a proportional number of new
training systems and producing audio and print programs, as school facilities, textbooks or teachers as additional learners
compared to far lower recurrent costs associated with are added. In an IRI project, these extra factors do not
permanent staff, dissemination, training and maintenance. dramatically influence the cost of the program and because
While IRI projects have capacity-building components, they the primary product, radio programs, are broadcast, the cost
are also product-oriented and are evaluated continuously per learner decreases proportionally with an increase in
during the early design and production stages to ensure that users.
1
Portions of this article were previously published by the World Bank Technology Notes series as Interactive Radio Instruc-
tion: Twenty-Three years of Improving Educational Quality, Education and Technology Notes, vol. 1, no. 1, World Bank Hu-
man Development Department: The World Bank, 1997.
2
Andrea Bosch has been working in the development of educational technologies for the past 12 years with a particular em-
phasis on interactive radio instruction. She specializes in combining creative inputs with good pedagogy. She can be reached
at: abosch@edc.org
For countries plagued with high hopes but small educational budgets, difficulties
in training teachers, providing educational materials, maintaining quality and in
i n-
creasing access to meet the educational needs of a broad populace of learners,
chosen strategies and technologies must be proven to be effective, reliable, and
meet coun
country needs.
Gregg B. Jackson*
Computer and Web-based instructional resources hold much promise, but they are expensive to use and
thus government and aid agencies will demand evaluations of their benefits.
An article in the May 2000 issue of TechKnowLogia, “How to Evaluate Educational Software and Web-
sites” offered suggestions on how to identify available computer software and Web-based instructional
sites and to assess their suitability for given instructional purposes. That article noted that there has been
relatively little evaluation of the impact that these resources have had on student learning. This article will
discuss both the old challenges of conducting such evaluations and several new opportunities that arise
from the technologies.
____________________
*Gregg Jackson is an Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Education Policy Program at the George Washington Univer-
sity.
1
Campbell, D.T. & Stanley, J.C. (1963). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago, IL: Rand
McNally.
2
Odden, A. (1991). Education Policy Implementation. New York: State University of New York Press.
3
Evertson, C. & Green, J. (1991). Observation as Inquiry Method. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching.
New York, NY: MacMillian.
4
Ibid.
5
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D.R., &Archer, W. (2000). Methodological Issues in the Content Analysis of Computer
Conference Transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education 11(3). [lrourke@ualberta.ca]
The rapid growth of a wide variety of educational materials, Resources Information Center) system covering all of educa-
both web- and software-based, has created a real need of tion, which can be accessed at www.ask.eric.org. The ENC
both teachers and parents for objective assessments of these collection of math and science curriculum resources is the
materials. Awareness of this need has led to the develop- most comprehensive in the nation, containing over 18,000
ment of web sites that offer non-commercial objective judg- resources collected from federal and state agencies, profes-
ments of the quality of the material offered, usually provided sional organizations, commercial publishers, local school
by knowledgeable practitioners following checklists deter- districts and individuals. This collection includes software,
mining appropriateness to learning. This article describes a videotapes, CD-ROMs, useful Internet sites and print mate-
few of these web sites. In particular, the Eisenhower Na- rial.
tional Clearinghouse (www.enc.org) provides and assesses a
wide range of US based K-12 science and mathematics in- ENC’s comprehensive, user-friendly web site includes an
structional materials of interest to teachers, school principals extensive database, features the on-line version of the ENC
and other educational practitioners. Focus: a Magazine for Classroom Innovators and offers its
visitors selected links to web sites that contain useful infor-
Several less ambitious sites (www.childrenssoftware.com mation on additional curriculum resources. The web site is
and www.childrenandcomputers.com) are designed for par- visited on a regular basis by educators, students and parents
ents seeking developmentally appropriate materials for their all over the country because it provides a great selection of
children, many of which are in the areas of math and science. math and science education materials on-line and it enables
It should be noted that the judgments in these web sites de- users to request free quality products and services. In addi-
pend on "expert" opinion rather than “objective” measure- tion, ENC Information Services staff provides individual
ments of learning. Only a few educational materials, usually assistance for those users searching for specific math and
those developed under government grants to non-profit re- science education information.
search groups or universities, have been evaluated scientifi-
cally.1 ENC constantly receives submitted material from different
sources. ENC staff carefully scan vendor catalogues, search
various web sites, hold discussions with educators and staff
The Eisenhower Na- working in professional organizations, read different journal
tional Clearinghouse and magazine reviews, and take into account suggestions
coming from publishers and users on an ongoing basis.
(www.enc.org) Material selected to form part of the ENC collection must
meet certain basic criteria-- it should be in tune with state or
national education standards and be appropriate for K-12
Since its creation in 1992, the math or science education, professional development, refer-
Eisenhower National Clearinghouse (ENC) has been playing ence use, or for pre-service education. Once math and sci-
a major role in efficiently identifying and disseminating ence education specialists determine that the material meets
high-quality mathematics and science material to improve K- the desired criteria, they inspect the material in a detailed
12 education on a national level. The clearinghouse is located manner and decide how and if indeed it will be catalogued
at Ohio State University and receives funding from the U.S. and/or used in special education programs or projects. The
Department of Education’s Office of Educational Research specialists pay particular attention to material that has been
and Improvement. It is part of the overall ERIC (Educational
1
For an example of a rigorous evaluation of math software, go to www.carnegielearning.com, K-12, white paper on research.
Tyson Brown
Manager, New Products and Services, NSTA
sciLINKS, an innovative initiative by the National Science into the classroom, capturing the Web’s constant growth and
Teachers Association, links science textbooks to the Internet. making the Internet a useful tool for teaching and learning
Launched just two years ago, sciLINKS harnesses the power science.
of the Internet by linking relevant, age-appropriate, peer-
reviewed Web pages to the pages of science textbooks by “sciLINKS has the power to make the ever-growing Internet
placing sciLINKS icons and codes in textbook margins at a manageable, useful tool for teachers,” said Gerry Wheeler,
key subject areas. NSTA Executive Director. “It shortcuts the path to the
teacher and to the learner and provides easy access to the
latest information and technology. In fact, when researchers
recently found liquid water in a meteorite that fell on Texas,
we had information about it in sciLINKS the next day.”
In the second stage, the pages are collated by discipline and Feedback from users is positive and has illustrated how
are forwarded to a group of science teachers for review and classrooms are using Web-based materials in their curricula.
selection. The criteria for selection is available at Students, not surprisingly, are using the Internet as a research
http://www.scilinks.org/criteria.htm, but again, the teachers tool, according to their teachers. What may be surprising,
are looking for scientific accuracy and good pedagogy. Once however, is the number of teachers who are using Web con-
a teacher selects a Web page, he or she resubmits it to the tent to shore up their own knowledge of various disciplines.
sciLINKS Website and adds the following components: This may be due to the number of teachers teaching out of
field who are in need of support in their day-to-day curricula.
! Correlation to the National Science Education Stan- It may also be due to how quickly understanding of scientific
dards. concepts changes. Supplemental materials and hands-on ac-
! A brief description that identifies one or more of its tivities follow next in terms of classroom use of Web-based
salient characteristics. content, and rounding out level of use are data visualization,
! One or more icons that will describe the page in educational games, and online field trips.
shorthand.
! Grade level(s) appropriate for the Web page. NSTA continues to seek more information about the best
uses for Web content in the classroom. In April 2000, it re-
This ensures that Web pages reported to the end user are ap- ceived a National Science Foundation grant to establish a
propriate for the content and grade level of the topic that is three-year research initiative called the Webwatcher Institute,
featured in the sciLINKed text. which trains K-12 teachers in the selection and use of Inter-
net materials. Their work, a series of online units that focus
Updating the System on “Big Ideas” in science – ideas like energy flow through an
ecosystem, Earth structures, forces and motion, and heredity
The underlying database changes constantly, eliminating – will be featured on the NSTA web page. Each unit contains
dead or revised sites or simply replacing them with better the underlying sciLINKS engine, so the materials will remain
Only a fraction of the web content featured in sciLINKS The sciLINKS service is free to all teachers, students, and
comes from servers based outside of North America, partly parents who have a textbook. Publishers pay NSTA a li-
due to the fact that participating publishers are based there, censing fee to connect their textbooks to the service, which
but also because their materials are presented in English. NSTA created with the aid of a grant from the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It currently
The sciLINKS team is trying to rectify this myopia. Working appears in 20 textbooks, 12 supplementary titles, nearly 40
with educators in South America, sciLINKS is developing a journal articles, one CD-ROM, and one poster. Sample codes
Spanish-language version of the service. Depending on re- are available on the sciLINKS tour at
sponse to this effort, other language versions could follow. http://www.scilinks.org/tour/. For further information,
please contact Tyson Brown at 703.312.9395 or via e-mail at
The service can also appear in just about any media and mo- tbrown@nsta.org.
dality, not just textbooks. sciLINKS is currently being fea-
sciLinks
sci LinksUses
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Classroom
by
byGrade
GradeLevel
Level
F ield T rip s 9th - 12th
F ield T rip s 9th - 12th
5th - 8th
E d . G am es 5th - 8th
E d . G am es
K - 4th
K - 4th
D ata/V is.
D ata/V is.
H an d 's O n
H an d 's O n
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S u p . M at.
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R esearch
R esearch
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
BrainPop
http://www.brainpop.com
For elementary school children and people of all ages interested in science, Brain Pop is an interactive site that
includes quizzes, activities, information and a large selection of movies on science and technology. Using cartoon animation,
the movies explain in simple words and graphics the process of photosynthesis or fuel formation, or other physics, chemistry
and biology topics, including health education. The site also has a selection of movies about technology, such as how radio
works, what is the binary system, and others. In English.
Although this site focuses on the exhibits and programs offered by the City of Sciences, in France, it has plenty of
information, games, and activities related to science. The section on “Internet: une nouvelle façon d’apprendre” (the Internet:
a new way to learn) includes a discussion of the ways the Internet will change education, with links to centers for research on
technology and education. In French.
The mission of the Clearinghouse is to identify effective curriculum resources for mathematics and science teach-
ers from K-12. The site offers information on curriculum resources, articles, lesson plans, and links to other math and science
sites that are of interest to English-speaking teachers across the world. For U.S. teachers, the site includes information on
training, funding opportunities, and professional organizations. In English.
This site of the Universidad Autónoma de México includes a number of animations done with the Geometer’s
Sketchpad program. The site contains animations related to geometry and calculus. Animations range from simple geometric
figures to an exquisite “gallery of transformations.” Although the site targets college students, younger students who enjoy
mathematics may like the interactive games. In Spanish.
This site of the Science School at the Pavia University, in Italy, has an impressive number of international links
related to the areas of Biological Sciences, Anthropology, Paleonthology and Primatology. In addition, the site has links to
research conducted across the European Union, African newspapers and universities, and a number of other sites. The Web
Search connects to four different Meta search engines (monster crawler, savvy search, mamma.com and search spaniel). By
clicking on some of the animals on the front page, the user may be taken to a virtual tour of the University’s museum, to their
library (with a number of online scientific journals), or some other place of interest. In Italian (some information is in Eng-
lish).
Fisica en la red
http://www.terra.es/personal/felix061/
This site, created by a professor in Tenerife, Spain, is geared toward college students but offers information that
can be utilized at the high school level. It includes a list of experiments that students and teachers can replicate with simple
materials, links to sites related to astronomy and physics, and a series of animations (applets) that teachers can utilize to dem-
onstrate physics properties. Among the links, it includes an interactive physics course (física con ordenador) and a gallery of
astronomic images taken by satellite (NOAA) and by the observatory of the Institute of Astrophysics in Tenerife. In Spanish.
L’ Institut Pasteur
http://www.pasteur.fr/recherche/BNB
The Bio Notebook, at the Institut Pasteur’s web site, has close to 6,000 links to sites related to the most diverse
aspects of biology. Fortunately, the Notebook has a powerful search engine that enables complex searches. For college stu-
dents who are thinking about going into some of the biology fields, including bioengineering, the site helps locate research
centers, professional organizations, forums and conferences, and courses. Links to sites of special projects, such as the Human
Genome Project, are also found. In French and English.
MadSci Network
http://www.madsci.org/
Based at the Washington University Medical School, USA, the site includes a network of actual scientists that
answer questions posed by school children. The questions and answers can be accessed through a search engine. The site also
has descriptions of experiments (not online) that teachers and students can replicate, and links to virtual museums, libraries and
sites related to science. In English.
This site is pleasant for the eyes and rich in information related to mathematics. It includes games and activities at
different levels of complexity, history, book reviews, tests, a database that can be used for classroom practice, and
links to other math-related sites. The section “matrix” mimics a virtual math museum and the section “sum” reproduces a jour-
nal with news about mathematics, including the formula to attain a perfect golf putt (if this is possible). The site also includes
a career preparation page that has testimonies from individuals in different occupations of how they use mathematics in their
jobs. In English.
MathNet Korea
http://mathnet.kaist.ac.kr/english/index.html
The site is maintained by the Information Center for Mathematical Sciences of the Korea Advanced Institute of
Science and Technology. The “education” section has suggestions for teachers, homework help, interactive exercises, Java
applets, and information on math competitions. The resources range in complexity from elementary school to college. Al-
Developed by Tramline, Inc. and sponsored by the ATT Learning Network, the Virtual Blackboard helps teachers
develop effective Internet presentations. The site provides (for free) virtual web tours for K-12 students on different subjects
including history and social studies, mathematics, science, technology, language, music and fine arts. Other services are tuto-
rials on how to do effective web search (using Alta Vista engine), use digital photography (some commercial links attached),
and create individual virtual tours (teachers can download the software for free to test, but individual licenses are sold in the
U.S. for $7.50). In English.
Applets/Simulations – two examples of virtual labs for science and math are:
ABC –An object-oriented instructional system - http://www.public.iastate.edu/~abc/
ABC is a programming system designed for the development of instructional material. For those who are brave
enough to try, the program can be downloaded (for free) and a detailed tutorial takes them through the ABCs of creating a
simulation. The not-so-brave group can go to http://www.public.iastate.edu/~abc/java/lessons.html. This site offers five
simulations that can be useful at secondary and/or college level: graphing equations, energy budgets, radiation balance, adia-
batic cooling, and AdvectionSim (exercises on predicting temperatures). The last simulation (The Rain in Spain) deals with
prediction of flood but requires a special plug-in (Cosmo Player 2.1). In English.
This page is a creation of a Chinese physicist, Professor Fu-Kwun Hwang and has mirror sites around the world
(the URL above is for the original site in English). The page has a number of simulations related to mechanics, dynamics,
wave, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, electronics, optics and light, and other topics. Physics teachers at secondary
schools may want to check the page, but even elementary school children will have fun manipulating the applets. In English
and Chinese.
Nobel e-Museum
http://www.nobel.se
The Nobel e-Museum is an online hall of science and culture. It recently introduced virtual laboratories that will
allow high school and university students to simulate electronically some of the experiments that led to Nobel prize-winning
breakthroughs. During the experiment, if a student is stuck, Eve, the virtual lab assistance, will lend a hand. After the experi-
ment is finished, users can play and online game to test their knowledge. E-Museum uses databases, text, images, audio and
video, and 3D virtual reality and webcasts, to provide information about Nobel prize winners since 1901. In English.
This site contains a number of interactive games, graphics and exercises on mathematics, including algebra, ge-
ometry and other topics. The graphic games rely more on logic than knowledge of mathematics and can be interesting for 6th
graders and older children. The exercises are quite challenging and require good knowledge of mathematics concepts. When
necessary, the page connects to a glossary of mathematics terms. The French flag takes the user to the archives of the Depart-
ment of Mathematics of the Université Nice - Sophia Antipolis, where the user can enroll to participate in a math forum. The
site also offers virtual math classes at the secondary and tertiary level (enrollment required). The address takes you to the
French site; also in Chinese, English and Italian.
The Potential Perhaps the most powerful software in the world, rendering
engines calculate all the information within the mesh, as well
as lighting and camera information, and transform them into
Fifteen years ago, making a movie like Jurassic Park would
the two dimensional image seen on the computer screen.
have required the use of sculptures, engineers, animatronics
specialists, puppeteers, loads of man-hours, and hoards of
money just to animate the dinosaurs. Luckily for Steven
Spielberg, the world of digital animation is upon us.
Although animation has progressed extensively over the past A variety of 3-D applications are available, ranging in power
one hundred years, it should come as no surprise that the and cost. Maya, the application used to create movies like
digital revolution has changed everything. Today’s anima- Jurassic Park, is at the super complex, super performance,
tion labs are not packed with dozens of cartoonists and ink and super expensive end of the spectrum. Averaging at
stains; they are lined with computers running complex about $17,0002 per station (for a one year lease), Maya is
graphics software. This software comes in a variety of designed to provide fluid animation and the ability to create
forms, each configured towards a highly specialized need. organic models.
1
3D Skull model from 3DCafe.com.
2
All quoted prices are Standard Retail Prices from November 2000.
3
Introduction à la Physique Quantique (http://www.cesam.qc.ca/site-eduweb/c2k/0606/index.htm#) is an example of the use of
animation programs which associate arts to scientific information and capture people's attention.
Purpose:
To create viable telecenter businesses in communities lacking modern information and communications technologies (ICTs); to
promote social and economic development in small towns and rural areas through ICT access; to help extend the benefits of
ICTs to educational and social service sectors; to increase digitized Bulgarian-language content focused on socioeconomic
development; to assess the impact of usage subsidies to selected groups to promote use of Public Computer and
Communication Centers (PC3s); and to contribute a new model to the global telecenter experience.
Description:
Started in September 2000, this pilot project provides entrepreneurs with equipment, subsidies, and technical assistance to
establish PC3s. On a fee-for-use basis, PC3s offer a mix of information-based products and services, such as Internet access,
email accounts, CD-ROMs, desktop publishing, telephone, fax, and photocopying. Later, more advanced activities can be
offered, including training in computer and Internet use and applications, web site development, and e-commerce for small and
medium-sized businesses. Established outside major cities, PC3s are designed to meet the needs of communities of about
5,000-30,000 and may be owned and run by individuals, businesses, or local organizations.
Scope of Work:
After issuing a Request for Proposals, AED/LearnLink
selects individuals and organizations wishing to operate
PC3s. To help operators establish their businesses,
reduce initial financial risks, and build client demand,
LearnLink assists with PC3 business planning and
computer and network design. Other assistance includes
supplying PC3s with some Internet connectivity
subsidies and computer and network equipment, and
distributing prepaid access cards, redeemable for PC3
services, to potential users.
To increase Bulgarian language computer-based and Private telecenter in Septemvri (a town southeast of Sofia)
Internet-accessible content on economic and social
Desired Outcomes:
Each PC3 is intended to become an independent, self-supporting business. Operators should be able to sustain profitable
enterprises and gain experience in managing the PC3, maintaining its equipment, and providing quality customer service.
Small business spin-offs, such as the sale of peripherals, desktop publishing, and equipment repair, are expected to emerge
from the PC3 presence in the local economy. Successful PC3s should make it possible for local residents, including the
educational and social service sectors, to have better access to information and communication options. Bulgarians can access
and apply the Bulgarian-language content, relevant to their social and economic development needs, that is made available on
the Internet or CD-ROMs.
Key Challenges:
The further a community is from Bulgaria’s largest cities, the
greater is the gap in economic development. Infrastructure and
access to ICT hardware outside cities is limited. Few Internet
service providers (ISPs) operate outside urban areas, and where
they do, fees are almost twice as high as in cities. Less than 10%
of Bulgarians speak English, and the availability of Bulgarian
language material on the Internet is minimal.
Unique Aspects:
PC3s are a form of telecenter that features up-front collaboration
with the private sector and offers for-profit and “public good”
services within a sound business plan.
Owner advertising his telecenter services
Launching PC3s with local entrepreneurs as partners, distributing
prepaid access cards to stimulate use and reduce risks for operators, and providing hardware, technical assistance, training, and
Internet connectivity subsidies demonstrate a new approach to sustainability and contribute a new model to the global
telecenter repertoire.
*
This article summarizes a study on the use of distance education for basic education in the nine high-
population countries (E-9). It was commissioned by UNESCO and conducted by the International
Research Foundation for Open Learning (IRFOL).
Despite their huge differences of culture and wealth, the nine Indonesia, for example, runs a highly successful
high-population countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Egypt, China, primary-level program and both Brazil and Mexico have
India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria and Pakistan), usually experimented with broadcast-based alternative primary
referred to as E-9, have educational challenges and demands schools. But, given the imperative to provide primary
in common. All face demands for more primary-school schools for all children, this has not been the main task
places, for an expansion of junior secondary schools and for for distance education.
more and better-qualified teachers. All have educational
backlogs of people who missed out on some or all of their • Second, there are some long-standing and successful
education and who are illiterate today. To varying degrees, examples of the use of distance education for junior-
all tend to offer more education to boys than girls. Given that secondary schooling. Brazil and Mexico have
these countries are home to 70 percent of the world’s adult developed very large projects and India and Indonesia
illiterates and more than half of out-of-school children, the E- more modest ones.
9 Initiative was launched to accelerate progress towards
education for all through joint activities, information sharing • Third, a variety of programs by both governments and
and resource mobilization. The initiative comes under the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been
personal purview of the countries’ heads of state and developed to meet the needs of adults. In some parts of
government. the world NGOs have been particularly active in this
area but their work tends to be under-reported.
Since the UNESCO-backed E9 initiative started in 1993, the
nine countries have committed themselves to using distance • Fourth, distance education has been widely applied to
education as one means of addressing some of their needs in teacher training, both in an attempt to meet an
basic education. This study sets out to examine how well emergency teacher shortage and to upgrade their skills.
distance education is working in the nine countries and to
provide their policymakers with some indications of where to Going to Scale
go from here. It draws on a review, conducted by UNESCO
and individual ministries of education, and carried out in The huge populations of the E-9 countries make them ideal
1998-1999. territory for distance education whose economics demand
large audiences. Most of the nine have been able to develop
Distance Education: For What Purpose large-scale distance institutions operating at various levels of
education. The Central Radio and Television University of
The E9 countries have used distance education for four China is perhaps the largest educational institution in the
different purposes: world. According to official 1996 figures, almost a quarter of
China's 5.8 million students in higher education studied
• First, it has occasionally been used either as an through distance education. In Mexico, scale has led to the
alternative to formal primary education or to support it.
Different trends are discernible: only in Latin America and BRAZIL has a long experience of using broadcasting for
Indonesia have governments created non-conventional out-of-school and adult education and concentrates mainly
institutions at school level on a large scale. The Indonesian on programs at junior secondary level of which Telecurso
Packet A program is the only large-scale example of a 2000 is said to be the largest pre-tertiary distance-education
program offering the equivalent of primary education. It is program in the world.
aimed at out-of-school 6- to 13-year olds and is reported to
have trained 8 million nationwide since 1978, 60 percent of The population and size of CHINA makes satellite
them female. As yet, the open schools of India and broadcasting economically viable. Large numbers of
Indonesia are attracting a much smaller proportion of the age teachers have been trained but there is also experience of
group. India’s National Open School, for example, is an using broadcasting and computer-based technologies in
alternative route to schooling for disadvantaged groups such school and of some adult basic education in agricultural
as women and girls, scheduled castes and tribes, rural and skills.
urban poor, and the unemployed. It provides secondary,
senior secondary and vocational courses. Enrolment figures Although EGYPT reported using communication
in 1998/99 reached 130,000 learners although this is a mere technologies in school and both radio and video-
drop in the ocean (0.6 percent) when compared to the 68 conferencing for teacher education, the level of using
million secondary school learners (in 1996). distance education is lower than in other E-9 countries.
While the large Asian countries all have national open INDIA has used distance education both for junior
universities with a variety of functions, Egypt, Nigeria, secondary education and for teacher training. Given the
Brazil and Mexico have not chosen to establish them. number and the vigor of NGOs in India, their work in
distance education may be under-reported, especially in adult
Differences within the countries spring from different views education. The National Open School, which has recently
about the role of the state. Bangladesh, Brazil and India, for been joined, by state open schools, offers the equivalent of
example, all have strong pluralist traditions where NGOs and junior and senior secondary education using printed self-
the private sector play a significant role in education. This learning materials, personal contact programs, audio, video
affects the audiences and the size of the audience reached and some TV broadcasting. Print-centered courses dominate
through distance education. At junior secondary level, for distance teacher education although there has been
example, the alternative distance programs in Brazil and innovative use of interactive video technology.
Mexico mean that large numbers of adolescents - otherwise
excluded from mainstream schooling - can receive an INDONESIA has used distance education programs both to
education, while smaller numbers can in south Asia. Despite support the work of regular schools and to create a network
huge potential demand, China, Egypt and Nigeria have yet to of institutions for out-of-school children, principally at junior
be persuaded of the value of this approach. secondary level. Broadcasting, especially on radio, has been
central to much of this work. Indonesia has also used
Technology distance education for teacher upgrading, with students
numbered in the millions.
Two features dominate the technology scene: first, the
simpler technologies, and especially print and radio, are the In MEXICO, Telesecundaria dominates the scene. It has
most commonly used - they can reach remote parts of large more than thirty years of experience in offering an alternative
countries at modest cost; the second concerns the issue of junior secondary education, mainly in rural areas using
broadcasting itself. The scale of the nine countries mean television broadcasts that support the work of monitors. It
they can afford to use direct satellite broadcasting or indirect has become an established part of the education service.
The study underlines the serious shortage of data on The evidence, albeit rather piecemeal, suggests that
outcomes. Figures about the size of audiences reached by a possibilities for expanding distance education exist in three
program or project are common but little is known about the areas: school equivalence, teacher education, and non-formal
effectiveness of distance education. This shortage is adult education. Special emphasis could be placed on
characteristic of developing countries where there is a limited increasing participation of girls and women and on health
research tradition and where, as in the E-9 countries, issues, particularly AIDs. Strategies for all these areas have
stretched resources and geographical expanse make data been developed that could usefully be applied in most if not
collection logistically difficult. all of the E-9 countries. Egypt and Nigeria seem to provide
opportunities to use distance education at junior secondary
Nevertheless, the data available on examination results for level, China at senior secondary. Distance teacher education
junior secondary programs make it possible to be positive seems ripe for expansion in all countries, with the probable
about the effectiveness of the model within its own exception of China and partial exception of Nigeria. In all the
environment. There is also positive evidence on completion E-9 countries, distance education could make a significant
and examination pass rates for some teacher education contribution towards adult and non-formal education.
programs, including the National Teachers' Institute and the
Asian open universities. Where completion rates are high, as However, even with identified needs in these three areas,
in many teacher-education projects, favorable results are educational policy-makers in the E-9 countries are unlikely
being achieved in terms of cost per successful student. to commit themselves to any initiative, large or small, on the
basis of inadequate information about costs and
The cost of distance education is another factor for which effectiveness. To address this, a critical review of existing
data are scarce. Here, the evidence is consistent that, given data in the three fields needs to be made available to E-9
adequately large numbers, the cost of distance education is decision-makers, and new research must be initiated to
likely to compare favorably with that of conventional address the gaps in the existing data.
education provided it is measured in terms of cost per
student. Large numbers bring down unit costs. It has been
*
This study, currently in print, can be obtained from Wolfgang Vollmann, E-9 Co-ordinator, UNESCO. E-mail:
w.vollmann@unesco.org
The Joint Board of Teacher Education, JBTE, is a part- 1. The modernization of instruction to bring colleges in
nership in teacher education in the Western Caribbean line with technology now common in homes, offices,
involving three Ministries of Education, fourteen col- factories, commerce and entertainment.
leges training teachers, three teachers unions and as- 2. The improvement of the quality of teacher education in
sociations in the Bahamas, Belize and Jamaica and the the light of the higher education standards required by
University of the West Indies, Mona Campus. Estab- the information and knowledge society.
lished in 1965, the mission of the JBTE is to guarantee 3. The need to provide continuing professional develop-
the quality of teacher education in the Western Com- ment to teachers in-service. The rapidity and profound
nature of the changes taking place in society and the
monwealth Caribbean. The Joint Board certifies teach-
generation of new knowledge about learning dictate ca-
ers trained at the undergraduate level in colleges in the
reer-long professional development by teachers in order
Bahamas, Belize and Jamaica. The Secretariat of the to keep abreast of the transformations in progress.
JBTE is located on the Mona Campus of the University 4. Shrinking resources as structural adjustments and the
of the West Indies, UWI, Jamaica. Since its inception financial woes of the country continue to threaten, and
the JBTE has certified more than 60,000 teachers in actually impede, the flow of resources to the education
the three member countries. sector.
5. Globalization, especially with respect to the internation-
The JBTE carries out its quality control and teacher alization of educational standards particularly at the ter-
certification mission through exercising final authority tiary level.
with respect to the determination of entry standards for 6. The necessity for Caribbean societies to become not
admission in teacher education programs, the approval only consumers but also producers of knowledge.
of curriculum, the setting and marking of examinations
for students employing a system of external examiners In response to the demand to meet these challenges, as well
and in the awarding of professional credentials in as to find solutions to these very real problems, as they affect
teaching. Over the thirty-five years of its operations the teacher education, the JBTE has identified information and
JBTE has always carried out its quality control functions communication technology as a critical resource and has
in an interactive and participatory manner that inti- embarked upon the following initiatives:
mately involves the principals and staffs of the fourteen
member colleges and external examiners drawn mainly 1. Developed a Management Information System, College
Manager, to allow colleges to manage their operations
from the Ministries of Education and the UWI. The
more effectively in the face of severe financial con-
Secretariat of the JBTE is located in the Institute of
straints as well as manage their communication more ef-
Education, which supports the work of the Secretariat fectively with the Joint Board Secretariat and the Minis-
by engaging research and activities in the areas of cur- try of Education.
riculum, material, staff and institutional development, 2. Established Local Area Networks (LANs) in both the
project cycle management and policy advice. Institute of Education and the Joint Board Secretariat
and integrated them so that there is on-line connections
CHALLENGES IN THE 1990s through the UWI network backbone. The intention is to
facilitate research and development activities through
The decade of the 1990s brought new challenges to the JBTE access to more accurate and precise data available
partnership. These included: through the College Manager database.
The Financial Manager is a fully functional resource and Using web and browser technology tools that became avail-
accounting package that is totally integrated with the data- able in late 1997, College Manager was upgraded to a web
base of College Manager and is capable of keeping record of and browser based software. This resolved the two major
all student accounts, all investments made by the school in problems that had stalled implementation since only the
major currencies and all regular transactions undertaken in Server was required to be a top-end machine. Other machines
*Errol Miller is Professor of Teacher Education and Director of the Institute of Education, University of the West Indies,
Mona. emiller@uwimona.edu.jm